THE  UNIVERSITY 


OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 

From  the  library  of 
Thomas  Jonathan  Burrill 
Vice  President 
of  the  University  i 
Presented  "by  Mrs. Burrill 
in  1917 


220.5 
K5Z 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 


https://archive.org/details/keytobibleencyclOOhigg 


Kev  to  ti^Kiblc 

IHfanii^©©  (2)1?  BOBILI^ 

WITH  16  FULL  PAGE  COL- 
ORED   PICTURES  FROM 
PHOTOGRAPHS.  100  FULL 
PAGE  HALF-TONES  FROM 
PHOTOGRAPHS,  REPRO- 
DUCTIONS OF  PAINTINGS 
BY  THE  WORLD'S  GREAT- 
EST ARTISTS,  AND  OVER 
400  TEXT  ILLUSTRATIONS 

CHICAGO: 
M.   A.    DONOHUE   &  Co. 

Copyright,  1908, 
By  HIGGINS  AND  HANDY 


M.  A.  DONOHUE  &  CO.,  Chicago 


ABBREVIATIONS 


A.D  Anno  Domini  (Latin)  =:  in  the  year  of 

our  Lord. 

Am  Amos  (O.  T.). 

anc  ancient. 

Apoe  Apocrypha. 

Ann  Annals  of  Tacitus,  a  Koman  historian. 

Ant  Antiquities. 

A.U.C  anno  urbis  conditce  =  in  the  year  of  the 

building  of  the  city,  Eome. 

A.  V  Authorized  Version. 

B.  &  D  Hist,  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  (Apoe.).. 

Bar  Barueh  (Apoe.). 

B.C  Before  Christ. 

B.R  Biblical  Eesearches,  by  Dr.  Eobinson. 

Cant  Canticles  or  Song  of  Solomon  (0.  T.). 

cf  conferer  (French)  -  compare. 

eh.  and  chs. ...  chapter  and  chapters,  respectively. 

1  Chr  1st  Book  of  Chronicles  (O.  T.). 

2  Chr  2d  Book  of  Chronicles  (O.  T.). 

Cic.  in  Verr ...  Cicero 's  oration  against  Verres. 
cir  Circa  (Latin)  =  about. 

Col  Ep.  to  the  C'olossians  (N.  T.). 

Comm  Commentary. 

eomp  compare. 

1  Cor  1st  Ep.  to  the  Corinthians  (N.  T.). 

2  Cor  2d  Ep.  to  the  Corinthians  (N.  T.). 

Dan  Daniel  (O.  T.). 

Deut  Deuteronomy  (0.  T.). 

Diet  Dictionary. 

E  East. 

Ecel  Ecclesiastes  (0.  T.). 

Ecelus  Eeclesiasticus  (Apoe.). 

ed  edition. 

e.  g  exempli  gratia  (Latin)  =  for  example. 

Eph  Ep.  to  the  Ephesians  (N.  T.). 

1  Esdr.  .  .■  1st  Book  of  Esdras  (Apoe). 

2  Esdr  2d  Book  of  Esdras  (Apoe.). 

Esth  Esther. 

Euseb  Eusebius,  a  Greek  historian,  who  died  A. 

D.  340. 

Ex  Exodus  (O.  T.). 

Ezek  Ezekiel  (O.  T.). 

Ezr  Ezra. 

f  following  (verse  or  page). 

''fern  feminine. 

ff  following  (verses  or  pages). 

Gal  Ep.  to  the  Galatians  (N.  T.). 

Gen.  . .  Genesis  (0.  T.). 

Gr  Greek. 

Hab  Habakkuk  (O.  T.). 

Hag  Haggai  (0.  T.). 

Heb  Hebrews  or  Ep.  to  the  Hebrews  (N.  T.). 

Hist  History. 

Hor.  Sat  Satires  of  Horace,  a  Roman  poet,  B.  C. 

65-8. 

Ho9  Hosea  (0.  T.). 

lb.  or  ibid  ibidem  (Latin)  =r  in  the  same  place. 

i.  e  id  eat  (Latin)  =  that  is. 

in  loc  in  loco  (Latin)  =  in  the  place  or  on  the 

passage  cited. 

Is  Isaiah  (0.  T.). 

•Jud  .Judith  (Apoe). 

Jer  .Jeremiah  (O.  T.). 

Jon  Jonah  (O.  T.). 

Jos  .Josephus,  Antiquities  of  the  Jews. 

Jos.  B.  J  Josephus,  Bellum.  Judaicum  —  Jewish 

War. 

Josh  Joshua  (0.  Tj). 


Judg  Judges. 

Juven.  Sat.  . . .  Satires  of  Juvenal,  a  Roman  poet. 
Lam  1st  Book  of  Kings  (O.  T.). 

1  K  2d  Book  of  Kings  (O.  T.). 

2  K  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  (0.  T.). 

I.  c  loco  citato  (Latin)  =  at  the  place  cited. 

II.  cc  locis  citatis   (Latin)   =  at  the  places 

cited. 

Lev  Leviticus_(0.  T.). 

Lib  liber  (Latin)  =  book. 

Linn  Linnajus,  the  Swedish  naturalist. 

lit  literal,  or  literally. 

LXX  The  Seventy,  i.  e.,  the  Septuagiut. 

1  Mace  1st  Book  of  Maccabees  (Apoe). 

2  Mace  2d  Book  of  Maccabees  (Apoe). 

3  Mace  3d  Book  of  Maccabees  (Apoe). 

4  Mace  4th  Book  of  Maccabees  (Apoe). 

Mai  Malachi  (0.  T.). 

marg  margin  or  marginal. 

Matt  Gospel  according  to  Matthew. 

Mic  Micah  (0.  T.). 

MS  Manuscript. 

MSS  Manuscripts. 

Nah  Nahum  (0.  T.). 

Neh  Nehemiah  (0.  T.). 

N.T  New  Testament. 

Num  Numbers  (O.  T.). 

Obad  Obadiah  (0.  T.). 

0;T  Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp  page  and  pages,  respectively. 

Pers  Persian. 

1  Pet  1st  Ep.  of  Peter  (N.  T.). 

2  Pet  2d  Ep.  of  Peter  (N.  T.). 

Philip  Ep.  to  the  Philippiaus  (N.  T.). 

Phil  Ep.  to  Philemon  (N.  T.). 

Polyb  Polybius,  a  Greek  historian,  B.  C.  205- 

123. 

Prov  Proverbs  (0.  T.). 

Ptol  Ptolemy. 

R  Rabbi  (before  a  Jewish  name). 

Rawl  Rawlinson.  ^ 

Rev  Revelation  or  Apocalypse  (N.  T.). 

Rom  Ep.  to  the  Romans  (N.  T.). 

S  South. 

1  Sam  1st  Book  of  Samuel  (0.  T.). 

2  Sam  2d  Book  of  Samuel  (O.  T.). 

sc  scilicet  (Latin)  =  that  is  to  say. 

sq.  or  seq  sequcns  (Latin)  =  following  (verse). 

seqq  sequentia  (Latin)  =  following  (verses). 

Sus  History  of  Susanna  (Apoe). 

Syr  Syria  or  Syriae 

Tac  Tacitus,  a  Roman  historian,  A.  D.  56-135. 

1  Thess  1st  Ep.  to  the  Thessalonians  (N.  T.). 

2  Thess  2d  Ep.  to  the  Thessalonians  (N.  T.). 

1  Tim  1st  Ep.  to  Timothy  (N.  T.). 

2  Tim  2d  Ep.  to  Timothy  (N.  T.). 

Tit  Ep.  to  Titus  (N.  T.). 

Tob  Tobit  (Apoe). 

ver.,  vs  verse,  verses. 

viz  videlicet  (Latin)  =  namely. 

vol  volume. 

Vulg  Vulgate. 

W  West. 

Wisd  Wisdom  (Apoe). 

Zech  Zechariah  (O.  T.). 

Zeph  Zephaniah  (O.  T.). 

§   denotes  section  or  subdivision  of  chapter. 

-:   denotes  equivalent  to. 


Words  in  brackets  and  printed  in  small  capitals,  thus 
to  those  articles  in  the  Key. 


[Talmud],  refer  the  reader,  for  further  information. 


LIST  OF  WRITERS 


ALFORD,  REV.  HENRY,  D.D., 

Dean  of  Canterbury. 
BAILEY,  REV.  HENRY,  B.D., 

Warden  of  St.  Augustine's,  Coll.  Canterbury. 
BARRY,  REV.  ALFRED,  B.  1)., 

Principal  of  Cheltenham  College. 
BEVAN,  REV.  WILLIAM  L„  M.A., 

Vicar  of  Hay,  Brecknockshire. 
BLAKESLEY,  REV.  JOSEPH  W.,  B.D., 

Canon  of  Canterbury. 
BONAR,  REV.  HORATIUS,  D.D., 

Kelso,  N.  B.,  Author  of  "The  Land  of  Promise,"  &c. 
BROWN,  REV.  THOMAS  E.,  M.A., 

Vice-Principal  of  King  William's  Coll.,  Isle  of  Man.' 
BROWNE,  REV.  ROBERT  W.,  M.A., 

Archdeacon  of  Bath. 
BROWNE,  REV.  E.  HAROLD,  D.D., 

Lord  Bishop  of  Ely. 
BULLOCK,  REV.  WILLIAM  T.,  M.A., 

Sec.  of  the  Soc.  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 
CLARK,  REV.  SAMUEL,  M.A., 

Vicar  of  Bredwardine  with  Brobury,  Herefordshire. 
COOK,  REV.  F.  C,  M.A., 

Canon  of  Exeter. 
COTTON,  REV.  GEORGE  E.  L.,  D.D., 

Lord  Bishop  of  Calcutta. 
DAVIES,  REV.  J.  LLEWELYN,  M.A., 

Rector  of  Christ  Church,  Marylebone. 
DAY,  REV.  GEORGE  E.,  D.D., 

Prof,  of  Biblical  Theology,  Yale  Coll.,  New  Haven. 
DEUTSCH,  EMANUEL,  M.R.A.S., 

University  of  Berlin  and  British  Museum. 
DRAKE,  REV.  WILLIAM,  M.A., 

Hon.  Canon  of  Worcester. 
EDDRUP,  REV.  EDWARD  P.,  M.A., 

Principal  of  the  Theological  College,  Salisbury. 
ELLICOTT,  REV.  CHARLES  J.,  D.D., 

Lord  Bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol. 
ELWIN,  REV.  WHITWELL,  B.A., 

Rector  of  Booton,  Norfolk. 
FARRAR,  REV.  FREDERICK  W.,  M.A., 

Assistant  Master  of  Harrow  School. 
FELTON,  C.  C,  LL.D., 

Prof,  of  Greek  Lit.,  Harv.  Univ.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
FERGUSON,  JAMES,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S. 

Royal  Institution  of  British  Architects. 
FFOULKES,  EDMUND  S.,  M.A., 

Late  Fellow  of  Jesus  Coll.,  Oxford. 
FITZGERALD,  REV.  WILLIAM,  D.D., 

Lord  Bishop  of  Klllaloe. 
GARDEN,  REV.  FRANCIS,  M.  A., 

Subdean  of  the  Chapel  Royal. 
GOTCH,  F.  W.,  LL.D., 

Hebrew  Examiner,  University  of  London. 
GROVE,  GEORGE, 

Crystal  Palace.  Sydenham. 
HACKETT,  REV.  HORATIO  B.,  D.D., 

Prof,  of  -Bib.  Literature,  Theo'l  Sem.,  Newton,  Ms. 
HAWKINS,  REV.  ERNEST,  B.D., 

Canon  of  Westminster. 
HAYMAN,  REV.  HENRY,  M.A., 

Head  Master  of  Grammar  School,  Cheltenham. 
HERVEY,  LORD  ARTHUR  C,  M.A., 

Author  of  "Genealogies  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ." 
HESSEY,  REV.  JAMES  A.,  D.C.L., 

Head  Master  of  Merchant  Tailors'  School. 
HOOKER,  JOSEPH  D.,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 

Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew. 
HORNBY,  REV.  J.  J.,  M.A., 

Principal  of  Bishop  Cosin's  Hall. 
HOUGHTON,  REV.  WILLIAM,  M.A., 

Rector  of  Preston,  Salop. 


HOWSON,  REV.  JOHN  S.,  D.D., 

Joint-Author  of  "Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul." 
HUXTABLE,  REV.  EDGAR,  M.A., 

Subdean  of  Wells. 
JONES,  REV.  W.  BASH,  M.A., 

Prebendary  of  York  and  St.  David's. 
LAYARD,  AUSTEN  H.,  D.C.L.,  M.P., 

Author  of  "Nineveh  and  Its  Remains,"  &c. 
LEATHES,  REV.  STANLEY,  M.A.,  M.R.S.L., 

Professor  of  Hebrew,  King's  College,  London. 
LIGHTFOOT,  REV.  JOSEPH  B.,  D.D., 

Hulsean  Professor  of  Divinity,  Cambridge,  England 
MARKS,  REV.  D.  W., 

Professor  of  Hebrew,  University  College,  London. 
MEYRICK,  REV.  FREDERICK,  M.A., 

Her  Majesty's  Inspector  of  Schools. 
OPPERT,  PROF.  JULES, 

Author  of  "Chronology  of  Babylon,"  Paris. 
ORGER,  REV.  EDWARD  R.,  M.A., 

Fellow  of  St.  Augustine's  College,  Canterbury. 
ORMEROD,  REV.  THOMAS  J.,  M.A., 

Archdeacon  of  Suffolk. 
PEROWNE,  REV.  JOHN  ,L  S.,  B.D., 

Vice  Principal  of  St.  David's  College,  Lampeter. 
PEROWNE,  REV.  THOS.  T.,  B.D., 

Fellow  and  Tutor,  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge. 
PHILLOTT,  REV.  H.  W.,  M.A., 

Rector  of  Staunton-on-Wye. 
PLUMTRE,  REV.  EDWARD  H.,  M.A., 

Professor  of  Divinity,  King's  College,  London. 
POOLE,  E.  STANLEY,  M.R.A.S., 

South  Kensington  Museum. 
POOLE,  R.  STUART,  M.R.S.L., 

Author  of  "Horse  Aegyptiacae,"  &c. 
PORTER,  REV.  J.  LESLIE,  M.A., 

Author  of  "Handbook  of  Syria  and  Palestine." 
PRITCHARD,  REV.  CHAS.,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 

Late  Fellow  of  St.  John's  Coll.,  Cambridge,  England. 
RAWLINSON,  REV.  GEORGE,  M;A., 

Author  of  "Great  Monarchies  of  Anc.  World." 
ROSE,  REV.  HENRY  J.,  B.D., 

Rector  of  Houghton  Conquest,  Bedfordshire. 
SELWYN,  REV.  WILLIAM  W.,  B.D., 

Margaret  Professor  of  Divinity,  Cambridge,  England, 
SMITH,  REV.  D.  T.,  D.D., 

Prof,  of  Sac.  Lit.,  Theo'l  Sem.,  Bangor,  Me. 
SMITH,  WILLIAM,  LL.D., 

Classical  Examiner,  LTniversity  of  London. 
STANLEY,  REV.  ARTHUR  P.,  D.D., 

Dean  of  Westminster. 
STOWE,  REV.  CALVIN  E.,  D.D., 

Late  Prof,  of  Sac.  Lit.,  Theo'l  Sem.,  Andover,  Mass. 
THOMPSON,  REV.  JOSEPH  P.,  D.D., 

Author  of  "Egypt,  Past  and  Present,"  N.  Y.  City. 
THOMSON,  REV.  WILLIAM,  D.D., 

Lord  Archbishop  of  York. 
THRUPP,  REV.  JOSEPH  F.,  M.A., 

Vicar  of  Barrington. 
TREGELLES,  SAMUEL  P.,  LL.D., 

Author  "Acc.  of  the  Printed  Text  of  the  Or.  N.  T." 
TRISTRAM,  REV.  H.  B.,  M.A.,  F.L.S., 

Author  of  "The  Land  of  Israel." 
TWISTLETON,  HOxN.  EDW.,  M.A., 

Late  Fellow  of  Baliol  Coll.,  Oxford. 
VENABLES,  REV.  EDMUND,  M.A., 

Bonchurch.  Isle  of  Wight. 
WESTCOTT,  REV.  BROOKE  F.,  M.A., 

Author  of  "Introduc'n  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels. ' 
WORDSWORTH,  REV.  CHRISTOPHER,  D.D., 

Archdeacon  of  Westminster. 
WRIGHT,  WILLIAM  ALDIS,  M.A., 

Librarian  of  Trinity  Coll.,  Cambridge.  England. 


LIST  OF  FULL  PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS 


COLORED  ENGRAVINGS  FROM  PAINTINGS  AND  PHOTOGRAPHS 
Site  of  Solomon's  Temple.  Jerusalem. — Frontispiece. 


FACING  PAGE 

Abraham's  Tree  Mamreh   24 

Bethlehem,  The  Market  Place  192 

Capernaum,  The  Ruins  of  224 

Damascus,  Wall  over  which  St.  Paul  Es- 
caped  320 

David,  Street  of  the  Tower  of   64 

Dead  Sea,  The  288 

Galilee,  General  View-  of  352 


FACING  PAGE 

Gethsemanee,  The  Garden  of  408 

Jerusalem,  The  Place  of  Weeping  256 

Jordan  River,  Place  of  Baptism  384 

Lydda,  General  View  of  136 

Mary  Magdalene,  Birthplace  of  160 

Mount  of  Olives  and  Gethsemanee   96 

Mussulmans  Praying   424 

Peasants  Grinding  Corn  128 


REPRODUCTIONS  FROM  GREAT  PAINTINGS 


FACING  PAGE 

Abel.  Death  of  Rosa  12 

Abraham,  Accompanied  by  the  Angel  of  the 

Covenant  Schirmer  14 

Abraham,  Dismissing  Hagar  Barbieri  18 

Abraham's  Sacrifice  Rembrandt  20 

Adam,  Creation  of  Michel  Angelo  28 

Ananias  and  Paul  Restout  338 

'"And  God  Said  Let  There  Be  Light". Martin  108 
"And  God  Called  the  Dry  Land  Earth".  . . 

 Raphael  of  Urbino  116 

"And  the  Sea  Gave  Up  the  Dead,  etc.". . .  . 

 Lord  Leighton  364 

Balaam  Prophesieth  of  the  Star  of  Jacob.  . 

 ,  Flandrin  40 

Crucifixion,  The  \'an  Dyck  72 

David  and  Saul  Normand  84 

Deluge,  The  Schorn  324 

Ecce  Homo!  Behold  the  Man  Cisceri  340 

Esther  Denouncing  Haman  Normand  100 

Eve,  Creation  of  Watts  104 

For  of  Such  is  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven .  . . 

  Eastlake  204 

Jacob  and  Rachel,  The  Meeting  of .  .  .  .Rosa  142 
Jacob  Wrestling  with  the  Angel ..  Gebhardt  140 

Jephthah  Millais  146 

Jesus  and  the  Fallen  Woman  Titian  200 

Jesus,  Ascension  of  Van  der  Werff  216 

Jesus  Healing  the  Sick  Van  Dyck  280 

Jesus  Sleeping  in  the  Tempest.  .De  la  Croix  212 
Jesus  Tempted  in  the  Wilderness. .  .Morelli  196 
Jews,  Taken  Captive  into  Babylon  

 Bendemann  36 


FACING  PAGE 

John,  St.,  Writing  His  Gospel  Barbieri  228 

Last  Supper,  The  Maggiore  332 

Lot  and  His  Daughters  Martin  248 

Luke,  St  Barbieri  252 

Madonna. and  Child,  The. Raphael  of  Urbino  180 

Mark,  St  Barbieri  260 

Mary  Magdalene  in  the  House  of  Simon,  the 

Pharisee  Caliari  264 

Moses  and  Pharaoh's  Daughter . . .  Veronese  296 
Moses  Breaking  the  Tables  of  the  Law.  . .  . 

 Rembrandt  238 

Moses  Draws  Water  from  a  Rock  

 Raphael  of  Urbino  300 

Matthew,  St  Rembrandt  268 

Matthew,  The  Calling  of  Hemessen  276 

Paul,  The  Apostle   334 

Red  Sea,  The  Passage  of.. Raphael  of  Urbino  356 

Rizpah  Riviere  366 

Ruth,  Gleaning  in  the.  Field  of  Boaz  

 Bruck-La  Jos  370 

Samson  Solomon  398 

Saviour,  Finding  in  Temple  Hunt  188 

Saviour,  The  Titian  184 

Shepherds,  The  Arrival  of  Lerolle  172 

Sixth  Seal,  Opening  of  Danby  360 

Solomon.  Judgment  of  Dyce  388 

Suf¥er  Little  Children  to  Come  Unto  Me.  . . 

 Roederstein  328 

Vashti  Deposed  Normand  420 

Widow's  Mite,  The   .de  Vos  292 

Wife  of  Jeroboam  and  Ahijah   428 


LIST  OF  FULL  PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS— CONTINUED 


PHOTOGRAPHS 


FACING  PAGE 

P)edouins  Drawing  Water  412 

Bedouins  of  the  Jordan  DistHct  236 

Bedouin  Women  Carrying  Children   68 

Bethel,  General  View  of....   44 

Beyrout,  Town  and  Harbor  of  46 

Beyrout,  with  Lebanon  in  the  Distance  244 

Bread,  Peasant  Women  Making   50 

Camels  Halting  in  the  Desert   52 

Carmel,  Mount   56 

David's  Well,  General  View  of   88 

Gate,  The  Damascus   76 

Gate,  The  Jaffa  232 

Hebron,  General  View  of  ;...I20 

Holy  Sepulchre,  Front  of  168 

Israelite,  An,  of  Jerusalem  124 

Jaffa,  From  the  Garden  220 

Jericho,  General  View  of  '  148 

Jerusalem,  View  from  Mount  of  Olives  436 


FACING  PAGE 

Jews,  Types  of  156 

Lazarus,  Tomb  of  242 

Lebanon,  The  Cedars  of   60 

Minaret  of  the  Bride,  The   82 

Meal,  Peasants  Taking  a  .284 

Nazareth,  View 'from  Cana  308 

Nazareth,  View  from  the  East  312 

Patriarchs,  Tombs  of . . . ;  402 

Rachel,  Tomb  of   .348 

Samaria,  General  View  of  372 

Siloam,  Village  of  380 

Solomon,  Pools  of  344 

Stone  Cutters  of  Jerusalem  1^2 

Street  Called  Straight,  The   78 

Tabor,  Mount  402 

Tiberias,  View  from  Fortress  396 

Virgin's  Fountain  316 

Women  in  Street  Costume   92 


A 


ABEL 


Aa'ron  (a  teacher,  or  lofty),  the  son  of  Am- 
ram  and  Jochebed,  and  the  elder  brother  of 
Moses  and  ^Miriam  (Num.  xxvi.  59,  xxxiii. 
39).  B.  C.  1573.  He  was  a  Levite,  and 
is  first  mentioned  in  Ex.  iv.  14,  as  one  who 
could  "'speak  well."  He  was  appointed  by 
Jehovah  to  be  the  Interpreter  and  "Mouth" 
(Ex.  iv.  16)  of  his  brother  Moses,  who 
was  "slow  of  speech ;"  and  accordingly  he 
was  not  only  the  organ  of  communica- 
tion with  the  Israelites  and  with  Pharaoh 
(Ex.  iv.  30,  vii.  2),  but  also  the  actual  instru- 
ment of  working  most  of  the  miracles  of  the 
Exodus.  (See  Ex.  vii.  19,  &c.)  Thus  on  the 
way  to  Mount  Sinai,  during  the  battle  with 
Amalek,  Aaron  is  mentioned  with  Hur,  as  stay- 
ing up  the  weary  hands  of  Moses,  when  they 
were  lifted  up'  for  the  victory  of  Israel  to 
bear  the  rod  of  God.  (See  Ex.  xvii.  9.) 
Through  all  this  period  he  is  mentioned  as  de- 
pendent upon  his  brother,  and  deriving  all  his 
authority  from  hirn.  Left,  on  Moses'  depart- 
ure, to  guide  the  people,  Aaron  is  tried  for  a 
moment  on  his  own  responsibility,  and  he  fails 
from  a  weak  inability  to  withstand  the  de- 
mand of  the  people  for  visible  '"gods  to  go  be- 
fore them."  Possibly  it  seemed  to  him  pru- 
dent to  make  an  image  of  Jehovah,  in  the  well- 
known  form  of  Egyptian  idolatry  (Apis  or 
!Mnevis).  He  repented  of  his  sin,  and  Moses 
gained  forgiveness  for  him  (Deut.  ix.  20). — 
Aaron  was  now  consecrated  by  Moses  to  the 
new  office  of  the  high-priesthood.  From  this 
time  the  history  of  Aaron  is  almost  entirely 
that  of  the  priesthood,  and  its  chief  feature 
is  the  great  rebellion  of  Korah  and  the  Le- 
vites.  The  murmuring  of  Aaron  and  Miriam 
against  Moses  clearly  proceeded  from  their 
trust,  the  one  in  his  priesthood,  the  other  in 
her  prophetic  inspiration,  as  equal  commis- 
sions from  God  (Num.  xii.  2).  On  all  other 
occasions  he  is  spoken  of  as  acting  with  Moses 
in  the  guidance  of  the  people.  Leaning  as  he 
seems  to  have  done  wholly  on  him,  it  is  not 
strange  that  he  should  have  shared  his  sin  at 
Meribah,  and  its  punishment  [Moses]  (Num. 
XX.  10-12).  Aaron's  death  seems  to  have  fol- 
lowed very  speedily.  It  took  place  on  Mount 
Hor,  after  the  transference  of  his  robes  and 
office  to  Eleazar  (Num.  xx.  28).  This  mount 
is  still  .  called  the  "Mountain  of  Aaron." 
[Hor.]  —The  wife  of  Aaron  was  Elisheba  (Ex. 
vi.  23) ;  and  the  two  sons  who  survived  him, 
Eleazar  and  Ithamar.  The  high-priesthood 
descended  to  the  former,  and  to  his  descend- 
ants until  the  time  of  Eli,  who,  although  of 
the  house  of  Ithamar,  received  the  high-priest- 
hood, and  transmitted  it  to  his  children ;  with 
them  it  continued  till  the  accession  of  Solo- 


mon, who  took  it  from  Abiathar,  and  restored 
it  to  Zadok  (of  the  house  of  Eleazar).  [Abi- 
athar.] 

Ab  (father),  an' element  in  the  composition 
of  many  proper  names,  of  which  Abba  is  a 
Chaldaic  form,  the  syllable  affixed  giving  the 
emphatic  force  of  the  definite  article.  Ap- 
plied to  God  by  Jesus  Christ  (Mark  xiv.  36), 
and  by  St.  Paul  (Rom.  viii.  15;  Gal.  iv.  6). 

Ab.  [Months.] 

Ab'ana,  one  of  the  "rivers  of  Damascus"  (2 
K.  V.  12).  The  Barada  and  the  Awaj  are  now 
the  chief  streams  of  Damascus,  the  former  rep- 
resenting the  Abana  and  the  latter  the  Phar- 
par  of  the  text.  The  Barada  rises  in  the  Anti- 
libanus,  at  about  23  miles  from  the  city,  after 


River  Abana  (now  Rarada)  and  Damascus. 


flowing  through  which  it  runs  across  the  plain, 
till  it  loses  itself  in  the  lake  or  marsh  Bahret 
el-Kibliych. 

Ab'arim,  a  mountain  or  range  of  highlands 
on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  land  of  Moab, 
facing  Jericho,  and  forming  the  eastern  wall 
of  the  Jordan  valley  at  that  part.  Its  most  ele- 
vated spot  was  "the  Mount  Nebo,  'head'  of 
'the'  Pisgah,"  from  which  Moses  viewed  the 
Promised  Land  before  his  death.  These  moun- 
tains are  mentioned  in  Num.  xxvii.  12,  xxxiii. 
47,  48,  and  Deut.  xxxii.  49. 

Aljed'nego  (i.  e.  servant  of  Nego,  perhaps 
the  same  as  Nebo),  the  Chaldfean  name  given 
to  Azariah,  one  of  the  three  friends  of  Daniel, 
miraculously  saved  from  the  fiery  furnace 
(Dan.  iii.). 

A'bel,  the  name  of  several  places  in  Pales- 
tine, probably  signifies  a  meadow. 

A'bel  (i.  e.  breath,  vapor,  transitoriness, 
probably  so  called  from  the  shortness  of  his 
life),  the  second  son  of  Adam,  murdered  by 
his  brother  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  1-16).  Jehovah 
showed  respect  for  Abel's  ofifering,  but  not 


ABIASAPH 


ABNER, 


for  that  of  Cain,  because,  according  to  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xi.  4),  Abel  "by  faith 
offered  a  more  excellent  sacrifice  than  Cain." 
The  expression  "sin,"  i.  e.  sin-offering,  "lieth 
at  the  door."  (Gen.  iv.  7),  seems  to  imply  that 
the  need  of  sacrifices  of  blood  to  obtain  for- 
giveness was  already  revealed.  Our  Lord 
spoke  of  Abel  as  the  first  martyr  (Matt,  xxiii. 
35)  ;  so  did  the  early  church  subsequently. 
The  traditional  site  of  his  murder  and  his 
grave  are  pointed  out  near  Damascus. 

Abi'asaph  (Ex.  vi.  24),  otherwise  written 
Ebi'asaph  (i  Chr.  vi.  23,  37,  ix.  19),  the  head 
of  one  of  the  families  of  the  Korhites  (a  house 
of  the  Kohathites).  Among  the  remarkable 
descendants  of  Abiasaph,  according  to  the 
text  of  I  Chr.  vi.  33-37,  were  Samuel  the 
prophet  and  Elkanah  his  father  (i  Sam.  i.  i), 
and  Heman  the  singer. 

Abi'athar,  high-priest  and  fourth  in  descent 
from  Eli,  who  was  of  the  line  of  Ithamar,  the 
younger  son  of  Aaron.  Abiathar  was  the 
only  one  of  all  the  sons  of  Ahimelech  the  high- 
priest  who  escaped  the  slaughter  inflicted  upon 
his  father's  house  by  Saul,  in  revenge  for  his 
having  inquired  of  the  Lord  for  David,  and  giv- 
en him  the  shew-bread  to  eat  (i  Sam,  xxii.). 
Abiathar  having  become  high-priest  fled  to 
David,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  inquire  of  the 
Lord  for  him  (i  Sam.  xxiii.  9,  xxx.  7;  2  Sam. 
ii.  I,  V.  19,  &c.).  When,  however,  Adonijah 
set  himself  up  for  David's  successor  on  the 
throne,  in  opposition  to  Solomon,  Abiathar 
sided  with  him,  while  Zadok  was  on  Solomon's 
side.  For  this  Abiathar  was  deprived  of  the 
high-priesthood,  and  we  are  told  that  "Zadok 
the  priest  did  the  king  put  in  the  room  of  Abi- 
athar" (i  K.  ii.  27,  35),  thus  fulfilling  the 
prophecy  of  i  Sam.  ii.  30. — Zadok  was  descend- 
ed from  Eleazar,  the  elder  son  of  Aaron.  He 
is  first  mentioned  in  i  Chr.  xii.  28,  and  is  said 
to  have  joined  David  while  he  reigned  in  He- 
bron. From  this  time  we  read,  both  in  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Chronicles,  of  "Zadok 
and  Abiathar  the  priests."  There  were,  hence- 
forth, two  high-priests  in  the  reign  of  David, 
and  till  the  deposition  of  Abiathar  by  Solo- 
mon, when  Zadok  became  the  sole  high-priest. 

A'biel.  I.  Father  of  Kish,  and  consequently 
grandfather  of  Saul  (i  Sam.  ix.  i),  as  well  as 
of  Abner,  Saul's  commander-in-chief  (i  Sam. 
xiv.  51).  2.  One  of  David's  mighty  men  (i 
Chr.  xi.  32).  In  2  Sam.  xxiii.  31  he  is  called 
Abi-albon. 

Ab'igail.  i.  The  beautiful  wife  of  Nabal, 
a  wealthy  owner  of  goats  and  sheep  in  Car- 
mel.  When  David's  messengers  were  slighted 
by  Nabal,  Abigail  supplied  David  and  his  fol- 
lowers with  provisions,  and  succeeded  in  ap- 


peasing his  anger.  Ten  days  after  this  Nabal 
died,  and  David  sent  for  Abigail  and  made  her 
his  wife  (i  Sam.  xxv.  14,  &c.).  By  her  he 
had  a  son,  called  Chileab  in  2  Sam.  iii.  3;  but 
Daniel  in  i  Chr.  iii.  i.  2.  A  sister  of  David, 
married  to  Jether  the  Ishmaelite,  and  mother, 
by  him,  of  Amasa  (i  Chr.  ii.  17).  The  state- 
ment in  2  Sam.  xvii.  25  that  the  mother  of 
Amasa  was  an  Israelite  is  doubtless  a  tran- 
scriber's error. 

Abi'jah  or  Abi'jam.  Son  and  successor 
of  Rehoboam  on  the  throne  of  Judah  (i  K.  xiv. 
31;  2  Chr.  xii.  16).  He  is  called  Abijah  in 
Chronicles,  Abijam  in -Kings.  He  began  to 
reign  in  B.  C.  959,  and  reigned  three  years. 
He  endeavored  to  recover  the  kingdom  of  the 
Ten  Tribes,  and  made  war  on  Jeroboam.  He 
was  successful  in  battle,  and  took  several  of 
the  cities  of  Israel. 

Abile'ne  (Luke  iii.  i),  a  tetrarchy  of  which 
the  capital  was  Abila,  a  city  situated  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  Antilibanus,  in  a  district  fer- 
tilized by  the  river  Barada.  The  city  was  18 
miles  from  Damascus,  and  stood  in  a  remark- 
able gorge  called  Suk  Wady  Barada,  where 
the  river  breaks  down  through  the  mountain 
towards  the  plain  of  Damascus. 

Abim'elech  (father  of  the  king),  the  name 
of  several  Philistine  kings,  was  probably  a 
common  title  of  these  kings,  like  that  of  Pha- 
raoh among  the  Egyptians,  and  that  of  Caesar 
and  Augustus  among  the  Romans. 

Ablution.  [Purification.] 

Ab'ner.  Son  of  Ner,  who  was  the  brother 
of  Kish  (i  Chr.  ix.  36),  the  father  "of  Saul 
(B.  C.  1063).  Abner,  therefore,  was  Saul's 
first  cousin,  and  was  made  by  him  com- 
mander-in-chief of  his  army  (i  Sam.  xiv. 
51,  xvii.  57,  xxvi.  3-14).  After  the  death  of 
Saul  David  was  proclaimed  king  of  Judah  in 
Hebron ;  and  some  time  subsequently  Abner 
proclaimed  Ishbosheth,  Saul's  son,  as  king  of 
Israel,  at  Mahanaim  beyond  Jordan.  War 
soon  broke  out  between  the  two  rival  kings, 
and  "a  very  sore  battle"  was  fought  at  Gibeon 
between  the  men  of  Israel  under  Abner,  and 
the  men  of  Judah  under  Joab,  son  of  Zeruiah, 
David's  sister  (i  Chr.  ii.  16).  Abner  had  mar- 
ried Rizpah,  Saul's  concubine,  and  this,  ac- 
cording to  the  views  of  Oriental  courts,  might 
be  so  interpreted  as  to  imply  a  design  upon  the 
throne.  Rightly  or  wrongly,  Ishbosheth  so 
understood  it,  and  he  even  ventured  to  re- 
proach Abner  with  it.  Abner,  incensed  at  his 
ingratitude,  opened  negotiations  with.  David, 
by  whom  he  was  most  favorably  received  at 
Hebron.  He  then  undertook  to  procure  his 
recognition  throughout  Israel ;  but  after  leav- 
ing his  presence  for  the  purpose  was  enticed 


10 


ABOMINATION  OF  DESOLATION 


ABRAHAM  OR  ABRAM 


back  by  Joab,  and  treacherously  murdered 
by  him  and  his  brother  Abishai,  at  the  gate 
of  the  city,  partly,  no  doubt,  from  fear  lest 
so  distinguished  a  convert  to  their  cause 
should  gain  too  high  a  place  in  David's  favor, 
but  ostensibly  in  retaliation  for  the  death  of 
Asahel.  This  murder  caused  the  greatest  sor- 
row and  indignation  to  David ;  but  as  the  as- 
sassins were  too  powerful  to  be  punished,  he 
contented  himself  with  showing  every  public 
token  of  respect  to  Abner's  memory,  by  fol- 
lowing the  bier  and  pouring  forth  a  simple 
dirge  over  the  slain  (2  Sam.  iii.  33,  34). 

Abomination  of  Desolation,  mentioned  by 
our  Savior  as  a  sign  of  the  approaching  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  with  reference  to  Dan. 
ix.  27,  xi.  31,  xii.  II.  The  Jews  considered  the 
prophecy  of  Daniel  as  fulfilled  in  the  profana- 
tion of  the  Temple  under  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes,  when  the  Israelites  themselves  erected 
an  idolatrous  altar  upon  the  sacred  altar,  and 
offered  sacrifice  thereon.  This  altar  is  de- 
scribed as  ''an  abomination  of  desolation"  (i 
Mace.  i.  54,  vi.  7).  The  prophecy,  however, 
referred  ultimately  to  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem by  the  Romans,  and  consequently  the 
"abomination"  must  describe  some  occurrence 
connected  with  that  event.  It  appears  most 
probable  that  the  profanities  of  the  Zealots 
constituted  the  abomination,  which  was  the 
sign  of  impending  ruin.  The  introduction  of 
the  Roman  standards  into  the  Temple,  regard- 
ed by  many  as  the  "desolation,"  took  place 
after  the  destruction  of  the  city. 

A'braham  or  A'bram  (father  of  a  multitude), 
as  his  name  appears  in  the  eailier  portion  of 
the  history,  was  the  son  of  Terah,  and  founder 
of  the  great  Hebrew  nation  (B.  C.  1996-1822). 
His  family,  a  branch  of  the  descendants  of 
Shem,  was  settled  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  be- 
yond the  Euphrates.  Terah  had  two  other 
sons,  Nahor  and  Haran.  Haran  died  before 
his  father  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  leaving  a 
son  Lot;  and  Terah,  taking  with  him  Abram, 
with  Sarai  his  wife,  and  his  grandson  Lot, 
emigrated  to  Haran  in  Mesopotamia,  where 
he  died.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  Abram, 
then  in  the  75th  year  of  his  age,  with  Sarai 
and  Lot,  pursued  his  course  to  the  land  of 
Canaan,  whither  he  was  directed  by  divine 
command  (Gen.  xii.  5),  when  he  received  the 
general  promise  that  he  should  become  the 
founder  of  a  great  nation,  and  that  all  the 
families  of  the  earth  should  be  blessed  in  him. 
He  passed  through  the  heart  of  the  country 
by  the  great  highway  to  Shechem,  and  pitched 
his  tent  beneath  the  terebinth  of  Moreh  (Gen. 
xii.  6).  Here  he  received  in  vision  from  Jeho- 
vah the  further  revelation  that  this  was  the 


land  which  his  descendants  should  inherit  (xii. 
7J.  The  next  halting-place  of  the  wanderer 
was  on  a  mountain  between  Bethel  and  Ai 
(Gen.  xii.  8).  But  the  country  was  suffering 
from  famine,  and  Abram,  finding  neither  pas- 
ture for  his  cattle  nor  food  for  his  household, 
journeyed  still  southwards  to  the  rich  corn- 
lands  of  Egypt.  Abram  left  Egypt  with  great 
possess'ions,  and,  accompanied  by  Lot,  re- 
turned by  the  south  of  Palestine  to  his  former 
encampment  between  Bethel  and  Ai.  The  in- 
creased wealth  of  the  two  kinsmen  was  the 
ultimate  cause  of  their  separation.  The  soil 
was  not  fertile  enough  to  support  them  both ; 
their  herdsmen  quarreled;  and,  to  avoid  dis- 
sensions in  a  country  where  they  were  sur- 
rounded by  enemies,  Abram  proposed  that 
each  should  follow  his  own  fortune.  Lot 
chose  the  fertile  plain  of  the  Jordan,  rich  and 
well  watered  as  the  garden  of  Jehovah ;  while 
Abram  quitted  the  hill-fastness  between  Bethel 
and  Ai,  and  pitched  his  tent  among  the  oak- 
groves  of  Mamre,  close  to  Hebron  (Gen.  xiii.). 
The  chiefs  of  the  bribes  who  peopled  the  plain 
of  the  Jordan  had  been  subdued  in  a  previous 
irruption  of  northern  warriors,  and  for  twelve 
years  had  been  the  tributaries  of  Chedorlao- 
mer,  king  of  Elam.  Their  rebellion  brought 
down  upon  Palestine  and  the  neighboring 
countries  a  fresh  flood  of  invaders  from  the 
north-east,  who  joined  battle  with  the  revolted 
chieftains  in  the  vale  of  Siddim.  The  king  of 
Sodom  and  his  confederates  were  defeated, 
their  cities  plundered,  and  a  host  of  captives 
accompanied  the  victorious  army  of  Chedor- 
laomer.  Among  them  were  Lot  and  his  fam- 
ily. Abram,  then  confederate  with  Mamre 
the  Amorite  and  his  brethren,  heard  the  tid- 
ings from  a  fugitive,  and  hastily  arming  his 
trusty  slaves,  started  in  pursuit.  He  followed 
the  track  of  the  conquerors  along  the  Jordan 
valley,  came  up  with  them  by  Dan,  and  in  a 
night  attack  completely  routed  their  host,  and 
checked  for  a  time  the  stream  of  northern  im- 
migration. The  captives  and  plunder  were 
all  recovered,  and  Abram  was  greeted  on  his 
return  by  the  king  of  Sodom,  and  by  Melchiz- 
edek,  king  of  Salem,  priest  of  the  Most  High 
God,  who  mysteriously  appears  upon  the  scene 
to  bless  the  patriarch,  and  receive  from  him 
a  tenth  of  the  spoil  (Gen.  xiv.).  After  this, 
the  thrice-repeated  promise  that  his  descend- 
ants should  become  a  mighty  nation  and  pos- 
sess the  land  in  which  he  was  a  stranger,  was 
confirmed  with  all  the  solemnity  of  a  religious 
ceremony.  (Gen.  xv.).  Ten  years  had  passed 
since,  in  obedience  to  the  divine  command,  he 
had  left  his  father's  house,  and  the  fulfillment 
of  the  promise  was  apparently  more  distant 
I 


ABRAHAM  OR  ABRAM 


ABSALOM 


than  at  first.  At  the  suggestion  of  Sarai,  who 
despaired  of  having  children  of  her  own,  he 
took  as-  his  concubine  Hagar,  her  Egyptian 
maid,  who  bore  him  Ishmael  in  the  86th  year 
of  his  age  (Gen.  xvi.).  [Hagar;  Ishmael.] 
But  this  was  not  the  accomplishment  of  the 
promise.  Thirteen  years  elapsed,  during  which 
Abram  still  dwelt  in  Hebron,  when  the  last 
step  in  the  revelation  was  made,  that  the  son- 
of  Sarai,  and  not  Ishmael,  should  inherit  both 
the  temporal  and  spiritual  blessings.  The  cov- 
enant was  renewed,  and  the  rite  of  circumci- 
sion established  as  its  sign.  This  most  im- 
portant crisis  in  Abram's  life  is  marked  by  the 
significant  change  of  his  name  to  Abraham, 
"father  of  a  multitude ;"  while  his  wife's  from 
Sarai  became  Sarah.  In  his  99th  year  Abra- 
ham was  circumcised,  in  accordance  with  the 
divine  command,  together  with  Ishmael  and 
all  the  males  of  his  household,  as  well  the 
slaves  born  in  his  house  as  those  purchased 
from  the  foreigner  (Gen.  xvii.).  The  promise 
that  Sarah  should  have  a  son  was  repeated  in 
the  remarkable  scene  described  in  ch.  xviii. 
Three  men  stood  before  Abraham  as  he  sat  in 
his  tent  door  in  the  heat  of  the  day.  The  patri- 
arch, with  true  eastern  hospitality,  welcomed 
the  strangers,  and  bade  them  rest  and  refresh 
themselves.  The  meal  ended,  they  foretold 
the  birth  of  Isaac,  and  went  on  their  way  to 
Sodom.  Abraham  accompanied  them,  and  is 
represented  as  an  interlocutor  in  a  dialogue 
with  Jehovah,  in  which  he  pleaded  in  vain  to 
avert  the  vengeance  threatened  to  the  devoted 
cities  of  the  plain  (xviii.  17-33).  -^t  length 
Isaac,  the  long-looked-for  child,  was  born.  His 
birth  was  welcomed  by  all  the  rejoicings  which 
could  greet  the  advent  of  one  whose  future  was 
of  such  rich  promise.  Sarah's  jealousy,  aroused 
by  the  mockery  of  Ishmael  at  the  "great  ban- 
quet" which  Abraham  made  to  celebrate  the 
weaning  of  her  son  (Gen.  xxi.  9),  demanded 
that,  with  his  mother  Hagar,  he  should  be 
driven  out  (Gen.  xxi.  10).  The  patriarch  re- 
luctantly consented,  consoled  by  the  fresh 
promise  that  Ishmael  too  should  become  a 
great  nation.  But  the  severest  trial  of  his 
faith  was  yet  to  come.  For  a  long  period  the 
history  is  almost  silent.  At  length  he  receives 
the  strange  command  to  take  Isaac,  his  only 
son,  and  offer  him  for  a  burnt-ofifering  at  an 
appointed  place.  Such  a  bidding,  in  direct  op- 
position to  the  promptings  of  nature  and  the 
divine  mandate  against  the  shedding  of  human 
blood,  Abraham  hesitated  not  to  obey.  His 
faith,  hitherto  unshaken,  supported  him  in  this 
final  trial,  "accounting  that  God  was  able  to 
raise  up  his  son,  even  from  the  dead,  from 
whence  also  he  received  him  in  a  figure"  (Heb. 


xi.  19).  The  sacrifice  was  stayed  by  the  angel 
of  Jehovah,  the  promise  of  spiritual  blessing 
for  the  first  time  repeated,  and  Abraham  with 
his  son  returned  to  Beersheba,  and  for  a  time 
dwelt  there  (Gen.  xxii.).  But  we  find  him 
after  a  few  years  in  his  original  residence  at 
Hebron,  for  there  Sarah  died  (Gen.  xxiii.  2), 
and  was  buried  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah, 
which  Abraham  purchased  of  Ephron  the  Hit- 
tite,  for  the  exorbitant  price  of  400  shekels  of 
silver.  The  mosque  at  Hebron  is  believed  to 
stand  upon  the  site  of  the  sepulchral  cave. 
The  remaining  years  of  Abraham's  life  are 
marked  by  but  few  incidents.  After  Isaac's 
marriage  with  Rebekah,  and  his  removal  to 
Lahai-roi,  Abraham  took  to  wife  Keturah,  by 
whom  he  had  six  children,  Zimran,  Jokshan, 
Medan,  Midian,  Ishbok,  and  Shuah,  who  be- 
came the  ancestors  of  nomadic  tribes  inhabit- 


Absalom's  Pillar. 

ing  the  countries  south  and  south-east  of  Pal- 
estine. Abraham  lived  to  see  the  gradual  ac- 
complishment of  the  promise  in  the  birth  of 
his  grandchildren  Jacob  and  Esau,  and  wit- 
nessed their  growth  to  manhood  (Gen.  xxv. 
26).  At  the  goodly  age  of  175  he  was  "gath- 
ered to  his  people,"  and  laid  beside  Sarah  in 
the  tomb  of  Machpelah  by  his  sons  Isaac  and 
Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  7-10). 

Ab'salom  (father  of  peace),  third  son  of  Da- 
vid by  Maachah,  daughter  of  Talmar,  king  of 
Geshur,  a  Syrian  district  adjoining  the  north- 
east frontier  of  the  Holy  Land  (B.  C.  1050). 
Absalom  had  a  sister,  Tamar,  who  was  violated 
by  her  half-brother  Amnon,  David's  eldest  son 
by  Ahinoam  the  Jezreelitess.  The  natural 
avenger  of  such  an  outrage  would  be  Tamar's 
full  brother  Absalom.  He  brooded  over  the 
wrong  for  two  years,  and  then  invited  all  the 
princes  to  a  sheep-shearing  feast  at  his  estate 
in  Baal-hazor,  on  the  borders  of  Ephraim  and 
Benjamin.    Here  he  ordered  his  servants  to 


12 


THE  DKATII  OF  ABEL.     SALVATOJJE  ROSA.    AFTER  THE  PAINTING  IN  THE  DORIA 

GALLERY,  ROME. 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF  THE 


ABSALOM'S  PILLAR 


ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES 


murder  Amnon,  and  then  fled  for  safety  to  his 
grandfather's  court  at  Geshur,  where  he  re- 
mained for  three  years.  At  the  end  of  that 
time  he  was  brought  back  by  an  artifice  of 
Joab.  David,  however,  would  not  see  Absalom 
for  two  more  years  ;  but  at  length  Joab  brought 
about  a  reconciliation.  Absalom  now  began 
at  once  to  prepare  for  rebellion.  He  tried  to 
supplant  his  father  by  courting  popularity, 
also  maintained  a  splendid  retinue  (2  Sam.  xv. 
i),  and  was  admired  for  his  personal  beauty 
and  the  luxuriant  growth  of  his  hair,  on 
grounds  similar  to  those  which  had  made  Saul 
acceptable  (i  Sam.  x.  23).  It  is  probable  too 
that  the  great  tribe  of  Judah  had  taken  some 
offense  at  David's  government,  perhaps  from 
finding  themselves  completely  merged  in  one 
unifed  Israel.  But  whatever  the  causes  may 
have  been,  Absalom  raised  the  standard  of  re- 
volt at  Hebron,  the  old  capital  of  Judah,  now 
supplanted  by  Jerusalem.  The  revolt  was  at 
first  completely  successful ;  David  fled  from 
his  capital  over  the  Jordan  to  Mahanaim  in 
Gilead.  Absalom  occupied  Jerusalem,  and  by 
the  advice  of  Ahithophel  took  possession  of 
David's  harem,  in  which  he  had  left  ten  con- 
cubines. This  was  considered  to  imply  a  for- 
mal assumption  of  all  his  father's  royal  rights 
(comp.  the  conduct  of  Adonijah,  i  K.  ii.  13  ff.), 
and  was  also  a  fulfillment  of  Nathan's  proph- 
ecy (2  Sam.  xii.  11).  But  David  had  left 
friends  who  watched  over  his  interests.  The 
vigorous  counsels  of  Ahithophel  were  after- 
wards rejected  through  the  crafty  advice  of 
Hushai,  who  insinuated  himself  into  Absalom's 
confidence  to  work  his  ruin,  and  Ahithophel 
himself,  seeing  his  ambitious  hopes  frustrated, 
went  home  to  Giloh,  and  committed  suicide. 
At  last,  after  being  solemnly  anointed  king  at 
Jerusalem  (xix.  10),  Absalom  crossed  the  Jor- 
dan to  attack  his  father,  who  by  this  time  had 
rallied  round  him  a  considerable  force,  whereas 
had  Ahithophel's  advice  been  followed,  he 
would  probably  have  been  crushed  at  once.  A 
decisive  battle  was  fought  in  Gilead,  in  the 
wood  of  Ephraim.  Here  Absalom's  forces 
were  totally  defeated,  and  as  he  himself  was 
escaping,  his  long  hair  was  entangled  in  the 
branches  of  a  terebinth,  where  he  was  left 
hanging  while  the  mule  on  which  he  was  rid- 
ing ran  away  from  under  him.  He  was  des- 
patched by  Joab  in  spite  of  the  prohibition  of 
David,  who,  loving  him  to  the  last,  had  desired 
that  his  life  might  be  spared.  He  was  buried 
in  a  great  pit  in  the  forest,  and  the  conquerors 
threw  stones  over  his  grave,  an  .old  proof  of 
bitter  hostility  (Josh.  vii.  26). 

Absalom's  Pillar,  or  Place,  a  monument  or 
tomb  which  Absalom  built  during  his  lifetime 


in  the  valley  of  the  Kedron,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Olivet,  near  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  xviii,  18, 
comp.  with  xiv.  27),  for  his  three  sons,  and 
where  he  probably  expected  to  be  buried.  The 
tomb  there  now,  and  called  by  Absalom's  name, 
was  probably  built  at  a  later  date. 

Acel'dama,  "the  field  of  blood;"  the  name 
given  by  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem  to  a  field  near 
Jerusalem  purchased  by  Judas  with  the  money 
which  he  received  for  the  betrayal  of  Christ, 


Aceldama. 

and  so  called  from  his  violent  death  therein 
(Acts  i.  19).  The  "field  of  blood"  is  now 
shown  on  the  steep  southern  face  of  the  valley 
or  ravine  of  Hinnom. 

Acha'ia  signifies,  in  the  N.  T.,  a  Roman 
province,  which  included  the  whole  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus and  the  greater  part  of  Hellas  proper 
with  the  adjacent  islands.  This  province,  with 
that  of  Macedonia,  comprehended  the  whole 
of  Greece ;  hence  Achaia  and  Macedonia  are 
frequently  mentioned  together  in  the  N.  T.  to 
indicate  all  Greece  (Acts  xviii.  12,  xix.  21  ; 
Rom.  XV.  26,  xvi.  5  ;  i  Cor.  xvi.  15 ;  2  Cor.  ii.  i, 
ix.  2,  xi.  10;  I  Thess.  i.  7,  8).  In  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Claudius  it  was  governed  by  a 
Proconsul,  translated  in  the  A.  V.  "deputy" 
of  Achaia  (Acts  xviii.  12). 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  a  second  treatise  by 
the  author  of  the  third  Gospel,  traditionally 
known  as  Luke.  The  book  commences  with 
an  inscription  to  one  Theophilus,  who  was 
probably  a  man  of  birth  and  station.  But  its 
design  must  not  be  supposed  to  be  limited  to 
the  edification  of  Theophilus.  whose  name  is 
prefixed  only,  as  was  customary  then  as  now, 
by  way  of  dedication.  The  readers  were  evi- 
dently intended  to  be  members  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles;  for  its 
contents  are  such  as  are  of  the  utmost  conse- 
quence to  the  whole  Church.  They  are  the 
fulfillment  of  the  promise  of  the  Father  by 
the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  results 
of  that  outpouring,  by  the  dispersion  of  the 


13 


ADAM 


ADAM 


Gospel  among  Jews  and  Gentiles.  Under  these 
leading  heads  all  the  personal  and  subordinate 
details  may  be  ranged.  Immediately  after  the 
Ascension,  St.  Peter,  the  first  of  the  Twelve, 
designated  by  our  Lord  as  the  Rock  on  whom 
the  Church  was  to  be  built,  the  holder  of  the 
keys  of  the  kingdom,  becomes  the  prime  actor 
under  God  in  the  founding  of  the  Church.  He 
is  the  center  of  the  first  great  group  of  sayings 
and  doings.  The  opening  of  the  door  to  Jews 
(ch.  ii.)  and  Gentiles  (ch.  x.)  is  his  office,  and 
by  him,  in  good  time,  is  accomplished.  But 
none  of  the  existing  twelve  Apostles  were, 
humanly  speaking,  fitted  to  preach  the  Gospel 
to  the  cultivated  Gentile  world.  To  be  by  di- 
vine grace  the  spiritual  conqueror  of  Asia  and 
Europe,  God  raised  up  another  instrument, 
from  among  the  highly  educated  and  zealous 
Pharisees.  The  preparation  of  Saul  of  Tarsus 
for  the  work  to  be  done,  the  progress,  in  his 
hand,  of  that  work,  his  journeyings,  preachings, 
and  perils,  his  stripes  and  imprisonments,  his 
testifying  in  Jerusalem  and  being  brought  to 
testify  in  Rome, — these  are  the  subjects  of  the 
latter  half  of  the  book,  of  which  the.  great  cen- 
tral figure  is  the  Apostle  Paul.  It  seems  most 
probable  that  the  place  of  writing  was  Rome, 
and  the  time  about  two  years  from  the  date  of 
St.  Paul's  arrival  there,  as  related  in  ch.  xxviii. 
30.  This  would  give  us  for  the  publication  the 
year  63  A.  D.,  according  to  the  most  probable 
assignment  of  the  date  of  the  arrival  of  St. 
Paul  at  Rome. 

Ad'am  (red  earth),  the  name  given  in  Scrip- 
ture to  the  first  man.  It  apparently  has  refer- 
ence to  the  ground  from  which  he  was  formed, 
which  is  called  in  Hebrew  Adamah.  The  idea 
of  redness  of  color  seems  to  be  inherent  in 
either  word.  The  creation  of  man  was  the 
work  of  the  sixth  day.  His  formation  was  the 
ultimate  object  of  the  Creator.  It  was  with 
reference  to  him  that  all  things  were  designed. 
He  was  to  be  the  "roof  and  crown"  of  the 
whole  fabric  of  the  world.  In  the  first  nine 
chapters  of  Genesis  there  appear  to  be  three 
distinct  histories  relating  more  or  less  to  the 
life  of  Adam.  The  first  extends  from  Gen.  i. 
I  to  ii.  3,  the  second  from  ii.  4  to  iv.  26,  the 
third  from  v.  i  to  the  end  of  ix.  The  word  at 
the  commencement  of  the  two  latter  narra- 
tives, which  is  rendered  there  and  elsewhere 
generations,  may  also  be  rendered  history. 
The  object  of  the  first  of  these  narratives  is  to 
record  the  creatipn ;  that  of  the  second  to  give 
an  account  of  paradise,  the  original  sin  of  man, 
and  the  immediate  posterity  of  Adam  ;  the  third 
contains  mainly  the  history  of  Noah,  referring, 
it  would  seem,  to  Adam  and  his  descendants 
principally  in  relation  to  that  patriarch.  The 


name  Adam  was  not  confined  to  the  father  of 
the  human  race,  but,  like  homo,  was  applica- 
ble to  woman  as  well  as  man,  so  that  we  find 
it  said  in  Gen.  v.  2,  "male  and  female  created 
He  them,  and  called  their  name  Adam  in  the 
day  when  they  were  created."  The  man  Adam 
was  placed  in  a  garden  which  the  Lord  God 
had  planted  "eastward  in  Eden"  for  the  pur- 
pose of  dressing  it  and  keeping  it.  [Eden.] 
Adam  wa's  permitted  to  eat  of  the  fruit  of 
every  tree  in  the  garden  but  one,  which  was 
called  the  "tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and 
evil."  The  prohibition  to  taste  the  fruit  of  this 
tree  was  enforced  by  the  menace  of  death. 
There  was  also  another  tree  which  was  called 
"the  tree  of  life."  Some  suppose  it  to  have 
acted  as  a  kind  of  medicine,  and  that  by  the 
continual  use  of  it  our  first  parents,  not  created 
immortal,  were  preserved  from  death.  While 
Adam  was  in  the  garden  of  Eden,  the  beasts 
of  the  field  and  the  fowls  of  the  air  were 
brought  to  him  to  be  named,  and  whatsoever 
he  called  every  living  creature  that  was  the 
name  thereof.  Thus  the  power  of  fitly  desig- 
nating objects  of  sense  was  possessed  by  the 
first  man,  a  faculty  which  is  generally  consid- 
ered as  indicating  mature  and  extensive  intel- 
lectual resources.  Upon  the  failure  of  a  com- 
panion suitable  for  Adam  among  the  creatures 
thus  brought  to  him  to  be  named,  the  Lord 
God  caused  a  deep  sleep  to  fall  upon  him,  and 
took  one  of  his  ribs  from  him,  which  He  fash- 
ioned into  a  woman  and  brought  her  to  the 
man.  At  this  time  they  are  both  described  as 
being  naked  without  the  consciousness  of 
shame.  Such  is  the  Scripture  account  of  Adam 
prior  to  the  Fall.  The  first  man  is  a  true  man, 
with  the  powers  of  a  man  and  the  innocence 
of  a  child.  Pie  is  moreover  spoken  of  by  St. 
Paul  as  being  "the  figure  of  Him  that  was  to 
come,"  the  second  Adam,  Christ  Jesus  (Rom. 
V.  14).  By  the  subtlety  of  the  serpent,  the 
woman  who  was  given  to  be  with  Adam,  was 
beguiled  into  a  violation  of  the  one  command 
which  had  been  imposed  upon  them.  She  took 
of  the  fruit  of  the  forbidden  tree  and  gave  it 
to  her  husband.  The  propriety  of  its  name 
was  immediately  shown  in  the  results  which 
followed  ;  self-consciousness  was  the  first-fruits 
of  sin ;  their  eyes  were  opened  and  they  knew 
that  they  were  naked.  Though  the  curse  of 
Adam's  rebellion  of  necessity  fell  upon  him, 
yet  the  very  prohibition  to  eat  of  the  tree  of 
life  after  his  transgression  was  probably  a  man- 
ifestation of  Divine  mercy,  because  the  great- 
est malediction  of  all  would  have  been  to  have 
the  gift  of  indestructible  life  superadded  to  a 
state  of  wretchedness  and  sin.  Adam  is  stated 
to  have  lived  930  years.    His  sons  mentioned 


14 


ABRAHAM,  ACCOMPANIED  BY  THE  ANGEL  OF  THE  COVENANT,  PLEADS  WITH  THE 
ALMIGHTY  FOR  SODAM  AND  GOMORRAH.  JOHANN  WILHELM  SCIIIRMER. 
AFTER  THE  ORIGINAL  PICTTIRE. 


THE  IE?M1 
OF  TP . 


ADAMANT 


ADORATION 


in  Scripture  are  Cain,  Abel  and  Seth ;  it  is  im- 
plied, however,  that  he  had  others. 

Adamant,  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
word  Shamir  in  Ez.  iii.  9  and  Zach.  vii.  12.  In 
Jer.  xvii.  i  it  is  translated  "diamond."  In  these 
three  passages  the  word  is  the  representative 
of  some  stone  of  excessive  hardness,  and  is  used 
metaphorically.  Since  the  Hebrews  appear  to 
have  been  unacquainted  with  the  true  diamond, 
it  is  very  probable,  from  the  expression  in  Ez. 
iii.  9,  of  "adamant  harder  than  flint,"  that  by 
Shamir  is  intended  Emery,  a  variety  of  Corun- 
dum, a  mineral  inferior  only  to  the  diamond  in 
hardness.  Emery  is  extensively  used  for  pol- 
ishing and  cutting  gems  and  other  hard  sub- 
stances. 

Ad'der.  This  word  is  used  for  any  poison- 
ous snake  and  is  applied  in  this  general  sense 
by  the  translators  of  the  A.  V.  They  use  in 
a  similar  way  the  synonymous  term  asp. 
The  word  adder  occurs  five  times  in  the  text 
of  the  A.  V.  (see  below),  and  three  times  in 
the  margin  as  synon^^mous  with  cockatrice, 
viz..  Is.  xi.  8,  xiv.  29,  lix.  5.  It  represents  four 
Hebrew  words:  i.  'Acshiib  is  found  only  in 
Ps.  cxl.  3,  "They  have  sharpened  their  tongues 
like  a  serpent,  adders'  poison  is  under  their 
lips."  The  latter  half  of  this  verse  is  quoted 
by  St.  Paul  from  the  LXX.  in  Rom.  iii.  13. 
'Acshiib  may  be  represented  by  the  Toxicoa  of 
Egypt  and  North  Africa.  2.  Pethen.  [Asp.] 
3.  Tsepha,  or  Tsiphoni,  occurs  five  times  in 
the  Hebrew  Bible.    In  Prov.  xxiii.  32  it  is 


Horned  Cerastes  (Adder). 

translated  adder,  and  in  Is.  xi.  8,  xiv.  29,  lix. 
5,  Jer.  viii.  17,  it  is  rendered  cockatrice.  From 
Jeremiah  we  learn  that  it  was  of  a  hostile  na- 
ture, and  from  the  parallelism  of  Is.  xi.  8  it 
appears  that  the  Tsiphoni  was  considered  even 
more  dreadful  than  the  Pethen.  4.  Shephiphon 
occurs  only  in  Gen.  xlix.  17,  where  it  is  used 
to  characterize  the  tribe  of  Dan;  "Dan  shall 
be  a  serpent  by  the  way,  an  adder  in  the  path, 
that  biteth  the  horse's  heels,  so  that  his  rider 
shall  fall  backward."  The  habit  of  lurking  in 
the  sand  and  biting  at  the  horse's  heels,  here 
alluded  to,  suits  the  character  of  a  well-known 
species  of  venomous  snake,  and  helps  to  iden- 


tify it  with  the  celebrated  horned  viper,  the 
asp  of  Cleopatra,  which  is  found  abundantly 
in  the  dry  sandy  deserts  of  Egypt,  Syria  and 
Arabia.  The  Cerastes  is  extremely  venomous ; 
Bruce  compelled  a  specimen  to  scratch  eighteen 
pigeons  upon  the  thigh  as  quickly  as  possible, 
and  they  all  died  in  nearly  the  same  interval 
of  time. 

Adoni'jah  (my  Lord  is  Jehovah j.  i.  The 
fourth  son  of  David  by  Haggith,  born  at  He- 
bron, while  his  father  was  king  of  Judah  (2 
Sam.  iii.  4).  After  the  death  of  his  three 
brothers,  Amnon,  Chileab,  and  Absalom,  he 
became  the  eldest  son ;  and  when  his  father's 
strength  was  visibly  declining,  put  forward  his 
pretensions  to  the  crown.  His  name  and  influ- 
ence secured  a  large  number  of  followers 
among  the  captains  of  the  royal  army  belong- 
ing to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (comp.  i  K.  i.  9,  25)  ; 
and  these,  together  with  all  the  princes,  ex- 
cept Solomon,  were  entertained  by  Adonijah 
at  a  great  sacrificial  feast  held  "by  the  stone 
Zoheleth,  which  is  by  Enrogel."  [Enrogel.] 
David  being  apprised  of  these  proceedings 
immediately  caused  Solomon  to  be  proclaimed 
king.  This  decisive  measure  struck  terror  into 
the  opposite  party,  and  Adonijah  fled  to  sanc- 
tuary, but  was  pardoned  by  Solomon  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  "show  himself  a  worthy 
man,"  with  the  threat  that  "if  wickedness  were 
found  in  him  he  should  die"  (i.  52).  The  death 
of  David  quickly  followed  on  these  events ;  and 
Adonijah  begged  Bathsheba,  who  as  "king's 
mother"  would  now  have  special  dignity  and 
influence  [Asa],  to  procure  Solomon's  consent 
to  his  marriage  with  Abishag,  who  had  been 
the  wife  of  David  in  his  old  age  (i  K.  i.  3). 
This  was  regarded  as  equivalent  to  a  fresh  at- 
tempt on  the  throne  [Absalom ;  Abner]  ;  and 
therefore  Solomon  ordered  him  to  be  put  to 
death  by  Benaiah,  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  his  previous  pardon.  2.  A  Levite  in 
the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xvii.  8).  3. 
(Neh.  X.  16.)  [Adonikam.] 

Adoration.  The  acts  and  postures  by  which 
the  Hebrews  expressed  adoration  bear  a  great 
similarity  to  those  still  in  use  among  Oriental 
nations.  To  rise  up  and  suddenly  prostrate 
the  body  was  the  most  simple  method ;  but, 
generally  speaking,  the  prostration  was  con- 
ducted in  a  more  formal  manner,  the  person 
falling  upon  the  knee  and  then  gradually  in- 
clining the  body  imtil  the  forehead  touched 
the  ground.  Such  prostration  was  usual  in 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  (Gen.  xvii.  3;  Ps.  xcv. 
6).  But  it  was  by  no  means  exclusively  used 
for  that  purpose ;  it  was  the  formal  mode  of 
receiving  visitors  (Gen.  xviii.  2),  of  doing 
obeisance  to  one  of  superior  station  (2  Sam. 

5 


ADULTERY 


AGE,  OLD 


xiv.  4),  and  of  showing  respect  to  equals  (i 
K.  ii.  19;.  Occasionally  it  was  repeated  three 
times  (i  Sam.  xx.  41),  and  even  seven  times 
(Gen.  xxxiii.  3).  It  was  accompanied  by  such 
acts  as  a  kiss  (Ex.  xviii.  7),  laying  hold  of  the 
knees  or  feet  of  the  person  to  whom  the  adora- 
tion was  paid  (Matt,  xxviii.  9),  and  kissing  the 
ground  on  which  he  stood  (Ps.  Ixxii.  9;  Mic. 

vii.  17).  Similar  adoration  was  paid  to  idols  (i 
K.  xix.  18)  ;  sometimes  however  prostration 
was  omitted,  and  the  act  consisted  simply  in 
kissing  the  hand  to  the  object  of  reverence 
(Job  xxxi.  27),  and  in  kissing  the  statue  itself 
(Hos.  xiii.  2). 

Adultery.  The  parties  to  this  crime  were  a 
married  woman  and  a  man  who  was  not  her 
husband.  The  toleration  of  polygamy,  indeed, 
renders  it  nearly  impossible  to  make  criminal 
a  similar  offense  committed  by  a  married  man 
with  a  woman  not  his  wife.  The  Mosaic  pen- 
alty was  that  both  guilty  parties  should  be 
stoned,  and  it  applied  as  well  to  the  betrothed 
as  to  the  married  woman,  provided  she  were 
free  (Deut.  xxii.  22-24).  A  bondwoman  so  of- 
fending was  to  be  scourged,  and  the  man  was 
to  make  a  trespass  offering  (Lev.  xix.  20-22). 
At  a  later  time,  and  when,  owing  to  Gentile 
example,  the  marriage  tie  became  a  looser  bond 
of  union,  public  feeling  in  regard  to  adultery 
changed,  and  the  penalty  of  death  was  seldom 
or  never  inflicted.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  the 
woman  brought  under  our  Lord's  notice  (John 

viii.  ),  it  is  likely  that  no  one  then  thought  of 
stoning  her  in  fact,  though  there  remained  the 
written  law  ready  for  the  purpose  of  the  cav- 
iler.  It  is  likely  also  that  a  divorce,  in  which 
the  adultress  lost  her  dower  and  rights  of  main- 
tenance, &c.,  was  the  usual  remedy,  suggested 
by  a  wish  to  avoid  scandal  and  the  excitement 
of  commiseration  for  crime.  The  expression  in 
St.  Matthew  (i.  19)  "to  make  her  a  public  ex- 
ample," probably  means  to  bring  the  case  be- 
fore the  local  Sanhedrim,  which  was  the  usvial 
course,  but  which  Joseph  did  not  propose  to 
take,  preferring  repudiation,  because  that  could 
be  managed  privately.  The  famous  trial  by 
the  waters  of  jealousy  (Num.  v.  11-29), 
probably  an  ancient  custom,  which  Moses 
found  deeply  seated,  and  which  is  said  to  be 
paralleled  by  a  form  of  ordeal  called  the  "red 
water"  in  Western  Africa.  The  forms  of  He- 
brew justice  tended  to  limit' the  application  of 
this  test.  When  adultery  ceased  to  be  capital, 
as  no.  doubt  it  did,  and  divorce  became  a  mat- 
ter of  mere  convenience,  it  would  be  absurd  to 
suppose  that  this  trial  was  continued.  And 
when  adultery  became  common,  it  would  have 
been  impious  to  expect  the  miracle  which  it 
supposed. 


A'gag,  possibly  the  title  of  the  kings  of  Ama- 
lek,  like  Pharaoh  of  Egypt.  One  king  of  this 
name  is  mentioned  in  Num.  xxiv.  7,  and  an- 
other in  I  Sam.  xv,  8,  9,  20,  32.  The  latter  was 
the  king  of  the  Amalekites,  whom  Saul  spared, 
together  with  the  best  of  the  spoil,  although 
it  was  the  well-known  will  of  Jehovah  that  the 
Amalekites  should  be  extirpated  (Ex.  xvii.  14; 
Deut.  XXV.  17).  For  this  act  of  disobedience 
Samuel  was  commissioned  to  declare  to  Saul 
his  rejection,  and  he  himself  sent  for  Agag  and 
cut  him  in  pieces.  [Samuel.] 

Agate  is  mentioned  four  times  in  the  text  of 
the  A.  V. ;  viz.  in  Ex.  xxviii.  19,  xxxix.  12 ;  Is. 
liv.  12;  Ez.  xxvii.  16.  In  the  two  former  pas- 
sages it  is  spoken  of  as  forming  the  second 
stone  in  the  third  row  of  the  high  priest's 
breastplate ;  in  each  of  the  two  latter  places  a 
different  stone  is  intended.  [Ruby.] — Our 
English  word  agate  derives  its  name  from  the 
Achates,  on  the  banks  of  which,  according  to 
Theophrastus  and  Pliny,  it  was  first  found; 
but  as  agates  are  met  with  in  almost  every 
country,  this  stone  was  doubtless  from  the  ear- 
liest time  known  to  the  Orientals.  It  is  a  sili- 
cious  stone  of  the  quartz  family. 

Age,  Old.  In  early  stages  of  civilization, 
when  experience  is  the  only  source  of  practical 
knowledge,  old  age  has  its  special  value,  and 
consequently  its  special  honors.  A  further 
motive  was  superadded  in  the  case  of  the  Jew, 
who  was  taught  to  consider  old  age  as  a  re- 
ward for  piety,  and  a  signal  token  of  God's  fa- 
vor. For  these  reasons  the  aged  occupied  a 
prominent  place  in  the  social  and  political  sys- 
tem of  the  Jews.  In  private  life  they  were 
looked  up  to  as  the  depositaries  of  knowledge 
(Job.  XV.  10)  ;  the  young  were  ordered  to  rise 
up  in  their  presence  (Lev.  xix.  32);  they  al- 
lowed them  to  give  their  opinion  first  (Job 
xxxii.  4)  ;  they  were  taught  to  regard  gray 
hairs  as  a  "crown  of  glory"  and  as  the  "beauty 
of  old  men"  (Prov.  xvi.  31,  xx.  29).  The  at- 
tainment of  old  age  was  regarded  as  a  special 
blessing  (Job  v.  26),  not  only  on  account  of 
the  prolonged  enjoyment  of  life  to  the  indi- 
vidual, but  also  because  it  indicated  peaceful 
and  prosperous  times  (Zech.  viii.  4;  i  Mace, 
xiv.  9;  Is.  Ixv.  20).  In  public  affairs  age  car- 
ried weight  with  it,  especially  in  the  infancy  of 
the  state;  it  formed  under  Moses  the  main 
qualification  of  those  who  acted  as  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people  in  all  matters  of  diffi- 
culty and  deliberation.  The  old  men  or  Elders 
thus  became  a  class,  and  the  title  gradually 
ceased  to  convey  the  notion  of  age,  and  was 
used  in  an  official  sense,  like  Patres,  Senatores, 
and  other  similar  terms.  [Eiders.]  Still  it 
would  be  but  natural  that  such  an  office  was 


16 


AGRICULTURE 

generally  held  by  men  of  advanced  age  (i  K. 
xii.  8). 

Agricultxire.  This,  though  prominent  in  the 
scriptural  narrative  concerning  Adam,  Cain, 
and  Noah,  was  Httle  cared  for  by  the  patri- 
archs. The  pastoral  life  was  the  means  of 
keeping  the  sacred  race,  whilst  yet  a  family, 
distinct  from  mixture  and  locally  unattached, 
especially  whilst  in  Eg>'pt.  When,  grown  into 
a  nation  they  conquered  their  future  seats,  ag- 
riculture supplied  a  similar  check  on  the  for- 
eign intercourse  and  speedy  demoralization, 
especially  as  regards  idolatry,  which  commerce 

Threshing  Instrument — Side  View 

would  have  caused.  Thus  agriculture  became 
the  basis  of  the  Mosaic  commonwealth.  Taken 
in  connection  with  the  inalienable  character  of 
inheritances,  it  gave  each  man  and  each  fam- 
ily a  stake  in  the  soil,  and  nurtured  a  hardy 
patriotism.  "The  land  is  Mine"  (Lev.  xxv.  23) 
was  a  dictum  >vhich  made  agriculture  likewise 
the  basis  of  the  theocratic  relation.  Thus  every 
family  felt  its  own  life  with  intense  keenness, 
and  had  its  divine  tenure  which  it  was  to 
guard  from  alienation.  The  prohibition  of  cul- 
ture in  the  sabbatical  year  formed,  under  this 
aspect,  a  kind  of  rent  reserved  by  the  Divine 
Owner.  Landmarks  were  deemed  sacred 
(Deut.  xix.  14),  and  the  inalienability  of  the 
heritage  was  insured  by  its  reversion  to  the 
owner  in  the  year  of  jubilee ;  so  that  only  so 
many  years  of  occupancy  could  be  sold  (Lev^ 
xxv.  8-16,  23-35).  The  prophet  Isaiah  (v.  8) 
denounces  the  contempt  of  such  restrictions  by 
wealthy  grandees,  who  sought  to  "add  field  to 
field,"  erasing  families  and  depopulating  dis- 
tricts. 

The  abundance  of  water  in  Palestine,  from 
natural  sources,  made  it  a  contrast  to  rainless 
Egypt  (Deut.  viii.  7,  xi.  8-12).  Rain  was  coni- 
monly  expected  soon  after  the  autumnal  equi- 
nox. The  common  scriptural  expressions  of 
the  "early"  and  the  "latter  rain"  (Deut,  xi.  14; 
Jer.  V.  24 ;  Hos.  vi.  3 ;  Zech.  x,  i ;  Jam,  v.  7) 
are  scarcely  confirmed  by  modern  experience, 
the  season  of  rains  being  imbroken,  though 
perhaps  the  fall  is  more  strongly  marked  at  the 
beginning  and  the  end  of  it. 

The  cereal  crops  of  constant  mention  are 
wheat  and  barley,  and  more  rarely  rye  and  mil- 
let (?),    Of  the  two  former,  together  with  the 


AGRICULTURE 

vine,  olive,  and  fig,  the  use  of  irrigation,  the 
plough  and  the  harrow,  mention  is  made  in  the 
book  of  Job  (xxxi.  40 ;  xv.  33  ;  xxiv.  6 ;  xxix,  19 ; 
xxxix.  10).  Two  kinds  of  cumin  (the  black 
variety  called  "fitches,"  Is.  xxviii.  27),  and  such 
podded  plants  as  beans  and  lentils,  may  be 
named  among  the  staple  produce. 

The  plough  was  probably  very  light,  one 
yoke  of  oxen  usually  sufficient  to  draw  it. 
Mountains  and  steep  places  were  hoed  (Is.  vii. 
25).  New  ground  and  fallows,  the  use  of 
which  latter  was  familiar  to  the  Jews  (Jer. 
iv.  3;  Hos.-  X.  12),  were  cleared  of  stones  and 
of  thorns  (Is.  v.  2)  early  in  the  year,  sowing 
or  gathering  from  "among  thorns"  being  a 
proverb  for  slovenly  husbandry  (Job  v.  5 ; 
Prov,  xxiv.  30,  31).  Sowing  also  took  place 
without  previous  ploughing,  the  seed,  as  in 
the  parable  of  the  sower,  being  scattered 
broadcast,  and  ploughed  in  afterwards.  The 
soil  was  then  brushed  over  with  a  light  har- 
row, often  of  thorn  bushes.  In  highly  irri- 
gated spots  the  seed  was  trampled  in  by  cattle 
(Is.  xxxii.  20),  as  in  Egypt  by  goats.  The 
more  formal  routine  of  heavy  western  soils 
must  not  be  made  the  standard  of  such  a 
naturally  fine  tilth  as  that  of  Palestine  gen- 
erally. During  the  rains,  if  not  too  heavy, 
or  between  their  two  periods,  would  be  the 
best  time  for  these  opertaions ;  thus  70  days 
before  the  passover  was  the  time  prescribed 
for  sowing  for  the  "wave-sheaf,"  and  prob- 


Threshing  Instrument — Upper  View 

ably,  therefore,  for  that  of  barley  generally. 
The  oxen  were  urged  on  by  a  goad  like  a 
spear  (Judg.  iii.  31).  The  custom  of  watch- 
ing ripening  crops  and  threshing  floors 
against  theft,  or  damage,  is  probabily  ancient. 
Thus  Boaz  slept  on  the  floor  (Ruth  iii.  4,  7). 
Barley  ripened  a  week  or  two  before  wheat, 
and  as  fine  harvest  weather  was  certain 
(Prov.  xxvi.  i;  i  Sam,  xii.  17;  Am.  iv.  7),  the 
crop  chiefly  varied  with  the  quantity  of 
timely  rain.  The  proportion  of  harvest  gath- 
ered to  seed  sown  was  often  vast ;  a  hundred 
fold  is  mentioned,  but  in  such  a  way  as  to 

7 


AGRICULTURE 


AHASUERUS 


signify  that  it  was  a  limit  rarely  attained 
(Gen.  xxvi.  12;  Matt.  xiii.  8).  Sowing  a  field 
with  divers  seeds  was  forbidden  (Deut. 
xxii.  9). 

The  wheat,  &c.,  were  reaped  by  the  sickle, 
or  pulled  up  by  the  roots.  They  were  bound 
in  sheaves — a  process  prominent  in  Scripture. 
The  sheaves  or  heaps  were  carted  (Am.  ii. 
13)  to  the  floor  —  a  circular  spot  of  hard 
ground,  probably,  as  now,  from  50  to  80  or 
100  feet  in  diameter.  Such  floors  were  prob- 
ably permanent,  and  became  well  known 
spots  (Gen.  1.  10,  11;  2  Sam.  xxiv.- 16,  18). 
On  these  the  oxen,  &c,  forbidden  to  be  muz- 
zled (Deut.  XXV.  4),  trampled  out  the  grain, 
as  we  find  represented  on  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments. At  a  later  time  the  Jews  used  a 
threshing  sledge  called  morag  (Is.  xli.  15;  2 
Sam.  xxiv.  22;  i  Chr.  xxi.  23),  probably  re- 
sembling the  noreg,  still  employed  in  Egypt 
—a  stage  with  three  rollers  ridged  with  iron, 
which,  aided  by  the  driver's  weight,  crushed 
out,  often  injuring,  the  grain,  as  well  as  cut 
or  tore  the  straw,  which  thus  became  fit  for 
fodder.  Lighter  grains  were  beaten  out  with 
a  stick  (Is.  xxviii.  27).  The  use  of  animal 
manure  is  proved  frequently  by  such  recur- 
ring expressions  as  "dung  on  the  face  of  the 
earth,  field,"  &c.  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10;  2  K.  ix.  37; 
Jer.  viii.  2,  &c.). 

The  "shovel"  and  "fan"  (Is.  xxx.  24),  the 
precise  difference  of  which  is  doubtful,  indi- 
cate the  process  of  winnowing — a  conspicu- 


Eastern  Threshing  Floor. 

ous  part  of  ancient  husbandry  (Ps.  xxxv.  5 ; 
Job  xxi.  18;  Is.  xvii.  13),  and  important, 
owing  to  the  slovenly  threshing.  Evening 
was  the  favorite  time  (Ruth  ii.  2),  when  there 
was  mostly  a  breeze.  The  "fan"  (Matt.  iii. 
12)  was  perhaps  a  broad  shovel  which  threw 
the  grain  up  against  the  wind.  The  last  proc- 
ess was  the  shaking  in  a  sieve  to  separate 
dirt  and  refuse  (Am.  ix.  9). 

Fields  and  floors  were  not  commonly  en- 
closed ;  vineyards  mostly  were,  with  a  tower 


and  other  buildings  (Num.  xxii.  24;  Ps.  Ixxx, 
13;  Is.  V.  5;  Matt.  xxi.  33;  comp.  Judg.  vi. 
II).  Banks  of  mud  from  ditches  were  also 
used.  —  With  regard  to  occupancy,  a  tenant 
might  pay  a  fixed  money  rent  (Cant.  viii.  11), 
or  a  stipulated  share  of  the  fruits  (2  Sam. 
ix.  10;  Matt.  xxi.  34),  often  a  half  or  a  third; 
but  local  custom  was  the  only  rule.  A  passer- 
by might  eat  any  quantity  of  corn  or  grapes, 
but  not  reap  or  carry  off  fruit  (Deut.  xxiii. 
24,  25;  Matt.  xii.  i). — The  rights  of  the  corner 
to  be  left,  and  of  gleaning  [Gleaning],  formed 
the  poor  man's  claim  on  the  soil  for  support. 
For  his  benefit,  too,  a  sheaf  forgotten  in  car- 
rying to  the  floor  was  to  be  left ;  so  also  with 
regard  to  the  vineyard  and  the  olive-grove 
(Lev.  xix.  9,  10;  Deut.  xxiv.  19).  Besides, 
there  seems  a  probability  that  every  third 
year  a  second  tithe,  besides  the  priests',  was 
paid  for  the  poor  (Deut.  xiv.  28,  xxvi.  12 ;  Am, 
iv.  4 ;  Tob.  i.  7). 

Agrip'pa.  [Herod.] 

A'hab.  Son  of  Omri,  seventh  king  of 
Israel,  reigned  B.  C.  919-896.  Fie  married 
Jezebel,  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  Tyre ; 
and,  in  obedience  to  her  wishes,  caused  a  tem- 
ple to  be  built  to  Baal  in  Samaria  itself,  and 
an  oracular  grove  to  be  consecrated  to  Astarte. 
(See  I  K.  xviii.  19.)  How  the  worship  of  God 
was  restored,  and  the  idolatrous  priests  slain, 
in  consequence  of  a  "sore  famine  in  Samaria," 
is  related  under  Elijah. 

Ahasue'rus  (lion-king),  the  name  of  one 
Median  and  two  Persian  kings  mentioned  in 
the  O.  T.  I.  In  Dan.  ix.  i,  Ahasuerus  is  said 
to  be  the  father  of  Darius  the  Mede. 
[Darius.]  This  first  Ahasuerus  is  Cyaxares, 
the  conqueror  of  Nineveh.  2.  In  Ezr.  iv.  6, 
the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  after  the  death  of 
Cyrus,  desirous  to  frustrate  the  building  of 
Jerusalem,  send  accusations  against  them  to 
Ahasuerus,  king  of  Persia.  This  must  be 
Cambyses.  He  was  plainly  called  after  his 
grandfather,  who  was  not  of  royal  race,  and 
therefore  it  is  very  likely  that  he  also  assumed 
the  kingly  name  or  title  of  Cyaxares,  which 
had  been  born  by  his  most  illustrious  ancestor. 
3.  The  third  is  the  Ahasuerus  of  the  book 
of  Esther.  Having  divorced  his  queen  Vashti 
for  refusing  to  appear  in  public  at  a  banquet, 
he  married,  four  years  afterwards,  the  Jewess 
Esther,  cousin  and  ward  of  Mordecai.  Five 
years  after  this,  Haman,  one  of  his  counsel- 
lors, having  been  slighted  by  Mordecai,  pre- 
vailed upon  the  king  to  order  the  destruction 
of  all  the  Jews  in  the  empire.  But  before  the 
day  appointed  for  the  massacre,  Esther  and 
Mordecai  overthrew  the  influence  which  Ha- 
man had  exercised,  and  so  completely  changed 


18 


I 

I 


THE  Ua^^ARY 

or  m 


AHIMAAZ 


ALEXANDER  III. 


his  feelings  in  the  matter  that  they  induced 
him  to  put  Haman  to  death,  and  to  give  the 
Jews  the  right  of  self-defense.  This  they  used 
so  vigorously  that  they  killed  several  thou- 
sands of  their  opponents.  This  Ahasuerus  is 
probably  Xerxes  (the  names  being  identical)  ; 
and  this  conclusion  is  fortified  by  the  resem- 
blance of  character,  and  by  certain  chrono- 
logical indications.  As  Xerxes  scourged  the 
sea,  and  put  to  death  the  engi;neers  of  his 
bridge  because  their  work  was  injured  by  a 
storm,  so  Ahasuerus  repudiated  his  queen 
Vashti  because  she  would  not  violate  the 
decorum  of  her  sex,  and  ordered  the  massacre 
of  the  whole  Jewish  people  to  gratify  the 
malice  of  Haman.  In  the  third  year  of  the 
reign  of  Xerxes  was  held  an  assembly  to  ar- 
range the  Grecian  war.  In  the  third  year  of 
Ahasuerus  was  held  a  great  feast  and  assem- 
bly in  Shushan  the  palace  (Esth.  i.  3).  In 
the  seventh  year  of  his  reign  Xerxes  returned 
defeated  from  Greece,  and  consoled  himself  by 
the  pleasures  of  the  harem.  In  the  seventh 
year  of  his  reign  "fair  young  virgins  were 
sought"  for  Ahasuerus,  and  he  replaced  Vashti 
by  marrying  Esther.  The  tribute  he  "laid 
upon  the  land  and  upon  the  isles  of  the  sea" 
(Esth.  x.  i)  may  well  have  been  the  result 
of  the  expenditure  and  ruin  of  the  Grecian 
expedition.  - 

Ahim'aaz  (brother  of  Auger),  son  of  Zadok, 
the  high-priest  in  David's  reign,  and  cele- 
brated for  his  swiftness  of  foot.  During  Ab- 
salom's rebellion  he  carried  to  David  the  im- 


Alabaster  Vases.     Inscription  on  the  centre  vessel  denotes 
tlie  quantity  it  holds. 

portant  intelligence  that  Ahithophel  had  coun- 
selled an  immediate  attack  upon  David  and 
his  followers,  and  that,  consequently,  the  king 
must  cross  the  Jordan  without  the  least,  delay 
(2  Sam.  XV.  24-37,  ^vii.  15-22).  Shortly  after- 
wards he  was  the  first  to  bring  to  the  king 
the  good  news  of  Absalom's  defeat,  suppress- 
ing his  knowledge  of  the  death  of  his  son. 


which  was  announced  soon  afterwards  by  an- 
other (2  Sam.  xviii.  19-33). 

Alabaster  occurs  in  the  N.  T.  only  in  the 
notice  of  the  alabaster-box  of  ointment  which 
a  woman  brought  to  our  Lord  when  He  sat  1 
at  meat  in  the  house  of  Simon  the  leper  at 
Bethany,  the  contents  of  which  she  poured  on 
the  head  of  the  Saviour  (Matt.  xxvi.  7;  Mark 
xiv.  3;  Luke  vii.  37).  The  ancients  consid- 
ered alabaster  to  be  the  best  material  in  which 
to  preserve  their  ointments.  In  Mark  xiv.  3, 
the  woman  who  brought  "the  alabaster-box  of 
ointment  of  spikenard"  is  said  to  break  the 
box  before  pouring  out  the  ointment,  which 
probably  only  means  breaking  the  seal  which 
kept  the  essence  of  the  perfume  from  evapo- 
rating. 

Alexan'der  III.  (helper  of  men),  king  of 
Macedon,  surnamed  The  Great,  the  son  of 
Philip  and  Olympias,  was  born  at  Pella,  B.  C. 
356,  and  succeeded  his  father  B.  C.  336.  Two 
years  afterwards  he  crossed  the  Hellespont 
(B.  C.  334)  to  carry  out  the  plans  of  his 
father,  and  execute  the  mission  of  Greece  to 
the  civilized  world.  The  battle  of  the  Grani- 
cus  was  followed  by  the  subjugation  of  west- 
ern Asia;  and  in  the  following  year  the  fate 
of  the  East  was  decided  at  Issus  (B.  C.  333). 
Tyre  and  Gaza  were  the  only  cities  in  west- 
ern Syria  which  offered  Alexander  any  resist- 
ance, and  these  were,  reduced  and  treated  with 
unusual  severity  (B.  C.  332).  Egypt  next 
submitted  to  him;  and  in  B.  C.  331  he  founded 
Alexandria,  which  remains  to  the  present  day 
the  most  characteristic  monument  of  his  life 
and  work.  In  the  same  year  he  finally  de- 
feated Darius  at  Gaugamela ;  and  in  B.  C. 
330  his  unhappy  rival  was  murdered  by  Bes- 
sus,  satrap  of  Bactria.  The  next  two  years 
were  occupied  by  Alexander  in  the  consoli- 
dation of  his  Persian  conquests  and  the  re- 
duction of  Bactria.  In  B.  C.  327  he  crossed 
the  Indus,  penetrated  to  the  Hydaspes,  and 
was  there  forced  by  the  discontent  of  his 
army  to  turn  westward.  He  reached  Susa, 
B.  C.  325,  and  proceeded  to  Babylon,  B.  C. 
324,  which  he  chose  as  the  capital  of  his  em- 
pire. In  the  next  year  (B.  C.  323)  he  died 
there  in  the  midst  of  his  gigantic  plans;  and 
those  who  inherited  his  conquests  left  his  de- 
signs unachieved  and  unattempted  (cf.  Dan. 
vii.  6,  viii.  5,  xi.  3).  The  famous  tradition 
of  the  visit  of  Alexander  to  Jerusalem  during 
his  Phoenician  campaign,  which  is  related  by 
Josephus,  has  been  a  fruitful  source  of  con- 
troversy. The  Jews,  it  is  said,  had  provoked 
his  anger  by  refusing  to  transfer  their  alle- 
giance to  him  when  summoned  to  do  so  dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Tyre,  and  after  the  reduc- 


19 


ALEXANDER 


ALGUM  OR  ALMUG  TREES 


tion  of  Tyre  and  Gaza  he  turned  towards 
Jerusalem.  Jaddua  (Jaddus)  the  high-priest 
(Neh.  xii.  ii,  22)  went  out  to  meet  him,  clad 
in  his  robes  of  hyacinth  and  gold,  and  accom- 
panied by  a  train  of  priests  and  citizens  ar- 
rayed in  white.  Alexander  was  so  moved  by 
the  solemn  spectacle  that  he  did  reverence 
to  the  holy  name  inscribed  upon  the  tiara  of 
the  high-priest ;  and  when  Parmenio  expressed 
surprise,  he  replied  that  "he  had  seen  the  god 
whom  Jaddua  represented  in  a  dream  at  Dium, 


Coin  of  Lysimachus,  King  of  Thrace,  representing  head  of 
Alexander  the  Great  as  a  young  Jupiter  Ammon. 

encouraging  him  to  cross  over  into  Asia,  and 
promising  him  success."  After  this  it  is  said 
that  he  visited  Jerusalem,  offered  sacrifice 
there,  heard  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  which 
foretold  his  victory,  and  conferred  important 
privileges  upon  the  Jews.  In  the  prophetic 
visions  of  Daniel  the  emblem  by  which  Alex- 
ander is  typified  (a  he-goat)  suggests  the  no- 
tions of  strength  and  speed;  and  the  Universal 
extent  (Dan.  viii.  5,  .  .  .  from  the  west  on 
the  face  of  the  whole  earth)  and  marvellous 
rapidity  of  his  conquests  (Dan.  1.  c,  he  touched 
not  the  ground)  are  brought  forward  as  the 
characteristics  of  his  power,  which  was  di- 
rected by  the  strongest  personal  impetuosity 
(Dan.  viii.  6,  in  the  fury  of  his  power).  He 
ruled  with  great  dominion,  and  did  according 
to  his  will  (xi.  3),  "and  there  was  none  that 
could  deliver   .  .  .   out  of  his  hand"  (viii.  7). 

Alexan'der.  i.  Son  of  Simon  the  Cyrenian, 
who  was  compelled  to  bear  the  cross  for  our 
Lord  (Mark  xv.  21).  2.  One  of  the  kindred 
of  Annas  the  high-priest  (Acts  iv.  6).  3.  A 
Jew  at  Ephesus,  whom  his  countrymen  put 
forward  during  the  tumult  raised  by  Demet- 
rius the  silversmith  (Acts  xix.  33),  to  plead 
their  cause  with  the  mob.  4.  An  Ephesian 
Christian,  reprobated  by  St.  Paul  in  i  Tim. 
i.  20,  as  having,  together  with  one  Hymen- 
aeus,  put  from  his  faith  and  a  good  conscience, 
and  so  made  shipwreck  concerning  the  faith. 
This  may  be  the  same  with  5.  Alexander  the 
coppersmith,  mentioned  by  the  same  apostle 
(2  Tim.  iv.  14)  as  having  done  him  many 
mischiefs. 

Alexan'dria  (3  Mace.  iii.  I ;  Acts  xviii.  24, 
vi.  9),  the  Hellenic,  Roman,  and  Christian 
capital  of  Egypt,  was  founded  by  Alexander 


the  Great,  B.  C.  332,  who  himself  traced  the 
ground-plan  of  the  city.  The  work  thus  begun 
was  continued  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
by  the  Ptolemies.  Under  the  despotism  of 
the  later  Ptolemies  the  trade  of  Alexandria  de- 
clined, but  its  population  and  wealth  were 
enormous.  Its  importance  as  one  of  the  chief 
corn-ports  of  Rome  secured  for  it  the  general 
favor  of  the  first  emperors.  Its  population 
was  mixed  from  the  first.  According  to  Jose- 
phus,  Alexander  himself  assigned  to  the  Jews 
a  place  in  his  new  city.  Their  numbers  and 
importance  were  rapidly  increased  under  the 
Ptolemies  by  fresh  immigrations  and  untiring 
industry.  The  Scptuagint  translation  was 
made  for  their  benefit,  under  the  first  or  sec- 
ond Ptolemy.  Philo  estimates  the  number  of 
the  Alexandrine  Jews  in  his  time  at  little 
less  than  1,000,000;  and  adds,  that  two  of 
the  five  districts  of  Alexandria  were  called 
"Jewish  districts,"  and  that  many  Jews  lived 
scattered  in  the  remaining  three.  Julius 
Caesar  and  Augustus  confirmed  to  them  the 
privileges  which  they  had  enjoyed  before,  and 
they  retained  them,  with  various  interrup- 
tions, during  the  tumults  and  persecutions  of 
later  reigns.  According  to  the  common 
legend,  St.  Mark  first  "preached  the  Gospel 
in  Egypt,  and  founded  the  first  Church  in 
Alexandria."  At  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century  the  number  of  Christians  at  Alexan- 


The  Almug. 


dria  must  have  been  very  large,  and  the  great 
leaders  of  Gnosticism  who  arose  there  (Basili- 
des,  Valentinus)  exhibit  an  exaggeration  of 
the  tendency  of  the  Church. 

Alexan'drians,  the  Jewish  colonists  of  Alex- 
andria, who  were  admitted  to  the  privileges 
of  citizenship,  and  had  a  synagogue  at  Jeru- 
salem (Acts  vi.  9). 

Algum  or  Almug  Trees;  the  former  occur- 
ing  in  2  Chr.  ii.  8,  ix.  10,  11,  the  latter  in 
I  K.  x.  II,  12.    There  can  be  no  question 


OF  m 


ALLEGORY 


ALLON 


that  these  words  are  identieal.  From  i  K. 
X.  II,  12;  2  Chr.  ix.  ID,  II,  we  learn  that  the 
alniug  was  brought  in  great  plenty  from  Ophir 
for  Solomon's  Temple  and  house,  and  for  the 
construction  of  musical  instruments.  It  is 
probable  that  this  tree  is  the  red  sandal  wood, 
which  is  a  native  of  India  and  Ceylon.  The 
wood  is  very  heavy,  hard,  and  fine  grained, 
and  of  a  beautiful  garnet  color. 

Allegory,  a  figure  of  speech,  which  has  been 
defined  by  Bishop  Marsh,  in  accordance  with 
its  etymology,  as  "a  representation  of  one 
thing  which  is  intended  to  excite  the  repre- 
sentation of  another  thing;"  the  first  repre- 
sentation being  consistent  with  itself,  but 
requiring,  or  capable  of  admitting,  a  moral  or 
spiritual  interpretation  over  and  above  its  lit- 
eral sense.  In  every  allegory  there  is  a  two- 
fold sense ;  the  immediate  or  historic,  which 
is  understood  from  the  words,  and  the  ulti- 
mate, which  is  concerned  with  the  things  sig- 
nified by  the  words.  The  allegorical  interpre- 
tation is  not  of  the  words,  but  of  the  things 
signified  by  them ;  and  not  only  may,  but 
actually  does,  coexist  with  the  literal  inter- 
pretation is  every  allegory,  whether  the  nar- 
rative in  which  it  is  conveyed  be  of  things 
possible  or  real.  An  illustration  of  this  may 
be  seen  in  Gal.  iv.  24,  where  the  apostle  gives 
an  allegorical  interpretation  to  the  historical 
narrative  of  Hagar  and  Sarah ;  not  treating 
that  narrative  as  an  allegory  in  itself,  as  our 
A.  V.  would  lead  us  to  suppose,  but  drawing 
from  it  a  deeper  sense  than  is  conveyed  by  the 
immediate  representation. 

Allelu'ia,  so  written  in  Rev.  xix.  6,  foil.,  or 
more  properly  Hallelujah,  "praise  ye  Jeho- 
vah," as  it  is  found  in  the  margin  of  Ps. 
civ.  35,  cv.  45,  cvi.,  cxi.  l,  cxii.  i,  cxiii.  i  (comp. 
Ps.  cxiii.  9,  cxv.  18,  cxvi.  19,  cxvii.  2). 
The  literal  meaning  of  "Hallelujah"  suffi- 
ciently indicates  the  character  of  the  Psalms 
in  which  it  occurs,  as  hymns  of  praise  and 
thanksgiving. 

Alliances.  On  the  first  establishment  of  the 
Hebrews  in  Palestine  no  connections  were 
formed  between  them  and  the  surrounding 
nations.  But  with  the  extension  of  their  power 
under  the  kings,  they  were  brought  more  into 
contact  with  foreigners,  and  alliances  became 
essential  to  the  security  of  their  commerce. 
Solomon  concluded  two  important  treaties 
exclusively  for  commercial  purposes;  the  first 
with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  originally  with  the 
yiew  of  obtaining  materials  and  workmen  for 
the  erection  of  the  Temple,  and  afterwards 
for  the  supply  of  ship-builders  and  sailors  (i 
K.  V.  2-12,  ix.  27) :  the  second  with  a  Pha- 
raoh, king  of  Egypt ;  by  this  he  secured  a 


monopoly  of  the  trade  in  horses  and  other 
products  of  that  country  (i  K.  x.  28,  29). 
After  the  division  of  the  kingdom  the  alliances 
were  of  an  of¥ensive  and  defensive  nature. 
When  war  broke  out  between  Amaziah  and 
Jeroboam  II.  a  coalition  was  formed  between 
Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah  on  the  one 
side,  and  Ahaz  and  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of 
Assyria,  on  the  other  (2  K.  xvi.  5-9).  By 
this  means  an  opening  was  afforded  to  the 
advances  of  the  Assyrian  power ;  and  the  king- 
doms of  Israel  and  Judah,  as  they  were  suc- 
cessively attacked,  sought  the  alliance  of  the 
Egyptians,  who  were  strongly  interested  in 
maintaining  the  independence  of  the  Jews  as 
a  barrier  against  the  encroachments  of  the 
Assyrian  power  (2  K.  xvii.  4,  xix.  9,  36;  Is. 
XXX.  2).  On  the  restoration  of  independence 
Judas  Maccaheus  sought  an  alliance  with  the 
Romans  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  neighboring 
state  of  Syria  (i  Mace.  viii.).  Treaties  of  a 
friendly  nature  were  at  the  same  period  con- 
cluded with  the  Lacedaemonians  (i  Mace.  xii. 
2,  xiv.  20). — The  formation  of  an  alliance  was 
attended  with  various  religious  rites :  a  vic- 
tim was  slain  and  divided  into  two  parts,  be- 
tween which  the  contracting  parties  passed 
(Gen.  XV.  10).  That  this  custom  was  main- 
tained to  a  late  period  appears  from  Jer.  xxxiv. 
18-20.  Generally  speaking,  the  oath  alone  is 
mentioned  in  the  contracting  of  alliances, 
either  between  nations  (Josh.  ix.  15)  or  indi- 
viduals (Gen.  xxv.  28,  xxxi.  53 ;  i  Sam.  xx. 
17;  2  K.  xi.  4).  The  event  was  celebrated  by 
a  feast  (Gen.  1.  c. ;  Ex.  xxiv.  11 ;  2  Sam.  iii.  12, 
20).  Salt,  as  symbolical  of  fidelity,  was  used 
on  these  occasions.  Occasionally  a  pillar  or 
a  heap  of  stones  was  set  up  as  a  memorial 
of  the  alliance  (Gen.  xxxi.  52).  Presents  were 
also  sent  by  the  party  soliciting  the  alliance 
(i  K.  XV.  18;  Is.  XXX.  6;  I  Mace.  xv.  18).  The 
fidelity  of  the  Jews  to  their  engagements  was 
conspicuous  at  all  periods  of  their  history 
(Josh.  ix.  18),  and  any  breach  of  covenant 
was  visited  with  very  severe  punishment  (2 
Sam.  xxi.  i;  Ez.  xvii.  16). 

Al'lon,  a  large,  strong  tree  of  some  descrip- 
tion, probably  an  oak.  The  word  is  found 
in  two  names  in  the  topography  of  Palestine. 

1.  Allon,  more  accurately  Elon,  a  place  named 
among  the  cities  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  33). 
Probably  the  more  correct  construction  is  to 
take  it  with  the  following  word,  i.  e.,  "the 
oak  by  Zaanannim,"  or  "the  oak  of  the  loading 
of  tents,"  as  if  deriving  its  name  from  some 
nomad  tribe  frequenting  the  spot.  [Elon.] 

2.  Al'lon-ba'chuth  ("oak  of  weeping"),  the 
tree  under  which  Rebekah's  nurse,  Deborah, 
was  buried  (Gen.  xxxv.  8). 


21 


ALMOND  TREE 


ALTAR 


Almond-Tree ;  Almond;  This  word  is  found 
in  Gen.  xliii.  ii;  Ex.  xxv.  33,  34,  xxxvii.  19, 
20;  Num.  xvii.  8;  Eccles.  xii.  5;  Jer.  i.  11,  in 
the  text  of  the  A.  V.  The  ahnond-tree  is  a 
native  of  Asia  and  North  Africa,  but  it  is  cul- 
tivated in  the  milder  parts  of  Europe.  The 
height  of  the  tree  is  about  12  or  14  feet;  the 
flowers  are  pink,  and  arranged  for  the  most 
part  in  pairs ;  the  leaves  are  long,  ovate,  with 
a  serrated  margin,  and  an  acute  point.  The 
covering  of  the  fruit  is  downy  and  succulent, 
enclosing  the  hard  shell  which  contains  the 
kernel.  It  is  curious  to  observe,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  almond-bowls  of  the  golden  can- 
dlestick, that,  in  the  language  of  lapidaries, 
Almonds  are  pieces  of  rock-crystal,  even  now 
used  in  adorning  branch-candlesticks. 


Almond. 


Alms.  The  duty  of  alms-giving,  especially 
in  kind,  consisting  chiefly  in  portions  to  be 
left  designedly  from  produce  of  the  field,  the 
vineyard,  and  the  oliveyard  (Lev.  xix.  9,  10, 
xxiii.  22;  Deut.  xv.*  ll,  xxiv.  19,  xxvi.  2-13; 
Ruth  ii.  2),  is  strictly  enjoined  by  the  Law. 
Every  third  year  also  (Deut.  xiv.  28)  each 
proprietor  was  directed  to  share  the  tithe  of 
his  produce  with  "the  Levite,  the  stranger, 
the  fatherless,  and  the  widow."  The  theo- 
logical estimate  of  alms-giving  among  the 
Jews  is  indicated  in  the  following  passages :- — 
Job  xxxi.  17;  Prov.  x.  2,  xi.  4;  Esth.  ix.  22; 
Ps.  cxii.  9;  Acts  ix.  36,  the  case  of  Dorcas; 
X.  2,  of  Cornelius ;  to  which  may  be  added, 
Tob.  iv.  ID,  II,  xiv.  10,  11;  and  Ecclus.  iii. 
30,  xl.  24.  And  the  Talmudists  went  so  far 
as  to  interpret  righteousness  by  alms-giving 
in  such  passages  as  Gen.  xviii.  19;  Is.  liv.  14; 
Ps.  xvii.  15. — The  Pharisees  were  zealous  in 
alms-giving,  but  too  ostentatious  in  their  mode 
of  performance,  for  which  our  Lord  finds  fault 
with  them  (Matt.  vi.  2). — The  duty  of  reliev- 
ing the  poor  was  not  neglected  by  the  Chris- 
tians (Matt.  vi.  1-4;  Luke  xiv.  13;  Acts  xx. 


35;  Gal.  ii.  10).  Every  Christian  was  ex- 
horted to  lay  by  on  the  first  day  of  each  week 
some  portion  of  his  profits,  to  be  applied  to 
the  wants  of  the  needy  (Acts  xi.  30;  Rom. 
XV.  25-27;  I  Cor.  xvi.  1-4).  It  was  also  con- 
sidered a  duty  specially  incumbent  on  widows 
to  devote  themselves  to  such  ministrations  (i 
Tim.  V.  10). 

Almug-Trees.  [Algum-Trees.] 

Aloes,  Lign  Aloes,  the  name  of  a  costly  and 
sweet-smelling  wood  which  is  mentioned  in 
Num.  xxiv.  6;  Ps.  xiv.  8;  Prov.  vii.  17;  Cant, 
iv.  14;  John  xix.  39.  It  is  usually  identified 
with  a  tree  which  supplies  the  aloes-wood  of 


Lign  Aloes. 

commerce,  much  valued  on  account  of  its  aro- 
matic qualities  for  purposes  of  fumigation  and 
for  incense.  The  tree  grows  to  the  height  of 
120  feet,  being  12  feet  in  girth. 

Al'pha,  the  first  letter  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet, as  Omega  is  the  last.  Its  significance 
is  plainly  indicated  in  the  context.  "I  am 
Alpha  and  Omega,  the  beginning  and  the  end. 


0) 


the  first  and  the  last"  (Rev.  i.  8,  11,  xxi.  6, 
xxii.  13),  which  may  be  compared  with  Is. 
xli.  4.    Both  Greeks  and  Hebrews  employed 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  as  numerals. 
Alphabet.  [Writing.] 

Altar.  (A.)  The  first  altar  of  which  we 
have  any  account  is  that  built  by  Noah  when 
he  left  the  ark  (Gen.  viii.  20).  In  the  early 
times  altars  were  usually  built  in  certain  spots 
hallowed  by  religious  associations,  e.  g.,  where 
God  appeared  (Gen.  xii.  7,  xiii.  18,  xxvi.  25, 
XXXV.  i).  Generally,  of  course,  they  were 
erected  for  the  offering  of  sacrifice;  but  in 
some  instances  they  appear  to  have  been  only 
memorials.  Altars  were  most  probably  origi- 
nally made  of  earth.  In  later  times  they  were 
frequently  built  on  high  places,  especially  in 
idolatrous  worship  (Deut.  xii.  2).  (B.)  The 
Law  of  Moses  directed  that  two  altars  should 
be  made,  the  one  the  Altar  of  Burnt-offering 


22 


ALTAR 


AMALEKITES 


(called  also  simply  the  Altar),  and  the  other 
the  Altar  of  Incense,  i.  The  Altar  of  Burnt- 
offering.  It  differed  in  construction  at  dif- 
ferent times,  (i.)  In  the  Tabernacle  (Ex. 
xxvii.  I  ff.  xxxviii.  I  ff.)  it  was  comparatively 
small  and  portable.  In  shape  it  was  square. 
It  was  five  cubits  in  length,  the  same  in 
breadth,  and  three  cubits  high.  It  was  made 
of  planks  of  shittim  (or  acacia)  wood  overlaid 
with  brass.  The  interior  was  hollow  (Ex. 
xxvii.  8).  At  the  four  corners  were  four  pro- 
jections called  horns,  made,  like  the  altar  it- 
self, of  shittim-wood,  overlaid  with  brass  (Ex. 
xxvii.  2).  They  probably  projected  upwards; 
and  to  them  the  victim  was  bound  when  about 
to  be  sacrificed  (Ps.  cxviii.  27).  On  the  occa- 
sion of  the  consecration  of  the  priests  (Ex. 
xxix.  12)  and  the  offering  of  the  sin-offering 
(Lev.  iv.  7  ff.)  the  blood  of  the  victim  was 
sprinkled  on  the  horns  of  the  altar.  Round 
the  altar,  midway  between  the  top  and  bot- 

(A.  V.  "com- 


tom,  ran  a  projecting  ledge 


Altar. 

pass"),  on  which  perhaps  the  priests  stood 
when  they  officiated.  To  the  outer  edge  of 
this,  again,  a  grating  or  net-work  of  brass  was 
affixed,  and  reached  to  the  bottom  of  the  altar, 
which  thus  presented  the  appearance  of  being 
larger  below  than  above.  At  the  four  cor- 
ners of  the  net-work  were  four  brazen  rings, 
into  which  were  inserted  the  staves  by  which 
the  altar  was  carried.  These  staves  were  of 
the  same  material  as  the  altar  itself.  As  the 
priests  were  forbidden  to  ascend  the  altar  by 
steps  (Ex.  XX.  26),  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  a  slope  of  earth  led  gradually  up  to  the 
ledge  from  which  they  officiated.  The  place 
of  the  altar  was  at  "the  door  of  the  taber- 
nacle of  the  congregation"  (Ex.  xl.  29).  In 
Solomon's  Temple  the  altar  was  considerably 
larger  in  its  dimensions.  Like  the  former,  it 
was  square ;  but  the  length  and  breadth  were 
now  twenty  cubits,  and  the  height  ten  (2  Chr. 
iv.  i).  It  differed,  too,  in  the  material  of 
which  it  was  made,  being  entirely  of  brass 
(1  K.  viii,  64;  2  Chr,  vii.  7).  It  had  no  grat- 


ing: and  instead  of  a  single  gradual  slope,  the 
ascent  to  it  was  probably  made  by  three  suc- 
cessive platforms,  to  each  of  which  it  has  been 
supposed  that  steps  led.  The  altar  erected 
by  Herod  in  front  of  the  Temple  was  15  cubits 
in  height,  and  breadth  and  length  of  equal 
dimensions,  viz.  50  cubits ;  it  was  built  four- 
square, with  horn-like  corners  projecting 
from  it ;  and  on  the  south  side  a  gentle  accliv- 
ity led  up  to  it.  According  to  Lev.  vi.  12,  13, 
a  perpetual  fire  was  to  be  kept  burning  on 
the  altar.  This  was  the  symbol  and  token  of 
the  perpetual  worship  of  Jehovah.  The  Altar 
of  Incense,  called  also  the  golden  altar  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  Altar  of  Burnt-offer- 
ing, which  was  called  the  brazen  altar  (Ex. 
xxxviii.  30).  (a.)  That  in  the  Tabernacle  was 
made  of  acacia-wood,  overlaid  with  pure  gold. 
In  shape  it  was  square,  being  a  cubit  in  length 
and  breadth,  and  2  cubits  in  height.  Like  the 
Altar  of  Burnt-oifering,  it  had  horns  at  the 
four  corners,  which  were  of  one  piece  with 
the  rest  of  the  altar.  This  altar  stood  in  the 
Holy  Place,  "before  the  veil  that  is  by  the 
ark  of  the  testimony"  (Ex.  xxx.  6,  xl.  5).  (b.) 
The  Altar  in  Solomon's  Temple  was  similar 
(l  K.  vii.  48;  I  Chr.  xxviii.  18),  but  was  made 
of  cedar  overlaid  with  gold. 

Am'alek,  son  of  Eliphaz  by  his  concubine 
Timnah,  grandson  of  Esau,  and  chieftain 
("duke"  A.  V.)  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  12,  16; 
I  Chr.  i.  36). 

Am'alekites,  a  nomadic  tribe,  which  occu- 
pied the  peninsula  of  Sinai  and  the  wilderness 
intervening  between  the  southern  hill-ranges 
of  Palestine  and  the  border  of  Egypt  (Num. 
xiii.  29;  I  Sam.  xv.  7;  xxvii.  8).  Arabian  his- 
torians represent  them  as  originally  dwelling 
on  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  whence 
they  were  pressed  westwards  by  the  growth 
of  the  Assyrian  empire,  and  spread  over  a 
portion  of  Arabia  at  a  period  antecedent  to 
its  occupation  by  the  descendants  of  Joktan. 
The  physical  character  of  the  district  which 
the  Amalekites  occupied  necessitated  a  no- 
madic life,  which  they  adopted  to  its  fullest 
extent,  taking  their  families  with  them  even 
on  their  military  expeditions  (Judg.  vi.  5). 
Their  wealth  consisted  in  flocks  and  herds. 
Mention  is  made  of  a  "town"  (i  Sam.  xv.  5), 
but  their  towns  could  have  been  little  more 
than  stations,  or  nomadic  enclosures.  The 
kings  or  chieftains  were  perhaps  distinguished 
by  the  hereditary  title  Agag  (Num.  xxiv.  7; 
I  Sam.  XV.  8).  The  Amalekites  first  came  in 
contact  with  the  Israelites  at  Rephidim,  but 
were  signally  defeated  (Ex.  xvii.).  In  union 
with  the  Canaanites  they  again  attacked  the 
Israelites  on  the  borders  of  Palestine,  and  de- 

23 


AMBASSADOR 


AMMON 


feated  them  near  Hormah  (Num.  xiv,  45).  Saul 
undertook  an  expedition  against  them,  over- 
running their  whole  district  from  Havilah  to 
Shur,  and  inflicting  an  immense  loss  upon 
them  (i  Sam.  xv.).  Their  power  was  thence- 
forth broken,  and  they  degenerated  into  a 
horde  of  banditti.  Their  destruction  was  com- 
pleted by  David  (i  Sam.  xxvii.,  xxx.). 

Ambassador.  The  earliest  examples  of  am- 
bassadors employed  occur  in  the  cases  of 
Edom,  Moab,  and  the  Amorites  (Num.  xx.  14, 
xxi.  21;  Judg.  xi.  17-19),  afterwards  in  that 
of  the  fraudulent  Gibeonites  (Josh.  ix.  4,  &c.), 
and  in  the  instances  of  civil  strife  mentioned 
Judg.  xi.  12,  and  xx.  12.  They  are  alluded 
to  more  frequently  during  and  after  the  con- 
tact of  the  great  adjacent  monarchies  of  Syria, 
Babylon,  &c.,  with  those  of  Judah  and  Israel, 
as  in  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib.  They  were 
usually  men  of  high  rank.  In  the  case  quoted 
the  chief  captain,  the  chief  cup-bearer,  and 
chief  of  the  eunuchs,  were  met  by  delegates 
of  similar  dignity  from  Hezekiah  (2  K.  xviii. 
17,  18;  see  also  Is.  xxx.  4).  Ambassadors  are 
found  to  have  been  employed,  not  only  on  oc- 
casions of  hostile  challenge  or  insolent  men- 
ace (2  K.  xiv.  8;  I  K.  xx.  2,  6),  but  of  friendly 
compliment,  of  request  for  alliance  or  other 
aid,  of  submissive  deprecation,  and  of  curious 
inquiry  (2  K.  xiv.  8,  xvi.  7,  xviii.  14;  2  Chr. 
xxxii.  31). 

Amber  occurs  onl)^  in  Ez.  i.  4,  27,  viii.  2. 
It  is  usually  supposed  that  a  metal  is  referred 
to,  and  not  the  fossil  resin  called  amber. 

Amen,  literally,  "trtie ;"  and,  used  as  a  sub- 
stantive, "that  which  is  true,"  "truth"  (Is.  Ixv. 
16)  ;  a  word  used  in  strong  asseverations,  fix- 
ing as  it  were  the  stamp  of  truth  upon  the 
assertion  which  it  accompanied,  and  making 
it  binding'  as  an  oath  (comp.  Num.  v.  22). 
According  to  the  Rabbins,  "Amen"  involved 
the  ideas  of  swearing,  acceptance,  and  truth- 
fulness. In  the  synagogues  and  private  houses 
it  was  customary  for  the  people  or  members 
of  the  family  who  were  present  to  say  "Amen" 
to  the  prayers  which  were  oflfered  by  the  min- 
ister or  the  master  of  the  house,  and  the  cus- 
tom remained  in  the  early  Christian  Church 
(Matt.  vi.  13;  I  Cor.  xiv.  16).  And  not  only 
public  prayers,  but  those  offered  in  private, 
and  doxologies  were  appropriately  concluded 
with  "Amen"  (Rom.  ix.  5,  xi.  36,  xv.  33,  xvi. 
27;  2  Cor.  xiii.  13,  &c.). 

Amethyst.  Mention  is  made  of  this  precious 
stone,  which  formed  the  third  in  the  third 
row  of  the  high-priest's  breastplate,  in  Ex. 
xxviii.  19,  xxix.  12),  "And  the  third  row  a 
ligure,  an  agate,  and  an  amethyst."  It  occurs 
also  in  the  N.  T.  (Rev.  xxi.  20)  as  the  twelfth 


stone  which  garnished  the  foundations  of  the 
wall  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem.  '  Commenta- 
tors generally  are  agreed  that  the  amethyst 
is  the  stone  indicated  by  the  -Hebfew  word, 
an  opinion  which  is  abundantly  supported  by 
the  ancient  versions. 

Am'mon,  Am'monites,  Children  of  Ammon, 
a  people  descended  from  Ben-Ammi,  the  son 
of  Lot  by  his  younger  daughter  (Gen.  xix. 
38;  comp.  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  7,  8),  as  Moab  was  by 
the  elder;  and  dating  from  the  destruction  of- 
Sodom.  The  near  relation  between  the  two 
peoples  indicated  in  the  story  of  their  origin 
continued  throughout  their  existence  (comp. 
Judg.  X.  6;  2  Chr.  xx.  i;  Zeph.  ii.  8,  &c.). 
Indeed,  so  close  was  their  union,  and  so  near 
their  identity,  that  each  would  appear  to  be 
occasionally  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  the 
other.  Unlike  Moab,  the  precise  position  of 
the  territory  of  the  Ammonites  is  not  ascer- 
tainable. In  the  earliest  mention  of  them 
(Deut.  ii.  20)  they  are  said  to  have  destroyed 
the  Rephaini;  whom  they  called  the  Zamzum- 
mim,  and  to  have  dwelt  in  their  place,  Jabbok 
being  their  border  (Num.  xxi.  24;  Deut.  ii. 


Rabbath  Amnion,  Capital  of  the  Ammonites. 

37,  iii.  16).  "Land"  or  "country"  is,  however, 
but  rarely  ascribed  to  them,  nor  is  there  any 
reference  to  those  habits  and  circumstances 
of  civilization  which  so  constantly  recur  in 
the  allusions  to  Moab  (Is.  xv.,  xvi.;  Jer. 
xlviii.).  On  the  contrary,  we  find  everywhere 
traces  of  the  fierce  habits  of  marauders  in 
their  incursions  (i  Sam.  xi.  2;  Am.  i.  13),  and 
a  very  high  degree  of  crafty  cruelty  to  their 
foes  (Jer.  xli.  6,  7;  Jud.  vii.  11,  12).  It  ap- 
pears that  Moab  was  the  settled  and  civil- 
ized half  of  the  nation  of  Lot,  and  that  Am- 
mon formed  its  predatory  and  Bedouin  sec- 
tion. On  the  west  of  Jordan  they  never  ob- 
tained a  footing.    The  hatred  in  which  th€ 


24 


ADRAIIAM  S  TIti:r:.     MAMKEII.     FUOM   A    I'lK  iTuGRAPH. 


AMON 


AM  PH  IPO  LIS 


Ammonites  were  held  by  Israel  is  stated  to 
have  arisen  partly  from  their  opposition,  or, 
rather,  their  denial  of  assistance  (Deut.  xxiii. 
4)  to  the  Israelities  on  their  approach  to  Ca- 
naan. But  whatever  its  origin,  the  animosity 
continued  in  force  to  the  latest  date.  The 
last  appearances  of  the  Ammonites  in  the  bib- 
lical narrative  are  in  the  books  of  Judith  (v., 
vi.,  vii.)  and  of  the  ]\Iaccabees  (i  Mace.  v.  6, 
30-43),  and  it  has  been  already  remarked  that 
their  chief  characteristics — close  alliance  with 
Moab,  hatred  of  Irsael,  and  cunning  cruelty — 
are  maintained  to  the  end.  The  tribe  was  gov- 
erned by  a  king  (Judg.  xi.  12,  &c. ;  i  Sam. 
xii.  12;  2  Sam.  x.  i;  Jer.  xl.  14)  and  by 
"princes"  (2  Sam.  x.  3 ;  i  Chr.  xix.  3).  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  Nahash  (i  Sam. 
xi.  I ;  2  Sam.  x.  2)  was  the  official  title  of  the 
king,  as  Pharaoh  was  of  the  Egyptian  mon- 
archs ;  but  this  is  without  any  sure  founda- 
tion. The  divinity  of  the  tribe  was  Molech. 
generally  named  in  the  O.  T.  under  the  altered 
form  of  Milcom  —  "the  abomination  of  the 
children  of  Amnion;"  and  occasionally  as  Mal- 
cham.  In  more  than  one  passage  under  the 
word  rendered  ''their  king"  in  the  A.  V.  an 
allusion  is  intended  to  this  idol.  [Molech.] 

Am'non.  l.  Eldest  son  of  David  by  Ahin- 
oam  the  Jezreelitess,  born  in  Hebron  while  his 
father's  royalty  was  only  acknowledged  in 
Judah.  He  dishonored  his  half-sister  Tamar, 
and  was  in  consequence  murdered  by  her 
brother  (2  Sam.  xiii.  1-29).  2.  Son  of  Shimon 
(l  Chr.  iv.  20). 

A'mon,  or  Amen  (the  mysterious),  an 
Egyptian  divinity,  whose  name  occurs  in  that 
of  No  Amon  (Nah.  iii.  8),  in  A.  V.  "populous 
No,"  or  Thebes,  also  called  No.  [No.]  The 
Greeks  called  this  divinity  Ammon.  The  an- 
cient Egyptian  name  is  Amen.  Amen  was 
one  of  the  eight  gods  of  the  first  order,  and 
chief  of  the  triad  of  Thebes.  He  was  wor- 
shipped at  that  city  as  Amen-Ra,  or  "Amen 
the  sun." 

Amorite,  the  Amorites,  i.  e.  the  dwellers 
on  the  summits  —  mountaineers  —  one  of  the 
chief  nations  who  possessed  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan before  its  conquest  by  the  Israelites.  In 
the  genealogical  table  of  Gen.  x.  "the  Amor- 
ite" is  given  as  the  fourth  son  of  Canaan, 
with  "Zidon,  Heth  [Hittite],  the  Jebusite," 
&c.  As  dwelling  on  the  elevated  portions  of 
the  country,  they  are  contrasted  with  the  Ca- 
naanites.  who  were  the  dwellers  in  the  low- 
lands: and  the  two  thus  formed  the  main 
broad  divisions  of  the  Holy  Land  (Num.  xiii. 
29;  and  see  Josh.  v.  j,  x.  6,  xi.  3;  Deut.  i.  7, 
20,  "mountain  of  the  A.;"  44).  In  the  very 
earliest  times  (Gen.  xiv.  7)  they  are  occupy- 

25 


ing  the  barren  heights  west  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
at  the  place  which  afterwards  bore  the  name 
of  Engedi.  From  this  point  they  stretched 
west  to  Hebron,  where  Abram  was  then  dwell- 
ing under  the  "oak-grove"  of  the  three  broth- 
ers, Aner,  Esheol,  and  Mamre  (Gen.  xiv.  13; 
comp.  xiii.  18).  At  the  date  of  the  invasion 
of  the  country,  Sihon,  their  then  king,  had 
taken  the  rich  pasture-land  south  of  the  Jab- 
bok,  and  had  driven  the  Moabites,  its  former 


Amon. 

possessors,  across  the  wide  chasm  of  the 
Arnon  (Num.  xxi.  13,  26),  which  thencefor- 
ward formed  the  boundary  between  the  two 
hostile  peoples  (Num.  xxi.  13).  This  rich 
tract,  bounded  by  the  Jabbok  on  the  north, 
the  Arnon  on  the  south,  Jordan  on  the  west, 
and  "the  wilderness"  on  the  east  (Judg.  xi. 
21,  22),  was,  perhaps,  in  the  most  special  sense 
the  "land  of  the  Amorites"  (Num.  xix.  31  ; 
Josh.  xii.  2,  3,  xiii.  9;  Judg.  xi.  21,  22)  ;  but 
their  possessions  are  distinctly  stated  to  have 
extended  to  the  very  foot  of  Hermon  (Deut. 
iii.  8,  iv.  48),  embracing  "all  Gilead  and  all 
Bashan"  (iii.  10),  with  the  Jordan  valley  on 
the  east  of  the  river  (iv.  49).  After  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan  nothing  is  heard  in  the  Bible 
of  the  Amorites,  except  the  occasional  men- 
tion of  their  name  among  the  early  inhabit- 
ants of  the  country. 

Amphip'olis,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  through 
which  Paul  and  Silas  passed  on  their  way 
from  Philippi  to  Thessalonica  (Acts  xvii.  ij. 
It  was  distant  33  Roman  miles  from  Philippi. 
It  stood  upon  an  eminence  on  the  left  or 
eastern  bank  of  the  River  Strymon,  just  be- 
low its  egress  from  the  lake  Cercinitis,  and 


AMULETS 


ANDREW 


at  the  distance  of  about  three  miles  from  the 
sea.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  a  village 
called  Neokhorio,  in  Turkish  Jeni-Keni,  or 
"New  Town."' 


View  of  Amphipolis. 

Amulets  were  ornaments,  gems,  scrolls,  &c., 
worn  as  preservatives  against  the  power  of 
enchantments,  and  generally  inscribed  with 
mystic  forms  or  characters.  The  word  does 
not  occur  in  the  A.  V.,  but  the  "earrings"  in 
Gen.  XXXV.  4  were  obviously  connected  with 
idolatrous  worship,  and  were  probably  amu- 
lets taken  from  the  bodies  of  the  slain  Shech- 
emites.  They  are  subsequently  mentioned 
among  the  spoils  of  Midian  (Judg.  viii.  24). 
Again,  in  Hos.  ii.  13,  "decking  herself  with  ear- 
rings" is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  signs  of 
the  "days  of  Baalim."  The  "earrings"  in  Is. 
iii.  20  were  also  amulets. 

An'akim,  a  race  of  giants,  descendants  of 
Arba  (Josh.  xv.  13,  xxi.  11),  dwelling  in  the 
southern  part  of  Canaan,  and  particularly  at 
Hebron,  which  from  their  progenitor  received 
the  name  of  "city  of  Arba."  Besides  the  gen- 
eral designation  Anakim,  they  are  variously 
called  sons  of  Anak  (Num.  xiii,  33),  descend- 
ants of  Anak  (Num.  xiii.  22),  and  sons  of 
Anakim  (Deut.  i.  28).  These  designations 
serve  to  show  that  we  must  regard  Anak  as 
the  name  of  the  race  rather  than  that  of  an 
individual,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  what  is 
said  of  Arba,  their  progenitor,  that  he  "was 
a  great  man  among  the  Anakim"  (Josh.  xiv. 
15).  The  race  appears  to  have  been  divided 
into  three  tribes  or  families,  bearing  the 
names  Sheshai,  Ahiman,  and  Talmai.  Though 
the  warlike  appearance  of  the  Anakim  had 
struck  the  Israelities  with  terror  in  the  time 
of  Moses  (Num.  xiii.  28;  Deut.  ix.  2),  they 
were  nevertheless  dispossessed  by  Joshua, 
and  utterly  driven  from  the  land,  except  a 
small  remnant  that  found  refuge  in  the  Philis- 
tine cities,  Gaza,  Gath,  and  Ashdod  (Josh.  xi. 
21,  22).    Their  chief  city  Hebron  became  the 


possession  of  Caleb,  who  is  said  to  have  driven 
out  from  it  the  three  sons  of  Anak  mentioned 
above,  that  is  the  three  families  or  tribes  of 
the  Anakim  (Josh.  xv.  14;  Judg.  i.  22).  After 
this  time  they  vanish  from  history. 
■  Anani'as.  l.  A  high-priest  in  Acts  xxiii. 
2-5,  xxiv.  I.  He  was  the  son  of  Nebedaues, 
succeeded  Joseph  son  of  Camydus,  and  pre- 
ceded Ismael  son  of  Phabi.  He  was  nomi- 
nated to  the  office  by  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis, 
in  A.  D.  48;  was  deposed  shortly  before  Felix 
left  the  province,  and  assassinated  by  the 
sicarii  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  Jewish  war. 
2.  A  disciple  at  Jerusalem,  husband  of  Sap- 
phira  (Acts  v.  l-il).  Having  sold  his  goods 
for  the  benefit  of  the  church,  he  kept  back  a 
part  of  the  price,  bringing  to  the  apostles  the 
remainder,  as  if  it  were  the  whole,  his  wife 
also  being  privy  to  the  scheme.  St.  Peter 
denounced  the  fraud,  and  Ananias  fell  down 
and  expired.  3.  A  Jewish  disciple  at  Damas- 
cus (Acts  ix.  10-17),  of  high  repute  (Acts 
xxii.  12),  who  sought  out  Saul  during  the 
period  of  blindness  and  dejection  which  fol- 
lowed his  conversion,  and  announced  to  him 
his  future  commission  as  a  preacher  of  the 
Gospel.  Tradition  makes  him  to  have  been 
afterwards  bishop  of  Damascus,  and  to  have 
died  by  martyrdom. 

Anath'ema,  which  literally  means  a  thing 
suspended,  is  the  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew 
word  signifying  a  thing  or  person  devoted. 
Any  object  so  devoted  to  Jehovah  was  irre- 
deemable: if  an  inanimate  object,  it  was  to 
be  given  to  the  priests  (Num.  xviii.  14)  ;  if  a 
living  creature,  or  even  a  man,  it  was  to  be 
slain  (Lev.  xxvii.  28,  29).  The  word  anath- 
ema frequently  occurs  in  St.  Paul's  writings, 
and  is  generally  translated  "accursed."  Many 
expositors  have  regarded  his  use  of  it  as  a 
technical  term  for  judicial  excommunication. 
That  the  word  was  so  vised  in  the  early  Church 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  but  an  examination  of 
the  passages  in  -which  it  occurs  shows  that 
it  had  acquired  a  more  general  sense  as  ex- 
pressive of  strong  feeling  (Rom.  ix.  3)  or  of 
dislike  and  condemnation  (i  Cor.  xii.  3,  xvi. 
22 ;  Gal.  i.  9). 

An'drew,  one  among  the  first  called  of  the 
Apostles  of  our  Lord  (John  i.  40;  Matt.  iv. 
18)  ;  brother  (whether  elder  or  younger  is 
uncertain)  of  Simon  Peter  (ibid.).  He  was 
of  Bethsaida,  and  had  been  a  disciple  of  John 
the  Baptist.  On  .hearing  Jesus  a  second  time 
designated  by  him  as  the  Lamb  of  God,  he 
left  his  former  master,  and,  in  company  with 
another  of  John's  disciples,  attached  himself 
to  our  Lord.  By  his  means  his  brother  Simon 
was  brought  to  Jesus  (John  i.  41).    The  ap- 


26 


ANGELS 


ANISE 


parent  discrepancy  in  Matt.  ix.  i8  ff.,  Mark 
i.  1 6  ff.,  where"  the  two  appear  to  have  been 
called  together,  is  no  real  one ;  St.  John  re- 
lating the  first  introduction  of  the  brothers 
to  Jesus,  the  other  Evangelists  their  formal 
call  to  follow  Him  in  his  ministr}'.  In  the 
catalogue  of  the  Apostles,  Andrew  appears,  in 
Matt.  X.  2,  Luke  vi.  14,  second,  next  after  his 
brother  Peter;  but  in  Mark  iii.  16,  Acts  i.  13, 
fourth,  next  after  the  three,  Peter,  James,  and 
John,  and  in  company  with  Philip.  And  this 
appears  to  have  been  his  real  place  of  dignity 
among  the  Apostles.  The  traditions  about 
him  are  various.  Eusebius  makes  him  preach 
in  Scythia ;  Jerome  and  Theodoret  in  Achaia 
(Greece)  ;  Nicephorus  in  Asia  Minor  and 
Thrace.  He  is  said  to  have  been  crucified  at 
Patrae  in  Achaia.  Some  ancient  writers  speak 
of  an  apocryphal  Acts  of  Andrew. 

Angels.  By  the  word  "angels"  (i.  e.  "mes- 
sengers" of  God)  we  ordinarily  understand  a 
race  of  spiritual  beings,  of  a  nature  exalted 
far  above  that  of  man,  although  infinitely  re- 
moved from  that  of  God,  whose  office  is  "to 
do  Him  service  in  heaven,  and  by  His  ap- 
pointment to  succor  and  defend  men  on 
earth."  I.  Scriptural  use  of  the  word. — There 
are  many  passages  in  which  the  expression 
"the  angel  of  God,"  "the  angel  of  Jehovah," 
is  certainly  used  for  a  manifestation  of  God 
himself.  It  is  to  be  observed,  also,  that,  side 
by  side  with  these  expressions,  we  read  of 
God's  being  manifested  in  the  form  of  man ; 
as  to  Abraham  at  ]\Iamre  (Gen.  xviii.  2,  22, 
comp.  xix.  i),  to  Jacob  at  Penuel  (Gen.  xxxii. 
24,  30),  to  Joshua  at  Gilgal  (Josh.  v.  13,  15), 
&c.  Besides  this,  which  is  the  highest  appli- 
cation of  the  word  "angel,"  we  find  the  phrase 
used  of  any  messengers  of  God,  such  as  tli^ 
prophets  (Is.  xlii.  19;  Hag.  i.  13;  Mai.  iii.  i), 
the  priests  (Mai.  ii.  7),  and  the  rulers  of  the 
Christian  churches  (Rev.  i.  20).  II.  Nature 
of  angels. — Little  is  said  of  their  nature  as 
distinct  from  their  office.  They  are  termed 
"spirits"  (as  in  Pleb.  i.  14)  ;  but  it  is  not  as- 
serted that  the  angelic  nature  is  incorporeal. 
The  contrary  seems  expressly  implied  by  the 
words  in  which  our  Lord  declares,  that,  after 
the  Resurrection,  men  shall  be  "like  the  an- 
gels" (Luke  XX.  36)  ;  because  (Phil.  iii.  21) 
their  bodies,  as  well  as  their  spirits,  shall  have 
been  made  entirely  like  His.  The  angels  are 
revealed  to  us  as  beings,  such  as  man  might 
be  and  will  be  when  the  power  of  sin  and 
death  is  removed,  partaking  in  their  measure 
of  the  attributes  of  God,  Truth,  Purity,  and 
Love,  because  always  beholding  His  face 
CMatt.  xviii.  10),  and  therefore  being  "made 
like  Him"  (i  John  iii.  2).    This,  of  course, 


implies  finiteness,  and  therefore  (in  the  strict 
sense)  "imperfection"  of  nature,  and  constant 
progress,  both  moral  and  intellectual,  through 
all  eternity.  Such  imperfection,  contrasted 
with  the  infinity  of  God,  is  expressly  ascribed 
to  them  in  Job.  iv.  18;  Matt.  xxiv.  36;  i  Pet. 
i.  12.  The  finiteness  of  nature  implies  capac- 
ity of  temptation;  and  accordingly  we  hear  of 
"fallen  angels."  Of  the  nature  of  their  temp- 
tation and  the  circumstances  of  their  fall,  we 
know  absolutely  nothing.  All  that  is  certain 
is,  that  they  "left  their  first  estate,"  and  that 
they  are  now  "angels  of  the  devil"  (Matt. 
XXV.  41;  Rev.  xii.  7,  9),  partaking  therefore 
of  the  falsehood,  uncleanness,  and  hatred, 
which  are"  his  peculiar  characteristics  (John 
viii.  44).  On  the  other  hand,  the  title  espe- 
cially assigned  to  the  angels  of  God,  that  of 
the  "holy  ones"  (see  Dan.  iv.  13,  23,  viii.  13; 
Matt.  XXV.  31),  is  precisely  the  one  which  is 
given  to  those  men  who  are  renewed  in 
Christ's  image,  but  which  belongs  to  them  in 
actuality  and  in  perfection  only  hereafter. 
(Comp.  Heb.  ii.  10,  v.  9,  xii.  23.)    III.  Office 


Anise. 


of  the  angels. — Of  their  office  in  heaven,  we 
have  only  vague  prophetic  glimpses  (as  in 
I  K.  xxii.  19;  Is.  vi.  1-3;  Dan.  vii.  9,  10;  Rev. 
vi.  II,  &c.),  which  show  us  nothing  but  a 
never-ceasing  adoration.  They  are  represent- 
ed as  being,  in  the  widest  sense,  agents  of 
God's  Providence,  natural  and  supernatural, 
to  the  body  and  to  the  soul.  In  one  word, 
they  are  Christ's  ministers  of  grace  now,  as 
they  shall  be  of  judgment  hereafter  (Matt, 
xiii.  39,  41,  49,  xvi.  27,  xxiv.  31,  &c.).  That 
there  are  degrees  of  angelic  nature,  fallen  and 
unfallen,  and  special  titles  and  agencies  be-' 
longing  to  each,  is  clearly  declared  by  St.  Paul 
(Eph.  i.  21;  Rom.  viii.  38),  but  what  their 
general  nature  is,  it  is  useless  to  speculate. 
Anise.   This  word  occurs  only  in  Matt,  xxiil. 


27 


ANKLET 

23.  It  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  certainty 
v/hether  the  anise  or  the  dill  is  here  intended, 
though  the  probability  is  more  in  favor  of  the 
latter  plant.  Anise  is  an  annual  plant  grow- 
ing to  the  height  of  one  foot,  and  carries  a 
white  flower.  It  grows  wild  in  Egypt,  in 
Syria,  Palestine  and  all  parts  of  the  Levant. 
The  Romans  chewed  the  seeds  in  order  to 
keep  up^  an  agreeable  moisture  in  the  mouth 
and  to  sweeten  the  breath,  while  some  Orien- 
tals still  do  the  same.  Dill,  a  somewhat  simi- 
lar plant,  is  an  annual,  bearing  small  aromatic 
seeds,  used  also  for  cookery  and  medicine. 

Anklet.  This  word  does  not  occur  in  the 
A.  v.,  but  anklets  are  referred  to  in  Is.  iii. 
16,  18,  20.  They  were  fastened  to  the  ankle- 
band  of  each  leg,  were  as  common  as  brace- 
lets and  armlets,  and  made  of  much  the  same 
materials;  the  pleasant  jingling  and  tinkling 
which  they  made  as  they  knocked  against 
each  other,  was  no  doubt  one  of  the  reasons 
why  they  were  admired  ("the  bravery  of  their 
tinkling  ornaments").  They  are  still  worn  in 
the  East. 

Anointing,  in  Holy  Scripture,  is  either  I.  Ma- 
terial, with  oil,  or  II.  Spiritual,  with  the  Holy 
Ghost.  I.  Material. — i.  Ordinary.  Anointing 
the  body  or  head  with  oil  was  a  common 
practice  with  the  Jews,  as  with  other  Oriental 
nations  (Deut.  xxviii.  40;  Ruth  iii.  3,  Mic.  vi. 
15).  Abstinence  from  it  was  a  sign  of  mourn- 
ing (2  Sam.  xiv.  2;  Dan.  x.  3;  Matt.  vi.  17). 
Anointing  the  head  with  oil  or  ointment  seems 
also  to  have  been  a  mark  of  respect  some- 
times paid  by  a  host  to  his  guests  (Luke  vii. 
46  and  Ps.  xxiii.  5).  2.  Official. — It  was  a 
rite  of  inauguration  into  each  of  the  three 
typical  offices  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth. 

(a)  Prophets  were  occasionally  anointed  to 
their  office  (i  K.  xix.  16),  and  are  called  mes- 
siahs,  or  anointed  (i  Chr.  xvi.  22;  Ps.  cv.  15). 

(b)  Priests,  at  the  first  institution  of  the  Le- 
vitical  priesthood,  were  all  anointed  to  their 
offices,  the  sons  of  Aaron  as  well  as  Aaron 
himself  (Ex.  xl.  15;  Num.  iii.  3);  but  after- 
wards, anointed  seems  not  to  have  been  re- 
peated at  the  consecration  of  ordinary  priests, 
but  to  have  been  especially  reserved  for  the 
high-priest  (Ex.  xxix.  29;  Lev.  xvi.  32);  so 
that  "the  priest  that  is  anointed"  (Lev.  iv.  3) 
is  generally  thought  to  mean  the  high-priest. 

(c)  Kings.  Anointing  was  the  principal  and 
divinely  appointed  ceremony  in  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  Jewish  kings  (i  Sam.  ix.  16,  x.  i ; 
I  K.  i.  34,  39).  The  rite  was  sometimes  per- 
formed more  than  once.  David  was  thrice 
anointed  to  be  king.  After  the  separation  into 
two  kingdoms,  the  kings  both  of  Judah  and 
of  Israel  seem  still  to  have  been  anointed  (2 


ANTICHRIST 

K.  ix.  3,  xi.  12.  (d)  Inanimate  objects  also 
were  anointed  with  oil  in  token  of  their  being 
set  apart  for  religious  service.  Thus  Jacob 
anointed  a  pillar  at  Bethel  (Gen.  xxxi.  13)  ; 
and  at  the  introduction  of  the  Mosaic  econ- 
omy, the  tabernacle  and  all  its  furniture  were 
consecrated  by  anointing  (Ex.  xxx.  26-28). 
3.  Ecclesiastical.  Anointing  with  oil  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord  is  prescribed  by  St.  James 
to  be  used,  together  with  prayer,  by  the  elders 
of  the  church,  for  the  recovery  of  the  sick 
(James  v.  14).  Analogous  to  this  is  the  anoint- 
ing with  oil  practiced  by  the  twelve  (Mark 
vi.  13).  II.  Spiritual. — i.  In  the  O.  T.  a 
Deliverer  is  promised  under  the  title  of  Mes- 
siah, or  Anointed  (Ps.  ii.  2-;  Dan.  ix.  25,  26)  ; 
and  the  nature  of  his  anointing  is  described 
to  be  spiritual,  with  the  Holy  Ghost  (Is.  Ixi. 
i;  see  Luke  iv.  18).  In  the  N.  T.  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  is  shown  to  be  the  Messiah,  or  Christ, 
or  Anointed  of  the  O.  T.  (John  i.  41 ;  Acts 
ix.  22,  xvii.  2,  3,  xviii.  4,  28)  ;  and  the  his- 
torical fact  of  his  being  anointed  with  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  asserted  and  recorded  (John  i. 
32,  33;  Acts  iv.  27,  X.  38).  2.  Spiritual  anoint- 
ing with  the  Holy  Ghost  is  conferred  also 
upon  Christians  by  God  (2  Cor.  i.  21),  and 
they  are  described  as  having  an  unction  from 
the  Holy  One,  by  which  they  know  all  things 
(l  John  ii.  20,  27). 

Ant.  This  insect  is  mentioned  twice  in  the 
O.  T. :  in  Prov.  vi.  6,  xxx.  25.  In  the  former 
of  these  passages  the  diligence  of  this  insect 
is  instanced  by  the  wise  man  as  an  example 
worthy  of  imitation ;  in  the  second  passage 
the  ant's  wisdom  is  especially  alluded  to,  for 
these  insects,  "though  they  be  little  on  the 
earth,  are  exceeding  wise."  It  is  well  known 
that  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  believed 
that  the  ant  stored  up  food,  which  it  collected 
in  the  summer,  ready  for  the  winter's  con- 
sumption ;  but  this  is  an  error.  The  European 
species  of  ants  are  all  dormant  in  the  winter, 
and  consequently  require  no  food;  and  the 
observations  of  modern  naturalists  seem 
almost  conclusive  that  no  ants  lay  up  for 
future  consumption. 

Antichrist.  This  term  is  employed  by  the 
Apostle  John  alone,  and  is  defined  by  him 
in  a  manner  which  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  its 
intrinsic  meaning.  With  regard  to  its  appli- 
cation there  is  less  certainty.  In  the  first  pas- 
sage (i  John  ii.  18)  in  which  it  occurs  the 
apostle  makes  direct  reference  to  the  false 
Christs,  whose  corning,  it  had  been  foretold, 
should  mark  the  last  days.  "Little  children, 
it  is  the  last  time:  and  as  ye  have  heard  that 
the  Antichrist  cometh,  even  now  have  there 
been  many  Antichrists ;  whereby  we  know  that 


28 


0 .'  TVc 


ANTIOCH 


APOCRYPHA 


it  is  the  last  time."  The  allusion  to  Matt, 
xxiv.  24  was  clearly  in  the  mind  of  the  Syriac 
translator,  who  rendered  Antichrist  by  "the 
false  Christ."  In  ver.  22  we  find,  "he  is  the 
Antichrist  that  denieth  the  Father  and  the 
Son ;"  and  still  more  positively,  "every  spirit 
that  confesseth  not  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come 
in  the  flesh"  is  of  Antichrist  (comp.  2  John  7). 
The  Antichrists,  against  which  he  warned  the 
churches  of  Asia  Minor  as  being  already  in 
the  world,  had  been  of  their  own  number; 
"they  went  out  from  us,  but  they  were  not 
of  us"  (i  John  ii.  19) ;  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  referred  to  implies  that  the 
name  was  already  familiar  to  those  to  whom 
the  epistle  was  addressed,  through  the  apos- 
tle's oral  teaching  (2  Thess.  ii.  5).  The  com- 
ing of  Antichrist  was  believed  to  be  foretold 
in  the  "vile  person"  of  Daniel's  prophecy  (xi. 
21),  which  received  its  first  accomplishment 
in  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  bu^  of  which  the 
complete  fulfilment  was  reserved  for  the  last 
times.  He  is  identified  with  "the  man  of  sin, 
the  son  of  perdition"  (2  Thess.  ii.  3),  who 
should  be  revealed  when  he  "who  now  let- 
teth"  was  removed ;  that  is,  according  to  the 
belief  of  the  primitive  church,  when  the  Ro- 
man order  of  things  ceased  to  be.  This  inter- 
pretation brings  Antichrist  into  close  connec- 
tion with  the  gigantic  power  of  evil,  symbol- 
ized by  the  "beast"  (Rev.  xiii.),  who  received 
his  power  from  the  dragon  (i.  e.  the  devil, 
the  serpent  of  Genesis),  continued  for  forty 
and  two  months,  and  was  invested  with  the 
kingdom  of  the  ten  kings  who  destroyed  the 
harlot  Babylon  (Rev.  xvii.  12,  17),  the  city 
of  seven  hills.  The  destruction  of  Babylon 
is  to  be  followed  by  the  rule  of  Antichrist 
for  a  short  period  (Rev.  xvii.  10),  to  be  in 
his  turn  overthrown  in  "the  battle  of  that 
great  day  of  God  Almighty"  (Rev.  xvi.  14) 
with  the  false  prophet  and  all  his  followers 
(Rev.  xix.). 

An'tioch.  In  Syria.  The  capital  of  the 
Greek  kings  of  Syria,  and  afterwards  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Roman  governors  of  the  prov- 
ince which  bore  the  same  name.  This  metrop- 
olis was  situated  where  the  chain  of  Leba- 
non, running  northwards,  and  the  chain  of 
Taurus,  running  eastwards,  are  brought  to  an 
abrupt  meeting.  Here  the  Orontes  breaks 
through  the  mountains ;  and  Antioch  was 
placed  at  a  bend  of  the  river,  partly  on  an 
island,  partly  on  the  level  which  forms  the 
left  bank,  and  partly  on  the  steep  and  craggy 
ascent  of  Mount  Silpius,  which  rose  abruptly 
on  the  south.  In  the  immediate  neighborhood 
'vas  Daphne,  the  celebrated  sanctuary  of 
Apollo  (2  Mace.  iv.  33) ;  whence  the  city  was 


sometimes  called  Antioch  by  Daphne,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  other  cities  of  the  same  name. 
— No  city,  after  Jerusalem,  is  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  history  of  the  apostolic 
church. — The  chief  interest  of  Antioch,  how- 
ever, is  connected  with  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity among  the  heathen.  Here  the  first 
Gentile  church  was  founded  (Acts  xi.  20,  21)  ; 
here  the  disciples  of  Jesus  Christ  were  first 
called  Christians  (xi.  26).  It  was  from  An- 
tioch that  Paul  started  on  his  three  mission- 
ary journeys.  The  city  was  founded  in  the 
year  300  B.  C,  by  Seleucus  Nicator.  Jews 
were  settled  there  from  the  first  in  large  num- 
bers, were  governed  by  their  own  ethnarch, 
and  allowed  to  have  the  same  political  privi- 
leges with  the  Greeks.  Antioch  grew  under 
the  successive  Seleucid  kings,  till  it  became 
a  city  of  great  extent  and  of  remarkable 
beauty.  Some  of  the  most  magnificent 
buildings  were  on  the  island.  One  feature, 
which  seems  to  have  been  characteristic  of 
the  great  Syrian  cities,  —  a  vast  street  with 
colonnades,  intersecting  the  whole  from  end 
to  end,  —  was  added  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
By  Pompey  it  was  made  a  free  city,  and  such 
it  continued  till  the  time  of  Antoninus  Pius. 
The  early  Emperors  raised  there  some  large 
and  important  structures,  such  as  aqueducts, 
amphitheatres,  and  baths.  Herod  the  Great 
contributed  a  road  and  a  colonnade.  2.  In 
Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  14,  xiv.  19,  21  ;  2  Tim.  iii. 
11;,  on  the  borders  of  Phrygia,  corresponds 
to  Yalobatch,  which  is  distant  from  Ak-sher 
six  hours  over  the  mountains.  This  city,  like 
the  Syrian  Antioch,  was  founded  by  Seleu- 
cus Nicator.  Under  the  Romans  it  became  a 
colonia,  and  was  also  called  Csesarea. 

Apes  are  mentioned  in  i  K.  x.  22,  and  2 
Chr.  ix.  21.  There  can  be  little  doubt  but  that 
the  apes  were  brought  from  the  same  country 
which  supplied  ivory  and  peacocks,  both  of 
which  are  common  in  Ceylon ;  and  Sir  E.  Ten- 
nent  has  drawn  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
Tamil  names  for  apes,  ivory,  and  peacocks 
are  identical  with  the  Hebrew. 

Apoc'alypse.  [Revelation.] 

Apoc'rypha.  The  collection  of  Books  to 
which  this  term  is  popularly  applied  includes 
the  following  (the  order  given  is  that  in  which 
they  stand  in  the  English  version)  :  I.  i 
Esdras;  II.  2  Esdras ;  III.  Tobit ;  IV.  Judith; 
V.  The  rest  of  the  chapters  of  the  Book  of 
Esther,  which  are  found  neither  in  the  Hebrew 
nor  in  the  Chaldee ;  VI.  The  Wisdom  of  Solo- 
mon ;  VII.  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  the  Son  of 
Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus ;  VIII.  Baruch ;  IX. 
The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Children ;  X. 
The  History  of  Susanna;  XI.  The  History  of 


29 


APOLLYON 


APOSTLE 


the  Destruction  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon ;  XII. 
The  Prayer  of  Manasses,  King  of  Judah ; 
XIII.  I  Maccabees;  XIV.  2  Maccabees.  The 
primary  meaning  of  Apocrypha,  "hidden, 
secret,"  seems,  towards  the  close  of  the  sec- 
ond century,  to  have  been  associated  with  the 
signification  "spurious,"  and  ultimately  to  have 
settled  down  into  the  latter. 

Aporiyon,  or,  as  it  is  literally  in  the  margiii 
of  the  A.  V.  of  Rev.  ix.  11,  "a  destroyer,"  is 
the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Abaddon, 
"the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit."  The  angel 
Apollyon  is  further  described  as  the  king  of 
the  locusts  which  rose  from  the  smoke  of  the 
bottomless  pit  at  the  sounding  of  the  fifth 
trumpet.  From  the  occurrence  of  the  word 
in  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  11,  the  Rabbins  have  made 
Abaddon  the  nethermost  of  the  two  regions 
into  which  they  divide  the  lower  world.  But 
that  in  Rev.  ix.  11,  Abbadon  is  the  angel  and 
not  the  abyss,  is  perfectly  evident  in  the 
Greek.  There  is  no  authority  for  connecting 
it  with  "the  destroyer"  alluded  to  in  i  Cor. 
X.  10. 

Apostle  (one  sent  forth),  in  the  N.  T.,  origi- 
nally the  official  name  of  those  Twelve  of  the 
disciples  whom  Jesus  chose  to  send  forth  first 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  and  to  be  with  Him  dur- 
ing the  course  of  his  ministry  on  earth.  The 
word  also  appears  to  have  been  used  in  a  non- 
ofificial  sense  to  designate  a  much  wider  circle 
of  Christian  messengers  and  teachers.  (See  2 
Cor.  viii.  23 ;  Phil.  ii.  25.)  It  is  only  of  those 
who  were  officially  designated  Apostles,  that 
we  treat  in  this  article.  The  original  qualifi- 
cation of  an  Apostle,  as  stated  by  St.  Peter, 
on  the  occasion  of  electing  a  successor  to  the 
traitor  Judas,  was,  that  he  should  have  been 
personally  acquainted  with  the  whole  minis- 
terial course  of  our  Lord,  from  his  baptism 
by  John  till  the  day  when  he  was  taken  up 
into  Heaven.  The  Apostles  were  from  the 
lower  ranks  of  life,  simple  and  uneducated ; 
some  of  them  were  relate.d  to  Jesus  according 
to  the  flesh ;  some  had  previously  been  disci- 
ples of  John  the  Baptist.  Our  Lord  chose 
them  early  in  his  public  career,  though  it  is 
uncertain  precisely  at  what  time.  Some  of 
them  had  certainly  partly  attached  themselves 
to  Him  before ;  but  after  their  call  as  Apostles 
they  appear  to  have  been  continuously  with 
Him,  or  in  his  service.  They  seem  to  have 
been  all  on  an  equality,  both  during  and  after 
the  ministry  of  Christ  on  earth.  Early  in 
our  Lord's  ministry.  He  sent  them  out  two 
and  two  to  preach  repentance  and  perform 
miracles  in  his  name  (Matt.  x. ;  Luke  ix.). 
Thus  their  mission  was  of  the  nature  of  a 
solemn  call  to  the  children  of  Israel,  to  whom 


it  was  confined  (Matt.  x.  5,  6).  The  Apostles 
were  early  warned  by  their  Master  of  the  sol- 
emn nature  and  the  danger  of  their  calling 
(Matt.  x.  17).  They  accompanied  Him  in  his 
journeys  of  teaching  and  to  the  Jewish  feasts, 
saw  his  wonderful  works,  heard  his  discourses 
addressed  to  the  people,  and  made  inquiries 
of  Him  on  religious  matters.  They  recognized 
Him  as  the  Christ  of  God  (Matt.  xvi.  16;  Luke 
ix.  20),  and  ascribed  to  Him  supernatural 
power  (Luke  ix.  54)  ;  but  in  the  recognition, 
of  the  spiritual  teaching  and  mission  of  Christ, 
they  made  very  slow  progress,  held  back  as 
they  were  by  weakness  of  apprehension  and 
by  national  prejudices.  Even  at  the  removal 
of  our  Lord  from  the  earth,  they  were  yet 
Aveak  in  their  knowledge  (Luke  xxiv.  21 ;  John 
xvi.  12),  though  he  had  for  so  long  been  care- 
fully preparing  and  instructing  them.  And 
when  that  happened  of  .which  He  had  so  often 
forewarned  them — his  apprehension  by  the 
chief  priests  and  Pharisees — they  all  forsook 
Him  and  fled  (Matt.  xxvi.  56).  They  left  his 
burial  to  one  who  was  not  of  their  number 
and  to  the  women,  and  were  only  convinced 
of  his  resurrection  on  the  very  plainest  proofs 
furnished  by  himself.  On  the  Feast  of  Pente- 
cost, ten  days  after  our  Lord's  ascension,  the 
Holy  Spirit  came  down  on  the  assembled 
church  (Acts  ii.) ;  and  from  that  time  the 
Apostles  became  altogether  different  men, 
giving  witness  with  power  of  the  life  and 
death  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  as  He  had  de- 
clared they  should  (Luke  xxiv.  48;  Acts  i.  8, 
22,  ii.  32,  iii.  15,  V.  32,  xiii,  31).  First  of  all 
the  mother-church  at  Jerusalem  grew  up  under 
their  hands  (Acts  iii.-vii.),  and  their  superior 
dignity  and  power  were  universally  acknowl- 
edged by  the  rulers  and  the  people  (Acts  v. 
12  ff.).  Even  the  persecution  which  arose 
about  Stephen,  and  put  the  first  check  on  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel  in  Judaea,  does  not  seem 
to  have  brought  peril  to  the  Apostles  (Acts 
viii.  i).  Their  first  mission  out  of  Jerusalem 
was  to  Samaria  (Acts  viii.  5-25),  where  the 
Lord  himself  had,  during  his  ministry,  sown 
the  seed  of  the  Gospel.  Here  ends,  properly 
speaking  (or  rather  perhaps  with  the  general 
visitation  hinted  at  in  Acts  ix.  31),  the  first 
period  of  the  Apostles'  agency,  during  which 
its  center  is  Jerusalem,  and  the  prominent 
figure  is  that  of  St.  Peter. — The  center  of  the 
second  period  of  the  apostolic  agency  is  An- 
tioch,  where  a  church  soon  was  built  up,  con- 
sisting of  Jews  and  Gentiles ;  and  the  central 
figure  of  this  and  of  the  subsequent  period  is 
St.  Paul.  The  third  apostolic  period  is  marked 
by  the  almost  entire  disappearance  of  the 
Twelve  from  the  sacred  narrative,  and  the 


30 


APPEAL 


ARABIA 


exclusive  agency  of  St.  Paul,  the  great  apostle 
of  the  Gentiles.  Of  the  missionary  work  of 
the  rest  of  the  Twelve,  we  know  absolutely 
nothing  from  the  sacred  narrative. — As  re- 
gards the  apostolic  oflfice,  it  seems  to  have 
been  pre-eminently  that  of  founding  the 
churches,  and  upholding  them  by  supernatural 
power  specially  bestowed  for  that  purpose. 
It  ceased,  as  a  matter  of  course,  with  its  first 
holders;  all  continuation  of  it,  from  the  very 
conditions  of  its  existence  (cf.  i  Cor.  ix.  i), 
being  impossible. 

Appeal.  The  principle  of  appeal  was  rec- 
ognized by  the  Mosaic  law  in  the  establish- 
ment of  a  central  court  under  the  presidency 
of  the  judge  or  ruler  for  the  time  being,  before 
which  all  cases  too  difficult  for  the  local  courts 
were  to  be  tried  (Deut.  xvii.  8,  9).  According 
to  the  above  regulation,  the  appeal  lay  in  the 
time  of  the  Judges  to  the  judge  (Judg.  iv.  5), 
and  under  the  monarchy  to  the  king,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  deputed  certain  persons  to  in- 
quire into  the  facts  of  the  case,  and  record  his 
decision  thereon  (2  Sam.  xv.  3).  Jehoshaphat 
delegated  his  judicial  authority  to  a  court  per- 
manently established  for  the  purpose  (2  Chr. 
xix.  8).  These  courts  were  re-established  by 
Ezra  (Ezr.  vii.  25).  After  the  institution  of 
the  Sanhedrim  the  final  appeal  lay  to  them. 
St.  Paul,  as  a  Roman  citizen,  exercised  a  right 
of  appeal  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local 
court  at  Jerusalem  to  the  emperor  (Acts  xxv. 
11).  Since  the  procedure  in  the  Jewish  courts 
at-  that  period  was  of  a  mixed  and  undefined 
character,  he  availed  himself  of  his  undoubted 
privilege  to  be  tried  by  the  pure  Roman  law. 

Apple-Tree,  Apple.  Mention  of  the  apple- 
tree  occurs  in  the  A.  V.  in  Cant.  ii.  3,  viii.  5, 
and  Joel  i.  12.  The  fruit  of  this  tree  is  al- 
luded to  in  Prov.  xxv.  11,  and  Cant.  ii.  5,  vii.  8. 
It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  say  what  is  the  spe- 
cific tree  denoted  by  the  Hebrew  word  tap- 
ptiach.  Most  modern  writers  maintain  that 
it  is  either  the  quince  or  the  citron.  The 
quince  has  some  plausible  arguments  in  its  fa- 
vor. Its  fragrance  was  held  in  high  esteem 
by  the  ancients.  The  quince  was  sacred  to 
Venus.  On  the  other  hand,  Dr.  Royle  says: 
"The  rich  color,  fragrant  odor  and  handsome 
appearance  of  the  citron,  whether  in  flower 
or  in  fruit,  are  particularly  suited  to  the  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  mentioned  above."  But 
neither  the  quince  nor  the  citron  nor  the  apple 
appears  fully  to  answer  to  all  the  Scriptural 
allusions.  The  orange  would  answer  all  the 
demands  of  the  Scriptural  passages,  and  or- 
ange-trees are  found  in  Palestine ;  but  there 
does  not  appear  sufficient  evidence  that  this 
tree  was  known  in  the  earlier  times  to  the  in- 


habitants of  Palestine.  The  c^uestion  of  iden- 
tification, therefore,  must  still  be  left  an  open 
one. 

Ara'bia,  a  country  known  in  the  O.  T.  under 
two  designations. — i.  The  East  Country  (Gen. 
xxv.  6)  ;  or  perhaps  the  East  (Gen.  x.  30;  Num. 
xxiii.  7 ;  Is.  ii.  6)  ;  and  Land  of  the  Sons  of  the 
East  (Gen.  xxix.  i)  ;Gentile  name,  Sons  of  the 
East  (Judg.  vi.  3,  vii.  12;  i  K.  iv.  30;  Job  i.  3; 
Is.  xi.  14;  Jer.  xlix.  28;  Ez.  xxv.  4).  From 
these  passages  it  appears  that  the  Land  of  the 
East  and  Sons  of  the  East  indicate,  primarily, 
the  country  east  of  Palestine,  and  the  tribes 
descended  from  Ishmael  and  from  Keturah  ;• 
and  that  this  original  signification  may  have 
become  gradually  extended  to  Arabia  and  its 
inhabitants  generally,  though  without  any 
strict  limitation.  2.  'Arab  and  'Arab,  whence 
Arabia  (2  Chr.  ix.  14;  Is.  xxi.  13;  Jer.  xxv.  24; 
Ez.  xxvii.  21).  This  name  seems  to  have  the 
same  geographical  reference  as  the  former 


Arab  Chieftain. 


name  to  the  country  and  tribes  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  chiefly  north  of  the  Arabian  penin- 
sula.— Arabia  may  be  divided  into  Arabia 
Proper,  containing  the  whole  peninsula  as  far 
as  the  limits  of  the  northern  deserts;  Northern 
Arabia,,  constituting  the  great  desert  of  Ara- 
bia ;  and  Western  Arabia,  the  desert  of  Petra 
and  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  or  the  country  that 
has  been  called  Arabia  Petrsea.  I.  Arabia 
Proper,  or  the  Arabian  peninsula,  consists  of 
high  tableland,  declining  towards  the  north ; 
its  most  elevated  portions  being  the  chain  of 
mountains  running  nearly  parallel  to  the  Red 
.Sea,  and  the  territory  east  of  the  southern 
part  of  this  chain.  So  far  as  the  interior  has 
been  explored,  it  consists  of  mountainous  and 
desert  tracts,  relieved  by  large  districts  under 
cultivation,  well  peopled,  watered  by  wells 
and  streams,  and  enjoying  periodical  rains. 
The  most  fertile  tracts  are  those  on  the  south- 


3 


I 


ARABIA 


ARABIA 


west  and  south.    II.  Northern  Arabia,  or  the  of  Kahtar  (Joktan).    This  was  the  Biblical 


Arabian  Desert,  is  a  high,  undulating,  parched 
plain,  of  which  -the  Euphrates  forms  the  nat- 
ural boundary  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the 
frontier  of  Syria,  whence  it  is  bounded  by 
the  latter  country  and  the  desert  of  Petra  on 
the  north-west  and  west,  the  peninsula  of  Ara- 
bia forming  its  southern  limit.  It  has  few 
oases,  the  water  of  the  wells  is  generally  either 
brackish  or  unpotable,  and  it  is  visited  by  the 
sand-wind  called  Samoom.  The  inhabitants 
were  known  to  the  ancients  as  "dwellers  in 
tents"  (comp.  Is.  xiii.  20;  Jer.  xlix.  31;  Ezek. 
xxxviii.  II);  and  they  extended  from  Baby- 
lonia on  the  east  (comp.  Num.  xxiii.  7;  2  Chr. 
xxi.  16;  Is.  ii.  6,  xiii.  20),  to  the  borders  of 
Egypt  on  the  west.  These  tribes,  principally 
descended  from  Ishmael  and  Keturah,  have 
always  led  a  wandering  and  pastoral  life. 
They  conducted  a  considerable  trade  of  mer- 
chandise of  Arabia  and  India  from  the  shores 
of  the  Persian  Gulf  (Ez.  xxvii.  20-24),  whence 
a  chain  of  oases  still  forms  caravan-stations; 
and  they  likewise  traded  from  the  western  por- 
tions of  the -peninsula.  The  latter  traffic  ap- 
pears to  be  frequently  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  Ishmaelites,  Keturahites,  and  other 
Arabian  peoples  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  28;  i  K.  x. 
15,  25;  2  Chr.  ix.  14,  24;  Is.  Ix.  6;  Jer.  vi.  20)  ; 
it  seems,  however,  to  have  been  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  the  inhabitants  of  Idumaea.  III. 
Western  Arabia  includes  the  peninsula  of  Si- 
nai [Sinai],  and  the  desert  of  Petra,  corre- 
sponding generally  with  the  limits  of  Arabia 
Petrsea.  The  latter  name  is  probably  derived 
from  that  of  its  chief  city ;  not  from  its  stony 
character.  It  was  in  the  earliest  times  inhab- 
ited by  a  people  whose  genealogy  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible,  the  Horites  or  Horim 
(Gen.  xiv.  6,  xxxvi.  20,  21,  22,  29,  30;  Deut. 
ii.  12,  22).  [Horites.]  But  it  was  mostly  peo- 
pled by  descendants  of  Esau,  and  was  gener- 
ally known  as  the  land  of  Edom,  or  Idumsea 
[Edom]  ;  as  well  as  by  its  older  appellation, 
the  desert  of  Seir,  or  Mount  Seir.  [Seir.] 
The  common  origin  of  the  Idumseans  from 
Esau  and  Ishmael  is  found  in  the  marriage  of 
the  former  with  a  daughter  of  the  latter  (Gen. 
xxviii.  9,  xxxvi.  3).  The  Nabathseans  suc- 
ceeded to  the  Idumaeans.  The  descendants  of 
Joktan  occupied  the  principal  portions  of  the 
south  and  south-west  of  the  peninsula,  with 
colonies  in  the  interior.  In  Genesis  (x.  30) 
it  is  said,  "and  their  dwelling  was  from  Mesha, 
as  thou  goest  unto  Sephar,  a  mount  of  the 
East  (Kedem)."  The  principal  Joktanite  king- 
dom, and  the  chief  state  of  ancient  Arabia,  was 
that  of  the  Yemen,  founded  (according  to  the 
Arabs)  by  Yaarub,  the  son  (or  descendant) 


kingdom  of  Sheba.  Its  rulers,  and  most  of  its 
people,  were  descendants  of  Seba  (—Sheba), 
whence  the  classical  Sabaei.  The  dominant 
family  was  apparently  that  of  Himyer,  son  (or 
descendant)  of  Seba.  A  member  of  this  fam- 
ily founded  the  more  modern  kingdom  of  the 
Himyerites.  Native  tradition  seems  to  prove 
that  the  latter  appellation  represented  the  for- 
mer only  shortly  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
rule  of  the  Himyerites  (whence  the  Homeritae 
of  classical  authors)  probably  extended  over 
the  Yement,  Pladramawt,  and  Mahreh.  Their 
kingdom  lasted  until  A.  D,  525,  v/hen  it  fell 
before  an  Abyssinian  invasion.  The  other 
chief  Joktanite  kingdom  was  that  of  the  Hijaz, 
founded  by  Jurhum,  the  brother  of  Yaarub, 
who  left  the  Yemen  and  settled  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Mekkeh.  This  kingdom,  situate 
in  a  less  fertile  district  than  the  Yemen,  and 
engaged  in  conflict  with  aboriginal  tribes, 
never  attained  the  importance  of  that  of  the 
south.  2.  The  Ishmaelites  appear  to  have  en- 
tered the  peninsula  from  the  north-west.  That 
they  have  spread  over  the  whole  of  it  (with 
the  exception  of  one  or  two  districts  of  the 
south  coast),  and  that  the  modern  nation  is 
predominantly  Ishmaelite,  is  asserted  by  the 
Arabs.  They  extended  northwards  from  the 
Hijaz  into  the  Arabian  desert,  where  they 
mixed  with  Keturahites  and  other  Abrahamic 
peoples;  moving  westwards  to  Idumsea,  where 
they  mixed  with  Edomites,  &c.  The  tribes 
sprung  from  Ishmael  have  always  been  gov- 
erned by  petty  chiefs  or  heads  of  families 
(sheykhs  and  emeers)  ;  they  have  generally 
followed  a  patriarchal  life,  and  have  not  orig- 
inated kingdoms,  though  they  have  in  some 
instances  succeeded  to  those  of  the  Joktanites, 
the  principal  one  of  these  being  that  of  El- 
Heereh.  With  reference  to  the  Ishmaelites 
generally,  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  wide  exten- 
sion given  to  them  by  Arab  tradition.  3.  Of 
the  descendants  of  Keturah  the  Arabs  say 
little.  They  appear  to  have  settled  chiefly 
north  of  the  peninsula  in  Desert  Arabia,  from 
Palestine  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  4.  In  Northern 
and  Western  Arabia  are  other  peoples,  which, 
from  their  geographical  position  and  mode  of 
life,  are  sometimes  classed  with  the  Arabs. 
Of  these  are  Amalek,  the  descendants  of  Esau, 
&c. — The  most  ancient  idolatry  of  the  Arabs 
we  must  conclude  to  have  been  fetishism,  of 
which  there  are  striking  proofs  in  the  sacred 
trees  and  stones  of  historical  times,  and  in  the 
worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  Sabseism. 
Magianism,  an  importation  from  Chaldsea  and 
Persia,  must  be  reckoned  among  the  religions 
of  the  Pagan  Arabs ;  but  it  never  had  very  nu- 


32 


ARABIANS 


ARARAT 


merous  followers.  Christianity  was  introduced 
into  Southern  Arabia  towards  the  close  of  the 
2d  century,  and  about  a  century  later  it  had 
made  great  progress.  It  flourished  chiefly  in 
the  Yemen,  where  many  churches  were  built. 
Judaism  was  propagated  in  Arabia,  principally 
by  Karaites,  at  the  captivity,  but  it  was  intro- 
duced before  that  time ;  it  became  very  preva- 
lent in  the  Yemen,  and  in  the  Hijaz,  especially 
at  Kheybar  and  El-Medeenah,  where  there  are 
said  to  be  still  tribes  of  Jewish  extraction. — 
Arabic,  the  language  of  Arabia,  is  the  most 
developed  and  the  richest  of  Shemitic  lan- 
guages, and  the  only  one  of  which  we  have  an 
extensive  literature ;  it  is,  therefore,  of  great 
importance  to  the  study  of  Hebrew.  Of  its 
early  phases  we  know  nothing;  while  we  have 
archaic  monuments  of  the  Himyeritic  (the 
ancient  language  of  Southern  Arabia),  though 
we  cannot  fix  their  precise  ages.  It  is  prob- 
able that  in  the  14th  or  13th  cent.  B.  C.  the 
Shemitic  languages  differed  much  less  than  in 
after  times.  But  it  appears  from  2  K,  xviii.  26 
that  in  the  8th  cent.  B.  C.  only  the  educated 
classes  among  the  Jews  understood  Aramaic. — 
The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Arabs  are  of 
great  value  in  illustrating  the  Bible.  No  one 
can  mix  with  this  people  without  being  con- 
stantly and  forcibly  reminded  either  of  the 
early  patriarchs  or  of  the  settled  Israelites. 
We  may  instance  their  pastoral  life,  their  hos- 
pitality, their  universal  respect  for  age  (comp. 
Lev.  xix.  32),  their  familiar  deference  (comp. 
2  K.  v.  13),  their  superstitious  regard  for  the 
beard.  References  in  the  Bible  to  the  Arabs 
themselves  are  still  more  clearly  illvtstrated  by 
the  manners  of  the  modern  people,  in  their 
predatory  expeditions,  their  mode  of  warfare, 
their  caravan  journeys,  &c. 

Ara'bians,  the  nomadic  tribes  inhabiting  the 
country  to  the  east  and  south  of  Palestine,  who 
in  the  early  times  of  Hebrew  history  were 
known  as  Ishmaelites  and  descendants  of  Ke- 
turah. 

A'ram.  The  name  by  which  the  Hebrews 
designated,  generally,  the  country  lying  to  the 
north-east  of  Palestine ;  the  great  mass  of  that 
high  table-land  which,  rising  with  sudden 
abruptness  from  the  Jordan  and  the  very  mar- 
gin of  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth,  stretches,  at 
an  elevation  of  no  less  than  2,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  to  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
phrates itself,  contrasting  strongly  with  the 
low  land  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  the 
"land  of  Canaan,"  or  the  low  country  (Gen. 
xxxi.  18,  xxxiii.  18,  &c.).  Throughout  the  A. 
V.  the  word  is,  with  only  a  very  few  excep- 
tions, rendered,  as  in  the  Vulgate  and  LXX., 
Syria.    Its  earliest  occurrence  in  the  book  of 


Genesis  is  in  the  form  of  Aram-naharaim,  i.  e. 
the  "highland  of  or  between  the  two  rivers" 
(Gen.  XXIV.  10,  A.  V.  "Mesopotamia"),  but  in 
several  succeeding  chapters,  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  Pentateuch,  the  word  is  used  without 
any  addition,  to  designate  a  dweller  in  Aram- 
naharaim. 

Ar'arat  (high  or  holy  ground),  a  moun- 
tainous district  of  Asia  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
in  connection  with  the  following  events: — (i.) 
As  the  resting-place  of  the  Ark  after  the  Del- 
uge (Gen.  viii.  4)  ;  (2.)  as  the  asylum  of  the 


Mount  Ararat. 

sons  of  Sennacherib  (2  K.  xix.  37;  Is.  xxxvii. 
38;  A.  V.  has  "the  land  of  Armenia")  ;  (3.)  as 
the  ally,  and  probably  the  neighbor,  of  Minni 
and  Ashchenaz  (Jer.  li.  27).  [Armenia.]  The 
name  Ararat  was  unknown  to  the  geographers 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  as  it  still  is  to  the  Ar- 
menians of  the  present  day ;  but  that  it  was  an 
indigenous  and  an  ancient  name  for  a  portion 
of  Armenia  appears  from  the  statement  of 
Moses  of  Chorene,  who  gives  Araratia  as  the 
designation  of  the  central  province.  In  its 
Biblical  sense  it  is  descriptive  generally  of  the 
Armenian  highlands — the  lofty  plateau  which 
overlooks  the  plain  of  the  Araxes  on  the  N., 
and  of  Mesopotamia  on  the  S.  Various  opin- 
ions have  been  put  forth  as  to  the  spot  where 
the  Ark  rested,  as  described  in  Gen.  viii.  4; 
but  Berosus  the  Chaldsean,  contemporary  with 
Alexander  the  Great,  fixes  the  spot  on  the 
mountains  of  Kurdistan.  Tradition  still  points 
to  the  Jebel  Judi  as  the  scene  of  the  event. 
Europeans  have  given  the  name  Ararat  exclu- 
sively to  the  mountain  which  is  called  Massis 
by  the  Armenians,  Agri-Dagh,  i.  e.  Steep 
Mountain,  by  the  Turks,  and  Kuh-i-Nuh,  i.  e. 
Noah's  Mountain,  by  the  Persians.  It  rises 
immediately  out  of  the  plain  of  the  Araxes, 
and  terminates  in  two  conical  peaks,  named 
the  Great  and  Less  Ararat,  about  seven  miles 


33 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT 


distant  from  each  other;  the  former  of  which 
attains  an  elevation  of  17,260  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  and  about  14,000  above  the 
plain  of  the  Araxes,  while  the  latter  is  lower 
by  4,000  feet.  The  summit  of  the  higher  is 
covered  with  eternal  snow  for  about  3,000  feet. 
It  is  of  volcanic  origin.  Arguri,  the  only  vil- 
lage known  to  have  been  built  on  its  slopes, 
was  the  spot  where,  according  to  tradition, 
Noah  planted  his  vineyard.  Lower  down,  in 
the  plain  of  Araxes,  is  Nachdjevan,  where  the 
patriarch  is  reputed  to  have  been  buried.  The 
Armenian  plateau  stands  equidistant  from  the 
Euxine  and  the  Caspian  seas  on  the  N.,  and 
between  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  S.  Viewed  with  reference  to 
the  dispersion  of  the  nations,  Armenia  is  the 
true  center  of  the  world ;  and  at  the  present 
day  Ararat  is  the -great  boundary-stone  be- 
tween the  empires  of  Russia,  Turkey  and  Per- 
sia. 

Architecture.  The  book  of  Genesis  (iv.  17, 
20,  22)  appears  to  divide  mankind  into  great 
characteristic  sections,  viz.,  the  "dwellers  in 
tents"  and  the  "dwellers  in  cities."  To  the 
race  of  Shem  is  attributed  (Gen.  x.  11,  12,  22, 
xi.  2-9)  the  foundation  of  those  cities  in  the 
plain  of  Shinar,  Babylon,  Nineveh  and  others ; 
of  one  of  which,  Resen,  the  epithet  "great"  suf- 
ficiently marks  its  importance  in  the  time  of 
the  writer.  It  is  in  connection  with  Egypt 
that  the  Israelites  appear  first  as  builders  of 
cities,  compelled  to  labor  at  the  buildings  of 
the  Egyptian  monarchs.  Pithom  and  Raamses 
are  said  to  have  been  built  by  them  (Ex.  i.  11). 
They  were  by  occupation  shepherds,  and  by 
habit  dwellers  in  tents  (Gen.  xlvii.  3).  They 
had  therefore  originally,  speaking  properly,  no 
architecture.  From  the  time  of  the  occupation 
of  Canaan  they  became  dwellers  in  towns  and 
in  houses  of  stone  (Lev.  xiv.  34,  45;  i  K.  vii. 
10)  ;  but  these  were  not  in  all,  nor  indeed  in 
most,  cases  built  by  themselves  (Deut.  vi.  10 ; 
Num.  xiii.  19).  The  peaceful  reign  and  vast 
wealth  of  Solomon  gave  great  impulse  to  archi- 
tecture ;  for  besides  the  Temple  and  his  other 
great  works,  he  built  fortresses  and  cities  in 
various  places,  among  which  Baalath  and  Tad- 
mor  are  in  all  probability  represented  by  Baal- 
bec  and  Palmyra  (i  K.  ix.  15,  24).  Among 
the  succeeding  kings  of  Israel  and  of  Judah, 
more  than  one  is  recorded  as  a  builder;  Asa 
(i  K.  XV.  23),  Baasha  (xv.  17),  Omri  (xvi.  24), 
Ahab  (xvi.  32,  xxii.  39),  Hezekiah  (2  K.  xx. 
20;  2  Chr.  xxxii.  27-30),  Jehoash,  and  Josiah 
(2  K.  xii.  II,  12,  xxii.  6)  ;  ^nd,  lastly,  Jehoia- 
kim,  whose  winter  palace  is  mentioned  (Jer. 
xxii.  14,  xxxvi.  22;  see  also  Am.  iii.  15).  On 
the  return  from  captivity  the  chief  care  of  the 


rulers  was  to  rebuild  the  Temple  and  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem  in  a  substantial  manner,  with 
stone,  and  with  timber  from  Lebanon  (Ezr. 
iii.  8,  V.  8;  Neh.  ii.  8,  iii.).  But  the  reigns  of 
Herod  and  his  successors  were  especially  re- 
markable for  their  great  architectural  works. 
Not  only  was  the  Temple  restored,  but  the 
fortifications  and  other  public  buildings  oi  Je- 
rusalem were  enlarged  and  embellished  (Luke 
xxi.  5).  The  town  of  Csesarea  was  built  on 
the  site  of  Strato's  Tower;  Samaria  was  en- 
larged, and  received  the  name  of  Sebaste.  Of 
the  original  splendor  of  these  great  works  no 
doubt  can  be  entertained ;  but  of  their  style 
and  appearance  we  can  only  conjecture  that 
they  were  formed  on  Greek  and  Roman  mod- 
els. The  enormous  stones  employed  in  the  As- 
syrian, Persepolitan  and  Egyptian  buildings 
find  a  parallel  in  the  substructions  of  Baal- 
bec  and  in  the  huge  blocks  which  still  re- 
main at  Jerusalem,  relics  of  the  buildings 
either  of  Solomon  or  of  Herod.  But  few  mon- 
uments are  known  to  exist  in  Palestine  by 
which  we  can  form  an  accurate  idea  of  its 
buildings,  and  even  of  those  which  do  remain 
no  trustworthy  examination  has  yet  been 
made.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  res- 
ervoirs known  under  the  names  of  the  Pools 
of  Solomon  and  Hezekiah  contain  some  por- 
tions at  least  of  the  original  fabrics. 
Ark,  Noah's.  [Noah.] 

Ark  of  the  Covenant.  The  first  piece  of  the 
tabernacle's  furniture,  for  which  precise  direc- 
tions were  delivered  (Ex.  xxv.). — I.  It  appears 
to  have  been  an  oblong  chest  of  shittim 
(acacia)  wood,  23/2  cubits  long,  by  1 3^  broad 
and  deep.  Within  and  without  gold  was  over- 
laid on  the  wood,  and  on  the  upper  side  or 
lid,  which  was  edged  roundabout  with  gold,  the 
mercy  seat  was  placed.  The  ark  was  fitted 
with  rings,  one  at  each  of  the  four  corners, 
and  through  each  of  these  were  passed  staves 
of  the  same  wood  similarly  overlaid,  by  which 
it  was  carried  by  the  Kohathites  (Num.  vii.  9, 
X.  21).  The  ends  of  the  staves  were  visible 
without  the  veil  in  the  holy  place  of  the  Tem- 
ple of  Solomon  i  K.  viii.  8).  The  ark,  when 
transported,  was  enveloped  in  the  "veil"  of 
the  dismantled  tabernacle,  in  the  curtain  of 
badgers'  skins,  and  in  a  blue  cloth  over  all,  and 
was  therefore  not  seen  (Num.  iv.  5,  20). — II. 
Its  purpose  or  object  was  to  contain  inviolate 
the  Divine  autograph  of  the  two  tables,  that 
"covenant"  from  which  it  derived  its  title.  It 
was  also  probably  a  reliquary  for  the  pot  of 
manna  and  the  rod  of  Aaron.  Occupying  the 
most  holy  spot  of  the  sanctuary,  it  tended  to 
exclude  any  idol  from  the  center  of  worship. 
It  was  also  the  support  of  the  mercy  seat,  ma- 


34 


ARMAGEDDON 


ARMS,  ARMOR 


terially  symbolizing,  perhaps,  the  '"covenant" 
as  that  on  which  "mercy"  rested. — III.  The 
chief  facts  in  the  earher  history  of  the  ark  (see 
Josh.  iii.  and  vi.)  need  not  be  recited.  Before 
David's  time  its  abode  was  frequently  shifted. 
It  sojourned  among  several,  probably  Levitical, 
families  (l  Sam.  vii.  i ;  2  Sam.  vi.  3,  11 ;  i  Chr. 
xiii.  13,  XV.  24,  25)  in  the  border  villages  of 
Eastern  Judah,  and  did  not  take  its  place  in 
the  tabernacle,  but  dwelt  in  curtains,  i.  e.  in  a 
separate  tent  pitched  for  it  in  Jerusalem  by 
David.  Its  bringing  up  by  David  thither  was 
a  national  festival.  Subsequently  the  Temple, 
when  completed,  received,  in  the  installation  of 


Ark  of  the  Covenant. 

the  ark  in  its  shrine,  the  signal  of  its  inaugura- 
tion by  the  eflfulgence  of  Divine  glory  instantly 
manifested.  When  idolatry  became  more 
shameless  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  Manasseh 
placed  a  "carved  image"  in  the  "house  of  God," 
and  probably  removed  the  ark-  to  make  way 
for  it.  This  may  account  for  the  subsequent 
statement  that  it  was  reinstated  by  Josiah  (2 
Chr.  xxxiii.  7,  xxxv.  3).  It  was  probably  taken 
captive  or  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (2 
Esdr.  x.  22).  Prideaux's  argument  that  there 
must  have  been  an  ark  in  the  second  Temple 
is  of  no  weight  against  express  testimony,  such 
as  that  of  Josephus. 

Armaged'don,  "the  hill,  or  city  of  Megiddo" 
(Rev.  xvi.  16).  The  scene  of  the  struggle  of 
good  and  evil  is  suggested  by  that  battle-field, 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  which  was  famous  for 
two  great  victories,  of  Barak  over  the  Canaan- 
ites,  and  of  Gideon  over  the  Midianites ;  and 
for  two  great  disasters,  the  death  of  Saul  and 
of  Josiah. 

Arme'nia  is  nowhere  mentioned  under  that 
name  in  the  original  Hebrew,  though  it  occurs 
in  the  English  version  (2  K.  xix.  37)  for  Ara- 
rat.  Armenia  is  that  lofty  plateau  whence  the 


rivers  Euphrates,  Tigris,  Araxes  and  Acamp- 
sis  pour  down  their  waters  in  different  direc- 
tions;  the  first  two  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  last 
two  respectively  to  the  Caspian  and  Euxine 
seas.  It  may  be  termed  the  nucleus  of  the 
mountain  system  of  Western  Asia ;  from  the 
center  of  the  plateau  rise  two  lofty  chains  of 
mountains,  which  run  from  E.  to  W.,  con- 
verging towards  the  Caspian,  sea,  but  parallel 
to  each  other  towards  the  W.  The  slight  ac- 
quaintance which  the  Hebrews  had  with  this 
country  was  probably  derived  from  the  Phoe- 
nicians. There  are  signs  of  their  knowledge 
having  been  progressive.  Isaiah,  in  his  proph- 
ecies regarding  Babylon,  speaks  of  the  hosts 
as  coming  from  the  "mountains"  (xiii.  4),  while 
Jeremiah  employs  the  specific  names  Ararat 
and  Minni  (li.  27).  Ezekiel,  apparently  better 
acquainted  with  the  country,  uses  a  name 
which  was  familiar  to  its  own  inhabitants,  To- 
garmah. 

Armlet,  an  ornament  universal  in  the  East, 
especially  among  women ;  used  by  princes  as 
one  of  the  insignia  of  royalty,  and  by  distin- 
guished persons  in  general.  The  word  is  not 
used  in  the  A.  V.,  as  even  in  2  Sam.  i.  10  they 
render  it  by  "the  bracelet  on  his  arm."  Some- 
times only  one  was  worn,  on  the  right  arm 
(Eccles.  xxi,  21).  ,  From  Cant.  viii.  6  it  ap- 
pears that  the  signet  sometimes  consisted  of 
a  jewel  on  the  armlet.  These  ornaments  were 
used  by  most  ancient  princes.  They  are  fre- 
quent on  the  sculptures  of  Persepolis  and  Nin- 
eveh, and  were  worn  by  the  kings  of  Persia. 


Soldier  in  full  armor. 


Arms,  Armor.  The  subject  naturally  divides 
itself  into:  I.  Offensive  weapons — Arms.  II. 
Defensive  weapons  —  Armor.  —  I.  Ofifensive 
weapons,    i.  Apparently  the  earliest  known 


35 


ARMS,  ARMOR 


ARMY 


and  most  widely  used  was  the  Sword.  Very 
little  can  be  gathered  as  to  its  shape,  size,  ma- 
terial or  mode  of  use.  Perhaps  if  anything  is 
to  be  inferred  it  is  that  the  Chereb  is  both  a 
lighter  and  a  shorter  weapon  than  the  modern 
sword.  It  was  carried  in  a  sheath  (i  Sam.  xvii. 
51 ;  2  Sam.  xx.  8;  i  Chr,  xxi.  27),  slung  by  a 
girdle  (i  Sam.  xxv.  13)  and  resting  upon  the 
thigh  (Ps.  xlv.  3;  Judg.  iii.  16),  or  upon  the 


Egyptian  Battle-axes. 

hips  (2  Sam.  xx.  8).  Doubtless  it  was  of  met- 
al, from  the  allusion  to  its  brightness  and  "glit- 
tering;"  but  from  Josh.  V.  2,  3  we  may  perhaps 
infer  that  in  early  times  the  material  was  flint. 
2.  Next  to  the  sword  was  the  Spear  ;  and  of  this 
weapon  we  meet  with  at  least  three  distinct 
kinds,  a.  The  largest  kind,  such  as  the  weap- 
on of  Goliath  (i  Sam.  xvii.  7,  45 ;  2  Sam.  xxi. 
19;  I  Chr.  XX.  5),  and  also  of  other  giants  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  21 ;  i  Chr.  xi.  23)  and  mighty  war- 
riors (2  Sam.  ii.  23,  xxiii.  18;  i  Chr.  xi.  11,  20). 
b.  Apparently  lighter  than  the  preceding  was 
the  "Javelin."   When  not  in  action  it  was  car- 


Egyptian  Archer. 

ried  on  the  back  of  the  warrior  (i  Sam.  xvii. 
6,  A.  V.  "target"),  c.  Another  kind  of  spear 
occurs  in  Num.  xxv.  7,  and  i  K.  xviii.  28,  and 
frequently  in  the  later  books,  as  in  i  Chr.  xii. 
8  ("buckler"),  2  Chr.  xi.  12.  d.  It  was  prob- 
ably a  lighter  missile  or  "dart."  See  2  Chr. 
xxiii.  10,  xxxii.  5  ("darts")  ;  Neh.  iv.  17,  23  (see 
margin);  Job  xxxiii.  18,  xxxvi.  12;  Joel  ii.  8. 
3.  Of  missile  weapons  of  oflfense  the  chief  was 


undoubtedly  the  Bow.  It  is  met  with  in  the 
earliest  stages  of  the  history,  in  use  both  for 
the  chase  (Gen,  xxi.  20,  xxvii.  3)  and  war 
(xlvii.  22).  From  an  allusion  in  Job  vi.  4,  ar- 
rows would  seem  to  have  been  sometimes  poi- 
soned ;  and  Ps.  cxx.  4  may  point  to  a  practice 
of  using  arrows  with  some  burning  material 
attached  to  them.  4.  The  Sling  is  first  men- 
tioned in  Judg.  XX.  16.  This  simple  weapon 
with  which  David  killed  the  giant  Philistine 
was  the  natural  attendant  of  a  shepherd.  Later 
in  the  monarchy,  slingers  formed  part  of  the 
regular  army  (2  K.  iii.  25).  II.  Armor,  i. 
The  Breastplate,  enumerated  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  arms  of  Goliath,  a  "coat  of  mail," 
literally  a  "breastplate  of  scales"  (i  Sam,  xvii. 
5),  This  word  has  furnished  one  of  the  names 
of  Mount  Hermon  (see  Deut.  iii.  9),  2.  The 
habergeon  is  mentioned  but  twice — a  reference 
to  the  gown  of  the  high-priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  32, 
xxxix.  23).  It  was  probably  a  quilted  shirt 
or  doublet.  3.  The  Helmet  is  referred  to  in  i 
Sam.  xvii.  5;  2  Chr.  xxvi.  14;  Ezek.  xxvii.  10. 
4.  Greaves,  or  defenses  for  the  feet  made  of 


Assyrian  Helmets.  " 

brass,  are  named  in  i  Sam.  xvii.  6,  only.  5. 
Two  kinds  of  Shield  are  distinguishable,  a. 
The  large  shield,  encompassing  (Ps.  v.  12)  the 
whole  person.  When  not  in  actual  conflict  it 
was  carried  before  the  warrior  (i  Sam.  xvii.  7, 
41).  b.  Of  smaller  dimensions  was  the  buckler 
or  target,  probably  for  use  in  hand-to-hand  fight 
I  K.  x.  16  47;  2  Chr.  ix.  15,  16). 

Army.  i.  Jewish  Army. — The  military  or- 
ganization of  the  Jews  commenced  with  their 
departure  from  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  was 
adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  expedition  on 
whtch  they  then  entered.  Every  man  above 
20  years  of  age  was  a  soldier  (Num.  i.  3)  ;  each 
tribe  formed  a  regiment  with  its  own  banner 
and  its  own  leader  (Num.  ii.  2,  x.  14)  ;  their 
positions  in  the  camp  or  on  the  march  were 
accurately  fixed  (Num.  ii.)  ;  the  whole  army 
started  and  stopped  at  a  given  signal  (Num.  x. 
5,  6) ;  thus  they  came  up  out  of  Egypt  ready 
for  the  fight  (Ex.  xiii.  18).  On  the  approach 
of  an  enemy,  a  conscription  was  made  from 
the  general  body  under  the  direction  of  a  mus- 
ter-master (Deut.  XX.  5;  2  K.  xxv.  19),  by 


36 


THE  LIBRARY 

0  -  T"" 


ARMY 


ASA 


whom  also  the  officers  were  appointed  (Deut. 
XX.  9).  The  army  was  then  divided  into  thou- 
sands and  hundreds  under  their  respective  cap- 
tains (Num.  xxxi.  14),  and  still  further  into 
families  (Xum.  ii.  34;  2  Chr.  xxv.  5,  xxvi.  12), 
the  family  being  regarded  as  the  unit  in  Jewish 
polity.  With  the  kings  arose  the  custom  of 
maintaining  a  body-guard,  which  formed  the 
nucleus  of  a  standing  army.  Thus  Saul  had  a 
band  of  3,000  select  warriors  (i  Sam.  xiii.  2, 
xiv.  52,  xxiv.  2),  and  David,  before  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne,  600  (l  Sam.  xxiii.  13,  xxv. 
13).  This  band  he  retained  after  he  became 
king,  and  added  the  Cherethites  and  Pelethites 
(2  Sam.  XV.  18,  XX.  7),  together  with  another 
class,  Shalishim,  officers  of  high  rank,  the  chief 
of  whom  (2  K.  vii.  2 ;  i  Chr.  xii.  18)  was  im- 
mediately about  the  king's  person.  David  fur- 
ther organized  a  national  militia,  divided  into 
twelve  regiments  imder  their  respective  offi- 
cers, each  of  which  was  called  out  for  one 
month  in  the  year  (i  Chr.  xxvii.  i);  at  the 
head  of  the  army  when  in  active  service  he 
appointed  a  commander-in-chief  (i  Sam.  xiv. 
50).  -Hitherto  the  army  had  consisted  entirely 
of  infantry  (i  Sam.  iv.  10,  xv.  4),  the  use  of 
horses  having  been  restrained  by  divine  com- 
mand (Deut.  xvii.  16)  ;  but  we  find  that  as  the 
foreign  relations  of  the  kingdom  extended, 
much  importance  was  attached  to  them.  David 
had  reserved  a  hundred  chariots  from  the  spoils 


Roman  Captain  or  Centurion. 

of  the  Syrians  (2  Sam.  viii.  4)  ;  these  probably 
served  as  the  foundation  of  the  force  which 
Solomon  afterwards  enlarged  through  his  alli- 
ance with  Egypt  (i  K.  X.  26,  28,  29).  It  does 
not  appear  that  the  system  established  by  Da- 
vid was  maintained  by  the  kings  of  Judah ;  but 
in  Israel  the  proximity  of  the  hostile  kingdom 
of  Syria  necessitated  the  maintenance  of  a 
standing  army.  The  militia  was  occasionally 
called  out  in  time  of  peace  (2  Chr.  xiv.  8,  xxv. 


5,  xxvi.  11);  but  such  cases  were  exceptional. 
On  the  other  hand  the  body-guard  appears  to 
have  been  regularly  kept  up  (i  K.  xiv.  28;  2  K. 
xi.  4,  11).  Occasional  reference  is  made  to  war- 
chariots  (2  K.  viii.  21)  ;  but  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  no  force  of  the  kind  could  be  maintained, 
and  the  Jews  were  obliged  to  seek  the  aid  of 
Eg)-pt  for  horses  and  chariots  (2  K.  xviii.  23, 
24;  Is.  xxxi.  i).  The  maintenance  and  equip- 
ment of  the  soldiers  at  the  public  expense  dates 
from  the  establishment  of  a  standing  army. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  soldier  ever  received 
pay  even  under  the  kings.  The  numerical 
strength  of  the  Jewish  army  cannot  be  ascer- 
tained with  any  degree  of  accuracy ;  the  num- 
bers, as  given  in  the  text,  are  manifestly  in- 
correct, and  the  discrepancies  in  the  various 
statements  irreconcilable. 

II.  Roman  Army. — The  Roman  army  was 
divided  into  legions,  the  number  of  which  va- 
ried considerably,  each  under  six  tribuni 
("chief  captains,"  Acts  xxi.  31),  who  command- 
ed by  turns.  The  legion  was  subdivided  into 
ten  cohorts  ("band,"  Acts  x.  i),  the  cohort  into 
three  maniples,  and  the  maniple  into  two  cen- 
turies, containing  originally  100  men,  as  the 
name  implies,  but  subsequently  from  50  to  100 
men,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  legion. 
There  were  thus  60  centuries  in  a  legion,  each 
under  the  command  oi  a  centurion  (Acts  x.  i, 
22;  Matt.  viii.  5,  xxvii.  54).  In  addition  to  the 
legionary  cohorts,  independent  cohorts  of  vol- 
unteers served  under  the  Roman  standards. 
One  of  these  cohorts  was  named  the  Italian 
(Acts  X.  i),  as  consisting  of  volunteers  from 
Italy.  The  cohort  named  "Augustus"  (Acts 
xxvii.  i)  may  have  consisted  of  the  volunteers 
from  Sebaste.  Others,  however,  think  that  it 
was  a  cohors  Augusta,  similar  to  the  legio  Au- 
gusta. The  headquarters  of  the  Roman  forces 
in  Judiea  were  at  Caesarea. 

A'sa  (physician,  or  cure),  i.  Son  of  Abijah, 
and  third  king  of  Judah  (B.  C.  956-916).  In 
his  zeal  against  heathenism  he  did  not  spare 
his  grandmother  Maachah,  who  occupied  the 
special  dignity  of  "King's  Mother,"  to  which 
great  importance  was  attached  in  the  Jewish 
court.  Asa  burnt  the  symbol  of  her  religion  (i 
K.  XV.  13),  and  threw  its  ashes  into  the  brook 
Kidron,  and  then  deposed  Maachah  from  her 
dignity.  He  also  placed  in  the  Temple  certain 
gifts  which  his  father  had  dedicated,  and  re- 
newed the  great  altar  which  the  idolatrous 
priests  apparently  had  desecrated  (2  Chr.  xv. 
8).  Besides  this,  he  fortified  cities  on  his  fron- 
tiers, and  raised  an  army,  amounting,  according 
to  2  Chr.  xiv.  8,  to  580,000  men,  a  number  prob- 
ably exaggerated  by  an  error  of  the  copyist. 
During  Asa's  reign,  Zerah,  at  the  head  of  an 


ASH 


ASIA 


enormous  host  (2  Chr.  xiv.  9),  attacked  Mare- 
shah.  There  he  was  utterly  defeated,  and 
driven  back  with  immense  loss  to  Gerar.  The 
peace  which  followed  this  victory  was  broken 
by  the  attempt  of  Baasha  of  Israel  to  fortify 
Ramah.  To  stop  this  Asa  purchased  the  lielp 
of  Benhadad  I.,  king  of  Damascus,  by  a  large 
payment  of  treasure,  forced  Baasha  to  aban- 
don his  purpose,  and  destroyed  the  works 
which  he  had  begun  at  Ramah.  In  his  old  age 
Asa  suffered  from  the  gout.  He  died  greatly 
beloved  and  honored  in  the  41st  year  of  his 
reign.  2.  Ancestor  of-  Berechiah,  a  Levite  who 
resided  in  one  of  the  villages  of  the  Netophat- 
ites  after  the  return  from  Babylon  (i  Chr.  ix. 
16). 

Ash  occurs  only  in  Is.  xliv.  14.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  what  is  the  tree  denoted  by 
the  Hebrew  word ;  the  LXX  and  the  Vulg. 
understand  some  species  of  pine-tree.  Perhaps 
the  larch  may  be  intended. 

Ash'dod,  or  Azo'tus  (Acts  viii.  40),  one  of 
the  five  confederate  cities  of  the  Philistines, 


Aslidod. 

situated  about  30  miles  from  the  southern  fron- 
tier of  Palestine,  3  from  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  and  nearly  midway  between  Gaza  and 
Joppa.  It  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  47),  but  was  never  subdued  by  the 
Israelites.  Its  chief  importance  arose  from  its 
position  on  the  high  road  from  Palestine  to 
Egypt.  It  is  now  an  insignificant  village,  with 
no  memorials  of  its  ancient  importance,  but  is 
still  called  Esdud. 

Ash'er,  Apoc.  and  N.  T.  A'ser,  the  8th  son 
of  Jacob,  by  Zilpah,  Leah's  handmaid  (Gen. 
XXX.  13).  The  general  position  of  his  tribe 
was  on  the  sea-shore  from  Carmel  northwards, 
with  Manasseh  on  the  south,  Zebulun  and  Is- 
sachar  on  the  south-east,  and  Naphtali  on  the 
north-east.  The  boundaries  and  towns  are 
given  in  Josh.  xix.  24-31,  xvii.  10,  11,  and  Judg. 
i.  31,  32.  They  possessed  the  maritime  portion 
of  the  rich  plain  of  Esdraelon,  probably  for  a 


distance  of  8  or  10  miles  from  the  shore.  This 
territory  contained  some  of  the  richest  soil  in 
all  Palestine ;  and  to  this  fact,  as  well  as  to 
their  proximity  to  the  Phoenicians,  the  degen- 
eracy of  the  tribe  may  be  attributed  (Judg.  i. 
31.  V.  17). 

Ashes.  The  ashes  on  the  altar  of  burnt-of- 
fering were  gathered  into  a  cavity  in  its  sur- 
face. On  the  days  of  the  three  solemn  festi- 
vals the  ashes  were-  not  removed,  but  the  ac- 
cumulation was  taken  away  afterwards  in  the 
morning,  the  priests  casting  lots  for  the  office. 
The  ashes  of  a  red  heifer  burnt  entire,  accord- 
ing to  regulations  prescribed  in  Num.  xix.,  had 
the  ceremonial  efificacy  of  purifying  the  un- 
clean (Heb.  ix.  13),  but  of  polluting  the  clean. 
[Sacrifice.]  Ashes  about  the  person,  especially 
on  the  head,  were  used  as  a  sign  of  sorrow. 
[Mourning.] 

Ash'kelon,  As'kelon,  Apoc.  As'calon,  one 
of  the  five  cities  of  the  lords  of  the  Philistines 
(Josh.  xiii.  3;  I  Sam.  vi.  17),  but  less  often 
mentioned  and  apparently  less  known  to  the 
Jews  than  the  other  four.  Samson  went  down 
from  Timnath  to  Ashkelon  (Judg.  xiv.  19),  as 
if  to  a  remote  place  whence  his  exploit  was  not 
likely  to  be  heard  of.  In  the  post-biblical 
times  Ashkelon  rose  to  considerable  impor- 
tance. Near  the  town  were  the  temple  and 
sacred  lake  of  Derceto,  the  Syrian  Venus.  The 
soil  around  was  remarkable  for  its  fertility. 
Ascalon  played  a  memorable  part  in  the  strug- 
gles of  the  Crusades. 

Ash'taroth,  and  once  As'taroth,  a  city  on 
the  E.  of  Jordan,  in  Bashan,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Og,  doubtless  so  called  from  being  a  seat  of 
the  worship  of  the  goddess  of  the  same  name. 
It  is  generally  mentioned  as  a  description  or 
definition  of  Og  (Deut.  i.  4;  Josh.  ix.  10,  xii. 
4,  xiii.  12).  The  only  trace  of  the  name  yet 
recovered  in  these  interesting  districts  is  Tell- 
Ashterah,  or  Asherah,  and  of  this  nothing  more 
than  the  name  is  known. 

Ash'toreth,  the  principal  female  diyinity  of 
the  Phoenicians,  called  Ishtar  by  the  Assyrians, 
and  Astarte  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  She 
was  by  some  ancient  writers  identified  with 
the  moon.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Assyr- 
ian Ishtar  was  not  the  moon-goddess,  but  the 
planet  Venus ;  and  Astarte  was  by  many  iden- 
tified with  the  goddess  V enus  (or  Aphrodite) 
as  well  as  with  the  planet  of  that  name.  It 
is  certain  that  the  worship  of  Astarte  became 
identified  with  that  of  Venus,  and  that  this 
worship  was  connected  with  the  most  impure 
rites  is  apparent  from  the  close  connection  of 
this  goddess  with  Asherah  (i  K.  xi.  5,  33;  2  K. 
xxiii.  13). 

Asia.  The  passages  in  the  N.  T.,  where  this 
38 


ASP 


ASSYRIA 


•Mord  occurs,  are  the  following:  Acts  ii.  9,  vi. 
9,  xvi.  6,  xix.  10,  22,  26,  27,  XX.  4,  16,  18,  xxi. 
27,  xxvii.  2;  Rom.  xvi.  5;  I  Cor.  xvi.  19;  2  Cor. 
i.  8;  2  Tim.  i.  15;  i  Pet.  i.  i ;  Rev.  i.  4,  11.  In 
all  these  it  may  be  confidently  stated  that  the 


Ashtoreth. 

word  is  used  for  a  Roman  province  which  em- 
braced the  western  part  of  the  peninsula  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  of  which  Ephesus  was  the 
capital. 

Asp  (pethen).  The  Hebrew  word  occurs  in 
the  six  following  passages :  Deut.  xxxii.  33  ; 
Job  XX.  14,  16;  Ps.  Iviii.  5,  xci.  13;  Is.  xi.  8). 
It  is  expressed  in  the  passages  from  the  Psalms 
by  adder  in  the  text  of  the  A.  V.,  and  by  asp 
in  the  margin ;  elsewhere  the  text  of  the  A. 
7.  has  asp  as  the  representative  of  the  orig- 
inal word  pethen.  That  some  kind  of  poison- 
ous serpent  is  denoted  by  the  Hebrew  word 
is  clear  from  the  passages  quoted  above.  We 
further  learn  from  Ps.  Iviii.  5  that  the  pethen 
was  a  snake  upon  which  the  serpent-charmers 
practiced  their  art.  From  Is.  xi.  8  it  would 
appear  that  the  pethen  was  a  dweller  in  holes 
of  walls,  &c.  As  the  Egyptian  cobra  is  more 
frequently  than  any  other  sj  acies  the  subject 
upon  which  the  serpent-char  lers  of  the  Bible 
lands  practice  their  art,  and  as  it  is  fond  of 
concealing  itself  in  walls  anc  in  holes  (Is.  xi. 
8),  it  appears  to  have  the  be;  claim  to  repre- 
sent the  pethen. 

Ass.  The  ass  in  Eastern  countries  is  a  very 
diflferent  animal  from  what  he  is  in  Western 
Europe.  The  most  noble  and  honorable 
amongst  the  Jews  were  wont  to  be  mounted 
on  asses;  and  in  this  manner  our  Lord  him- 
self made  his  triumphant  entry  into  Jerusalem 
(Matt.  xxi.  2).  Balaam  rode  on  a  she-ass. 
The  asses  of  Kish  which  Saul  sought  were  she- 
asses.   The  Shunammite  (2  K.  iv.  22,  24)  rode 


on  one  when  she  went  to  seek  Elisha.  They 
were  she-asses  which  formed  the  special  care 
of  one  of  David's  officers  (i  Chr.  xxvii.  30).  The 
species  known  to  the  ancient  Jews  inhabits  the 
deserts  of  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  the  north- 
ern part  of  Arabia.  Mr.  Layard  remarks  that 
in  fleetness  the  wild  ass  equals  the  gazelle, 
and  to  overtake  them  is  a  feat  which  only  one 
or  two  of  the  most  celebrated  mares  have  been 
known  to  accomplish. 

Assyr'ia,  Assh'ur,  was  a  great  and  powerful 
country  lying  on  the  Tigris  (Gen.  ii.  14),  the 
capital  of  which  was  Nineveh  (Gen.  x.  11, 
&c.).  It  derived  its  name  apparently  from 
Asshur,  the  son  of  Shem  (Gen.  x.  22),  who  in 
later  times  was  worshiped  by  the  Assyrians 
as  their  chief  god.  The  boundaries  of  Assyria 
differed  greatly  at  different  periods.  Probably 
in  the  earliest  times  it  was  confined  to  a  small , 
tract  of  low  country,  lying  chiefly  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tigris.  Gradually  its  limits  were 
extended,  until  it  came  to  be  regarded  as  com- 
prising the  whole  region  between  the  Arme- 
nian mountains  (lat.  37°  30')  upoii  the  north, 
and  upon  the  south  the  country  about  Bagh- 
dad (lat.  33°  30').  Eastward  its  boundary  was 
the  high  range  of'Zagros,  or  mountains  of 
Kurdistan ;  westward,  it  was,  according  to  the 
views  of  some,  bounded  by  the  Mesopotamian 
desert,  while,  according  to  others,  it  reached 
the  Euphrates. — The  classical  geographers  di- 
vided Assyria  into  a  number  of  regions,  which 
appear  to  be  chiefly  named  from  cities,  as  Ar- 
belitis  from  Arbela ;  Calacene  (or  Calachine) 
from  Calah  or  Halah  (Gen.  x.  11  ;  2  K.  xvii.  6)  ; 
Apolloniatis  from  Appolonia ;  Sittacene  from 
Sittace,  &c.  Adiabene,  however,  the  richest 
region  of  all,  derived  its  appellation  from  the 
Zab  (Diab)  river  on  which  it  lay.  The  chief 
cities  of  Assyria  in  the  time  of  its  greatness 
appear  to  have  been  the  following:  Nineveh, 


Eastern  Ass. 

which  is  marked  by  the  mounds  opposite  Mo- 
sul (Nebi-Yunus  and  Kouyunjik)  ;  Calah  or 
Halah,  now  Nimrud ;  Asshur,  now  Kileh  Sher- 
ghat ;  Sargina,  or  Dur-Sargina,  now  Khorsa- 
bad  ;  Arbela,  still  Arbil ;  Opis,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Diyaleh  with  the  Tigris;  and  Sittace,  a 


39 


ASSYRIA 


ATHENS 


little  farther  down  the  latter  river,  if  this  place 
should  not  rather  be  reckoned  to  Babylonia. — 
Scripture  informs  us  that  Assyria  was  peopled 
from  Uabylon  (Gen.  x.  ii),  and  both  classical 
tradition  and  the  monuments  of  the  country 
agree  in  this  representation. — As  a  country,  As- 
syria was  evidently  known  to  Moses  (Gen.  ii. 
14,  XXV.  18;  Num.  xxiv.  22,  24);  but  it  does 
not  appear  in  Jewish  history  as  a  kingdom  till 
the  reign  of  Menahem  (about  B.  C.  770). 
Herodotus  relates  that  the  Assyrians  were 
"lords  of  Asia"  for  520  years,  till  the  Median 
kingdom  was  formed,  B.  C.  708.  He  would 
thus,  it  appears,  have  assigned  to  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Assyrian  empire  a  date  not  very 
greatly  anterior  to  B.  C.  1228.  This  is,  per- 
haps, the  utmost  that  can  be  determined  with 
any  approach  to  certainty.  — The  Mesopota- 
mian  researches  have  rendered  it  apparent  that 
the  original  seat  of  government  was  not  at 
Nineveh,  but  at  Kileh-Sherghat,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tigris.  The  kings  proved  to  have 
reigned  there  are  fourteen  in  number,  divisible 
into  three  groups,  and  their  reigns  are  thought 
to  have  covered  a  space  of  nearly  350  years, 
from  B.  C.  1273  to  B.  C.  930.  The  most  re- 
markable monarch  of  the  series  was  called  Tig- 
lath-pileser.  He  appears  to  have  been  king  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  and 
thus  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Samuel. 
The  later  kings  of  the  series  are  only  known 
to  us  as  the  ancestors  of  two  great  monarchs, 
Sardanapalus  the  first,  and  his  son,  Shalman- 
eser,  or  Shalmanubar,  a  still  greater  conquer- 
or. His  son  and  grandson  followed  in  his 
steps,  but  scarcely  equaled  his  glory.  The 
latter  is  thought  to  be  identical  with  the  Bibli- 
cal Pul,  Phul  or  Phalock.  [Pul.]— The  fall 
of  Assyria,  long  previously  prophesied  by 
Isaiah  (x.  5-19),  was  effected  by  the  growing 
strength  and  boldness  of  the  Medes.  If  we 
may  trust  Herodotus,  the  first  Median  attack 
on  Nineveh  took  place  about  the  year  B.  C. 
633.  For  some  time  their  efforts  were  unsuc- 
cessful ;  but  after  a  while,  having  won  over 
the  Babylonians  to  their  side,  they  became 
superior  to  the  Assyrians  in  the  field,  and  about 
B.  C.  625,  or  a  little  earlier,  laid  final  siege  to 
the  capital.  Fulfillment  of  Prophecy. — The 
prophecies  of  Nahum  and  Zephaniah  (ii.  13-15) 
against  Assyria  were  probably  delivered  short- 
ly before  the  catastrophe.  In  accordance  with 
Nahum's  announcement  (iii.  19)  we  find  that 
Assyria  never  succeeded  in  maintaining  a  dis- 
tinct nationality.  General  Character  of  the 
Empire. — The  Assyrian  monarchs  bore  sway 
over  a  number  of  petty  kings  through  the  en- 
tire extent  of  their  dominions.  These  native 
princes  were  feudatories  of  the  Great  Mon- 


arch, of  whom  they  held  their  crown  by  the 
double  tenure  of  homage  and  tribute.  It  is 
not  quite  certain  how  far  Assyria  require,d  a 
religious  conformity  from  the  subject  people. 
Her  religion  was  a  gross  and  complex  polythe- 
ism, comprising  the  worship  of  thirteen  prin- 
cipal and  numerous  minor  divinities,  at  the 
head  of  all  of  whom  stood  the  chief  god,  Assh- 
ur,  who  seems  to  be  the  deified  patriarch  of 
the  nation  (Gen.  x.  22).  The  inscriptions  ap- 
pear to  state  that  in  all  countries  over  which 
the  Assyrians  established  their  supremacy  they 
set  up  "the  laws  of  Asshur,"  and  "altars  to 
the  Great  Gods."  Civilization  of  the  Assyr- 
ians.— The  civilization  of  the  Assyrians  was 
derived  originally  from  the  Babylonians.  They 
were  a  Shemitic  race,  originally  resident  in 
Babylonia  (which  at  that  time  was  Cushite), 
and  thus  acquainted  with  the  Babylonian  in- 
ventions and  discoveries,  who  ascended  the 
valley  of  the  Tigris  and  established  in  the 
tract  immediately  below  the  Armenian  moun- 
tains a  separate  and  distinct  nationality.  Still, 
as  their  civilization  developed,  it  became  in 
many  respects  peculiar.  Their  art  is  of  home 
growth.  But  they  were  still  in  the  most  im- 
portant points  barbarians.  Their  government 
was  rude  and  inartificial ;  their  religion  coarse 
and  sensual ;  and  their  conduct  of  war  cruel. 

As'taroth,  Deut.  i.  4.  [Ashtaroth.] 

Astar'te.  [Ashtoreth.] 

Athenians,  natives  of  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  21). 

Ath'ens,  the  capital  of  Attica,  and  the  chief 
seat  of  Grecian  learning  and  civilization  during 
the  golden  period  of  the  history  of  Greece. 
St.  Paul  visited  it  in  his  journey  from  Mace- 
donia, and  appears  to  have  remained  there 
some  time  (Acts  xvii.  14-34;  comp.  i  Thess. 
iii.  i).  In  order  to  understand  the  localities 
mentioned  in  the  narrative  it  is  necessary  to 
give  a  brief  account  of  the  topography  of  the 
city.  Athens  is  situated  about  three  miles 
from  the  sea-coast,  in  the  central  plain  of  At- 
tica. In  this  plain  rise  several  eminences.  Of 
these  the  most  prominent  is  a  lofty  insulated 
mountain,  with  a  conical  peaked  summit,  now 
called  the  Hill  of  St.  George,  and  which  bore 
in  ancient  times  the  name  of  Lycabettus.  This 
mountain,  which  was  not  included  within  the 
ancient  walls,  lies  to  the  north-east  of  Athens, 
and  forms  the  most  striking  feature  in  the 
environs  of  the  city.  It  is  to  Athens  what  Ve- 
suvius is  to  Naples,  or  Arthur's  Seat  to  Edin- 
burgh. South-west  of  Lycabettus  there  are 
four  hills  of  moderate  height,  all  of  which 
formed  part  of  the  city.  Of  these  the  nearest 
to  Lycabettus,  and  at  the  distance  of  a  mile 
from  the  latter,  was  the  Acropolis,  or  citadel 
of  Athens,  a  square  craggy  rock  rising  abrupt- 


40 


THE  imm 


ATHENS 


ATHENS 


ly  about  150  feet,  with  a  flat  summit  of  about 
1,000  feet  long  from  east  to  west,  by  500  feet 
broad  from  north  to  south.  Immediately  west 
of  the  Acropolis  is  a  second  hill  of  irregular 
form,  the  Areopagus  (Mars  Hill).  To  the  south- 
west there  rises  a  third  hill,  the  Pnyx,  on  which 
the  assemblies  of  the  citizens  were  held ; 
and  to  the  south  of  the  latter  is  a  fourth  hill, 
known  as  the  IMuseum.    On  the  eastern  and 

Erechtheum.    Parthenon.    Tuikish  Tower. 


Modern  City.  Temple  of  Theseus. 

Southwestern  part  of  Modern  City. 

ATHENS. 

western  sides  of  the  city  there  run  two  small 
streams,  which  are  nearly  exhausted  before 
they  reach  the  sea,  by  the  heats  of  summer 
and  by  the  channels  for  artificial  irrigation. 
That  on  the  east  is  the  Ilissus,  which  flowed 
through  the  southern  quarter  of  the  city;  that 
on  the  west  is  the  Cephisus.  South  of  the  city 
was  seen  the  Saronic  gulf,  with  the  harbors  of 
Athens. — Athens  is  said  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  the  prominence  given  to  the  wor- 
ship of  the  goddess  Athena  (Minerva)  by  its 
king  Erechtheus.  The  inhabitants  were  pre- 
viously called  Cecropidae,  from  Cecrops,  who, 
according  to  tradition,  was  the  original  found- 
er of  the  city.  This  at  first  occupied  only  the 
hill  or  rock  which  afterwards  became  the 
Acropolis;  but  gradually  the  buildings  spread 
over  the  ground  at  the  southern  foot  of  this 
hill.  It  was  not  till  the  time  of  Pisistratus  and 
his  sons  (B.  C.  560-514)  that  the  city  began 
to  assume  any  degree  of  splendor.  The  most 
remarkable  building  of  these  despots  was  the. 
gigantic  temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  or  Ju- 
piter. Xerxes  reduced  the  ancient  city  almost 
to  a  heap  of  ashes.  After  the  departure  of  the 
Persians  its  reconstruction  on  a  much  larger 
scale  was  commenced  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Themistocles,  whose  first  care  was  to 
provide  for  its  safety  by  the  erection  of  walls. 
The  Acropolis  now  formed  the  center  of  the 


city,  round  which  the  new  walls  described  an 
irregular  circle  of  about  60  stadia  or  7^/2  miles 
in  circumference.  But  the  views  of  Themisto- 
cles were  not  confined  to  the  mere  defense  of 
Athens-  he  contemplated  making  her  a  great 
naval  power,  and  for  this  purpose  adequate 
docks  and  arsenals  were  required.  Previously 
the  Athenians  -had  used  as  their  only  harbor 
the 'open  roadstead  of  Phalerum,  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  Phaleric  bay,  where  the  sea- 
shore is  nearest  to  Athens.  But  Themistocles 
transferred  the  naval  station  of  the  Athenians 
to  the  peninsula  of  Piraeus,  which  is  distant 
about  43/2  miles  from  Athens,  and  contains 
three  natural  harbors.  It  was  not  till  the  ad- 
ministration of  Pericles  that  the  walls  were 
built  which  connected  Athens  with  her  ports. 
Under  the  administration  of  Pericles  Athens 
was  adorned  with  numerous  public  buildings, 
which  existed  in  all  their  glory  when  St.  Paul 
visited  the  city.  The  Acropolis  was  the  center 
of  the  architectural  splendor  of  Athens.  After 
the  Persian  wars  the  hall  had  ceased  to  be  in- 
habited, and  was  appropriated  to  the  worship 
of  Athena  and  to  the  other  guardian  deities  of 
the  city.  It  was  covered  with  the  temples  of 
gods  and  heroes ;  and  thus  its  platform  present- 
ed not  only  a  sanctuary,  but  a  museum,  con- 
taining the  finest  productions  of  the  architect 
and  the  sculptor,  in  which  the  whiteness  of  the 
marble  was  relieved  by  brilliant  colors,  and 
rendered  still  more  dazzling  by  the  transparent 
clearness  of  the  Athenian  atmosphere.  The 


Temple  of  Victory  at  Athens. 

only  approach  to  it  was  from  the  Agora  on 
its  western  side.  At  the  top  of  a  magnificent 
flight  of  marble  steps,  70  feet  broad,  stood  the 
Propylaea,  constructed  under  the  auspices  of 
Pericles,  and  which  served  as  a  suitable  en- 
trance to  the  exquisite  works  within.  The 
Propylaea  were  themselves  one  of  the  master- 
pieces of  Athenian  art.  They  were  entirely  of 
Pentelic  marble,  and  covered  the  whole  of  the 


41 


ATHENS 


ATHENS 


western  end  of  the  Acropolis,  having  a  breadth 
of  i68  feet.  On  passing  through  the  Propylaea 
all  the  glories  of  the  Acropolis  became  visible. 
The  chief  building  was  the  Parthenon  (i.  e. 
House  of  the  Virgin),  the  most  perfect  pro- 
duction of  Grecian  architecture.  It  derived 
its  name  from  its  being  the  temple  of  Athena 
Parthenos,  or  Athena  the  Virgin,  the  invinci- 
,ble  goddess  of  war.  It  stood  on  the  highest 
part  of  the  Acropolis,  near  its  center.  It  was 
entirely  of  Pentelic  marble,  on  a  rustic  base- 
ment of  ordinary  limestone,  and  its  architec- 
ture, which  was  of  the  Doric  order,  was  of  the 
purest  kind.  It  was  adorned  with  the  most 
exquisite  sculptures,  executed  by  various  art- 
ists under  the  direction  of  Phidias.  A  large 
number  of  these  sculptures  were  brought  to 
England  by  Lord  Elgin,  of  whom  they  were 
purchased  by  the  nation  and  deposited  in  the 
British  Museum.  But  the  chief  wonder  of  the 
Parthenon  was  the  colossal  statue  of  the  Vir- 
gin Goddess  executed  by  Phidias  himself.  The 
Acropolis  was  adorned  with  another  colossal 
figure  of  Athena,  in  bronze,  also  the  work  of 
Phidias.  It  stood  in  the  open  air,  nearly  op- 
posite the  Propylaea.  With  its  pedestal  it 
must  have  been  about  70  feet  high,  and  con- 
sequently towered  above  the  roof  of  the  Par- 
thenon, so  that  the  point  of  its  spear  and  the 
crest  of  its  helmet  were  visible  off  the  promon- 
tory of  Sunium  to  ships  approaching  Athens. 
Another  magnificent  building  on  the  Acropolis 
was  the  Erechtheum,  or  temple  of  Erechtheus. 
It  was  one  of  the  finest  models  of  the  Ionic 
order,  as  the  Parthenon  was  of  the  Doric.  It 
stood  to  the  north  of  the  latter  building,  and 
close  to  the  northern  wall  of  the  Acropolis. 
Among  the  remarkable  places  in  other  parts 
of  the  city  we  may  mention,  first,  the  Dionysiac 
theater,  which  occupied  the  slope  at  the  south- 
eastern extremity  of  the  Acropolis.  The  mid- 
dle of  it  was  excavated  out  of  the  rock,  and 
the  rows  of  seats  ascended  in  curves  one  above 
another,  the  diameter  increasing  with  the 
height.  It  was  no  doubt  sufficiently  large  to 
accommodate  the  whole  body  of  Athenian  citi- 
zens, as  well  as  the  strangers  who  flocked  to 
Athens  during  the  Dionysiac  festival,  but  its 
dimensions  cannot  now  be  accurately  ascer- 
tained. It  had  no  roof,  but  the  spectators  were 
probably  protected  from  the  sun  by  an  awn- 
ing, and  from  their  elevated  seats  they  had  a 
distinct  view  of  the  sea  and  of  the  peaked  hills 
of  Salamis  in  the  horizon.  Above  them  rose 
the  Parthenon  and  the  other  buildings  of  the 
Acropolis,  so  that  they  sat  under  the  shadow 
of  the  ancestral  gods  of  the  country.  The 
Areopagus,  or  Hill  of  Ares  (Mars),  is  de- 
scribed elsewhere  [Mars'  Hill.]    The  Pnyx, 


or  place  for  holding  the  public  assemblies  of 
the  Athenians,  stood  on  the  side  of  a  low  rocky 
hill,  at  the  distance  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
from  the  Areopagus.  Between  the  Pnyx  on 
the  west,  the  Areopagus  on  the  north,  and  the 
Acropolis  on  the  east,  and  closely  adjoining 
the  base  of  these  hills,  stood  the  Agora  or 
"Market,"  where  St.  Paul  disputed  daily.  In 
a  direction  from  north-west  to  south-east  a 
street  called  the  Ceramicus  ran  diagonally 
through  the  Agora,  entering  it  through  the  val- 
ley between  the  Pnyx  and  the  Areopagus.  The 
street  was  named  after  a  district  of  the  city, 
which  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  Inner 
and  Outer  Ceramicus.  The  former  lay  within 
the  city  walls,  and  included  the  Agora. 
The  Outer  Ceramicus,  which  formed  a  hand- 
some suburb  on  the  north-west  of  the  city, 
was  the  burial-place  of  all  persons  honored 
with  a  public  funeral.  Through  it  ran  the  road 
to  the  gymnasium  and  gardens  of  the  Acad- 
emy, which  were  situated  about  a  mile  from 
the  walls.  The  Academy  was  the  place  where 
Plato  and  his  disciples  taught.  On  each  side 
of  this  road  were  monuments  to  illustrious 
Athenians,  especially  those  who  had  fallen  in 
battle.  East  of  the  city,  and  outside  the  walls, 
was  the  Lyceum,  a  gymnasium  dedicated  to 
Apollo  Lyceus,  and  celebrated  as  the  place  in 
which  Axistotle  taught. — The  remark  of  the 
sacred  historian  respecting  the  inquisitive  char- 
acter of  the  Athenians  (Acts  xvii.  21)  is  at- 
tested by  the  unanimous  voice  of  antiquity. 
Demosthenes  rebukes  his  countrymen  for  their 
love  of  constantly  .going  about  in  the  market 
and  asking  one  another.  What  news?  Their 
natural  liveliness  was  partly  owing  to  the  pur- 
ity and  clearness  of  the  atmosphere  of  Attica, 
which  also  allowed  them  to  pass  much  of  their 
time  in  the  open  air.  The  transparent  clear- 
ness of  the  atmosphere  is  noticed  by  Euripides 
(Medea,  829),  who  describes  the  Athenians  as 
"delicately  marching  through  most  pellucid 
air."  Modern  travelers  have  not  failed  to  no- 
tice the  same  peculiarity.  Thus  Dean  Stan- 
ley speaks  "of  the  transparent  clearness,  the 
brilliant  coloring  of  an  Athenian  sky;  of  the 
flood  of  fire  with  which  the  marble  columns, 
the  mountains  and  the  sea  are  all  bathed  and 
penetrated  by  an  illumination  of  an  Athenian 
sunset." — St.  Paul  began  his  address  at  Athens 
by  speaking  of  their  "carefulness  in  religion," 
which  is  translated  in  the  A,  V.  "too  supersti- 
tious," an  imfortunate  mistranslation,  as  Cony- 
beare  and  Howson  remark,  "because  it  entirely 
destroys  the  graceful  courtesy  of  St.  Paul's 
opening  address,  and  represents  him  as  begin- 
ning his  speech  l)y  offending  his  audience." 
The  Athenian  carefulness  in  religion  is  con- 


42 


] 


ATONEMENT 

firmed  by  the  ancient  writers.  Thus  Pausanias 
says  that  the  Athenians  surpassed  all  other 
states  in  the  attention  which  they  paid  to  the 
worship  of  the  gods ;  and  hence  the  city  was 
crowded  in  every  direction  with  temples,  altars 
and  other  sacred  buildings.  The  altar  "to  the 
Unknown  God,"  which  St.  Paul  mentions,  has 
been  spoken  of  elsewhere.  Of  the  Christian 
church  founded  by  St.  Paul  at  Athens,  accord- 
ing to  ecclesiastical  tradition,  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite  was  the  first  bishop.  [Dionysius.] 
Atonement,  The  Day  of.  I.  The  great  day 
of  national  humiliation,  and  the  only  one  com- 
manded in  the  Mosaic  law.  [Fasts.]  The 
mode  of  its  observance  is  described  in  Lev. 
xvi.,  and  the  conduct  of  the  people  is  emphat 
ically  enjoined  in  Lev.  xxiii.  26-32.  IL  It  was 
kept  on  the  tenth  day  of  Tisri,  that  is,  from 
the  evening  of  the  ninth  to  the  evening  of  the 
tenth  of  that  month,  five  days  before  the  Feast 
of  Tabernacles.  [Festivals.]  IIL  It  was  kept 
by  the  people  as  a  high  solemn  sabbath.  On 
this  occasion  only  the  high-priest  was  permit- 
ted to  enter  into  the  Holy  of  Holies.  Having 
bathed  his  person  and  dressed  himself  entirely 
in  the  holy  white  linen  garments,  he  brought 
forward  a  young  bullock  for  a  sin-offering,  pur 
chased  at  his  own  cost,  on  account  of  himself 
and  his  family,  and  two  young  goats  for  a  sin- 
ofTering  with  a  ram  for  a  burnt-offering,  which 
were  paid  for  out  of  the  public  treasury,  on 
account  of  the  people.  He  then  presented  the 
two  goats  before  the  Lord  at  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle  and  cast  lots  upon  them.  On  one 
lot  "For  Jehovah"  was  inscribed,  and  on  the 
other  "For  Azazel."  He  next  sacrificed  the 
young  bullock  as  a  sin-offering  for  himself  and 
his  family.  Taking  with  him  some  of  the 
blood  of  the  bullock,  he  filled  a  censer  with 
burning  coals  from  the  brazen  altar,  took  a 
handful  of  incense,  and  entered  into  the  most 
holy  place.  He  then  threw  the  incense  upon 
the  coals  and  enveloped  the  mercy-seat  in  a 
cloud  of  smoke.  Then,  dipping  his  finger  into 
the  blood,  he  sprinkled  it  seven  times  before 
the  mercy-seat  eastward.  The  goat  upon 
which  the  lot  "For  Jehovah"  had  fallen  was 
then  slain  and  the  high-priest  sprinkled  its 
blood  before  the  mercy-seat  in  the  same  manner 
as  he  had  done  that  of  the  bullock.  Going  out 
from  the  Holy  of  Holies  he  purified  the  holy 
place,  sprinkling  some  of  the  blood  of  both  the 
victims  on  the  altar  of  incense.  At  this  time 
no  one  besides  the  high-priest  was  suffered 
to  be  present  in  the  holy  place.  The  purifi- 
cation of  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  of  the  holy 
place,  being  thus  completed,  the  high-priest 
laid  his  hands  upon  the  head  of  the  goat  on 
which  the  lot  "For  Azazel"  had  fallen,  and 


AUGUSTUS  C^SAR 

confessed  over  it  all  the  sins  of  the  people.  The 
goat  was  then  led,  by  a  man  chosen  for  the 
purpose,  into  the  wilderness,  into  "a  land  not 
inhabited,"  and  was  there  let  loose.  The  high- 
priest  after  this  returned  into  the  holy  place, 
bathed  himself  again,  put  on  his  usual  gar- 
ments of  office,  and  offered  the  two  rams  as 
burnt-offerings,  one  for  himself  and  one  for 
the  people.  He  also  burnt  upon  the  altar  the 
fat  of  the  two  sin-offerings,  while  their  flesh 
was  carried  away  and  burned  outside  the  camp. 
They  who  took  away  the  flesh  and  the  man 
who  had  led  away  the  goat  had  to  bathe  their 
persons  and  wash  their  clothes  as  soon  as  their 
service  was  performed.  The  accessory  burnt- 
offerings  mentioned  (Num.  xxix.  7-1 1)  were  a 
young  bullock,  a  ram,  seven  lambs,  and  a 
young  goat. — In  considering  the  meaning  of 
the  particular  rites  of  the  day,  three  points  ap- 
pear to  be  of  a  very  distinctive  character,  i.  The 
white  garments  of  the  high-priest.  2.  His 
entrance  mto  the  Holy  of  Holies.  3.  The  scape- 
goat. The  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews (ix.  7-25)  teaches  us  to  apply  the  first 
two  particulars.  The  high-priest  himself,  with 
his  person  cleansed  and  dressed  in  white  gar- 
ments, was  the  best  outward  type  which  a  liv- 
ing man  could  present  in  his  own  person  of 
that  pure  and  holy  One  who  was  to  purify 
His  people  and  to  cleanse  them  from  their 
sins.  But  respecting  the  meaning  of  the  scape- 
goat, we  have  no  such  light  to  guide  us,  and 
the  subject  is  one  of  great  doubt  and  diffi- 
culty. It  has  been  generally  considered  that 
it  was  dismissed  to  signify  the  carrying  away 
of  the  sins  of  the  people,  as  it  were,  out  of  the 
sight  of  Jehovah.  If  we  keep  in  view  that 
the  two  goats  are  spoken  of  as  parts  of  one 
and  the  same  sin-offering,  we  shall  not  have 
much  difficulty  in  seeing  that  they  form  to- 
gether but  one  symbolical  expression  ;  the  slain 
goat  setting  forth  the  act  of  sacrifice,  in  giving 
up  its  own  life  for  others  "to  Jehovah  ;"  and 
the  goat  which  carried  ofif  its  load  of  sin  "for 
complete  removal,"  as  signifying  the  cleans- 
ing influence  of  faith  in  that  sacrifice. 

Augus'tus  Caes'ar,  the  first  Roman  emperor. 
He  was  born  A.  U.  C.  691,  B.  C.  63.  His 
father  was  Caius  Octavius ;  his  mother  Atia, 
daughter  of  Julia,  the  sister  of  C.  Julius  Caesar. 
He  was  principally  educated  by  his  great-uncle 
Julius  Csesar,  and  was  made  his  heir.  After 
his  murder,  the  young  Octavius,  then  Caius 
Julius  Csesar  Octavianus,  was  taken  into  the 
Triumvirate  with  Antony  and  Lepidus,  and, 
after  the  removal  of  the  latter,  divided  the 
empire  with  Antony.  The  struggle  for  the 
supreme  power  was  terminated  in  favor  of 
Octavianus  by  the  battle  of  Actium,  B.  C.  31. 


43 


i 


AVEN 


BABEL 


On  this  victory  he  was  saluted  Imperator  by 
the  senate,  who  conferred  on  him  the  title 
Augustus  (B.  C.  27).  The  first  link  binding 
him  to  N.  T.  history  is  his  treatment  of  Herod 
after  the  battle  of  Actium.  That  prince,  who 
had  espoused  Antony's  side,  found  himself  par- 
doned, taken  into  favor  and  confirmed,  nay, 
even  increased  in  his  power.  After  Herod's 
death,  in  A.  D.  4,  Augustus  divided  his  domin- 
ions almost  exactly  according  to  his  dying 
directions,  among  his  sons.  Augustus  died 
in  Nola  in  Campania,  August  19,  A.  U.  C.  767, 
A.  D.  14,  in  his  76th  year ;  but  long  before  his 
death  he  had  associated  Tiberius  with  him  in 
the  empire. 

A'ven.  I.  The  "plain  of  Aven"  is  mentioned 
by  Amos  (i.  5)  in  his  denunciation  of  Syria 
and  the  country  to  the  N.  of  Palestine.  It 
has  not  been  identified  with  certainty.  2.  In 
Hos.  X.  8  the  word  is  clearly  an  abbreviation 


Ruins  of  Baalbek  (now  called  Aven). 

of  Bethaven,  that  is.  Bethel  (comp.  iv.  15,  &c.). 
3.  The  sacred  city  of  Heliopolis  or  On,  in  Egypt 
(Ezr.  XXX.  17). 

Awl,  a  tool  of  which  we  do  not  know  the 
ancient  form.  The  only  notice  of  it  is  in  con- 
nection with  the  custom  of  boring  the  ear  of 
the  slave  (Ex.  xxi.  6;  Deut.  xv.  17). 

Axe.  Consisted  of  a  head  of  iron  (cf.  Is.  x. 
34),  fastened,  with  thongs  or  otherwise,  upon 
a  handle  of  wood,  and  so  liable  to  sHp  oflf 
(Deut.  xix.  5 ;  2  K.  vi.  5).  It  was  used  for  fell- 
ing trees  (Deut.  xx.  19),  and  also  for  shaping 
the  wood  when  felled,  perhaps  like  the  mod- 
ern adze  (i  K.  vi.  7).  The  "battle-axe"  was 
probably,  as  its  root  indicates,  a  heavy  mace 
or  maul,  like  that  which  gave  his  surname  to 
Charles  Martel. 

B 

Ba'al,  the  supreme  male  divinity  of  the 
Phoenician  and  Canaanitish  nations,  as  Ash- 


toreth  was  their  supreme  female  divinity.  Both 
names  have  the  peculiarity  of  being  used  in 
the  plural,  and  it  seems  certain  that  these 
plurals  designate  not  statues  of  the  divinities, 
but  dififerent  modifications  of  the  divinities 
themselves.  The  plural  Baalim  is  found  fre- 
quently alone.  The  word  Baal  is  in  Hebrew 
a  common  noun  of  frequent  occurrence,  hav- 
ing the  meaning  Lord,  not  so  much,  however, 
in  the  sense  of  Ruler  as  of  Master,  Owner, 
Possessor.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  very 
liigh  antiquity  of  the  worship  of  Baal.  We 
find  it  established  amongst  the  Moabites  and 
their  allies  the  Midianites  in  the  time  of  Moses 
(Num.  xxii.  41),  and  through  these  nations  the 
Israelites  were  seduced  to  the  worship  of  this 
god  under  the  particular  form  of  Baal-Peor 
(Num.  XXV.  3-18;  Deut.  iv.  3).  In  the  times 
of  the  kings  the  worship  of  Baal  spread  greatly, 
and  together  with  that  of  Asherah  became  the 
religion  of  the  court  and  people  of  the  ten 
tribes  (i  K.  xvi.  31-33,  xviii.  19,  22).  And 
though  this  idolatry  was  occasionally  put  down 
(2  K.  iii.  2,  x.  28),  it  appears  never  to  have 
been  permanently  abolished  among  them  (2 
K.  xvii.  16).  In  the  kingdom  of  Judah  also 
Baal-worship  extensively  prevailed.  The  wor- 
ship of  Baal  amongst  the  Jews  seems  to  have 
been  appointed  with  much  pomp  and  cere- 
monial. Temples  were  erected  to  him  (i  K. 
xvi.  32;  2  K.  xi.  18)  ;  his  images  were  set  up 
(2  K.  X.  26)  ;  his  altars  were  very  numerous 
(Jer.  xi.  13),  were  erected  particularly  on  lofty 
eminences  (i  K.  xviii.  20),  and  on  the  roofs 
of  houses  (Jer.  xxxii.  29)  ;  there  were  priests 
in  great  numbers  (i  K.  xviii.  19),  and  of  vari- 
ous classes  (2  K.  x.  19);  the  worshippers  ap- 
pear to  have  been  arrayed  in  appropriate 
robes  (2  K.  x.  22)  ;  the  worship  was  performed 
by  burning  incense  (Jer.  vii.  9)  and  offering 
burnt  sacrifices,  which  occasionally  consisted 
of  human  victims  (Jer.  xix.  5).  The  officiat- 
ing priests  danced  with  frantic  shouts  around 
the  altar,  and  cut  themselves  with  knives  to 
excite  the  attention  and  compassion  of  the 
god  (i  K.  xviii.  26-28).  Throughout  all  the 
Phoenician  colonies  we  continually  find  traces 
of  the  worship  of  this  god ;  nor  need  we  hesi- 
tate to  regard  the  Babylonian  Bel  (Is.  xlvi.  i). 
or  Belus  as  essentially  identical  with  Baal, 
though  perhaps  under  some  modified  form. 
Among  the  compounds  of  Baal  which  appear 
in  the  O.  T.  is  Ba'al-be'rith  (Judg.  viii.  33, 
ix.  4).  The  name  signifies  the  Covenant-Baal, 
the  god  who  comes  into  covenant  with  the 
worshippers. 

Ba'bel  (confusion),  Bab'ylon  (Greek  form 
of  Babel),  is  properly  the  capital  city  of  the 
country  which  is  called,  in  Genesis,  Shinar, 


44 


THE  mnni 

0-  V" 


BABEL 


BABEL 


•and  in  the  later  books  Chaldaea,  or  the  land  of 
the  Chaldaeans.  The  architectural  remains 
discovered  in  Southern  Babylonian,  taken  in 
conjunction  with  the  monumental  records, 
seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  not  at  first  the 
capital,  nor,  indeed,  a  town  of  very  great  im- 
portance. The  first  rise  of  the  Chaldaean 
power  was  in  the  region  close  upon  the  Per- 
sian Gulf ;  thence  the  nation  spread  northwards 
up  the  course  of  the  rivers,  and  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment moved  in  the  same  direction,  being 
finally  fixed  at  Babylon,  perhaps  not  earlier 
than  B.  C.  1700. — The  descriptions  of  Babylon 
which  have  come  down  to  us  in  classical  writ- 
ers are  derived  chiefly  from  two  sources,  the 
works  of  Herodotus  and  of  Ctesias.  Accord- 
ing to  the  former,  the  city,  which  was  built 
on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  formed  a  vast 
square,  enclosed  within  a  double  line  of  high 
walls,  the  extent  of  the  outer  circuit  being 
480  stades,  or  about  56  miles.  The  entire  area 
included  would  thus  have  been  about  200 
square  miles.  The  houses,  which  were  fre- 
quently three  or  four  stories  high,  were  laid 
out  in  straight  streets  crossing  each  other  at 
right  angles.  In  each  division  of  the  town 
there  was  a  fortress  or  stronghold,  consisting, 
in  the  one  case,  of  the  royal  palace ;  in  the 
other,  of  the  great  temple  of  Belus.  The 
two  portions  of  the  city  were  united  by  a 
bridge,  composed  of  a  series  of  stone  piers 
with  movable  platforms  of  wood  stretching 
from  one  pier  to  another.  According  to  Ctesias, 
the  circuit  of  the  city  was  not  480  but  360 
stades, — which  is  a  little  under  42  miles.  It 
lay,  he  says,  on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  the  two  parts  were  connected  by  a  stone 
bridge  five  stades  (above  1,000  yards)  long, 
and  30  feet  broad,  of  the  kind  described  by 
Herodotus.  At  either  extremity  of  the  bridge 
was  a  loyal  palace,  that  in  the  eastern  city 
being  the  most  magnificent  of  the  two.  The 
two  palaces  were  joined,  not  only  by  the 
bridge,  but  by  a  tunnel  under  the  river ! 
Ctesias'  account  pi  the  temple  of  Belus  has 
not  come  down  to  us.  In  examining  the  truth 
of  these  descriptions,  wc  shall  most  conven- 
iently commence  from  the  outer  circuit  of  the 
town.  All  the  ancient  writers  appear  to  agree 
in  the  fact  of  a  district  of  vast  size,  more  or 
less  inhabited,  having  been  enclosed  within 
lofty  walls,  and  included  under  the  name  of 
Babylon.  With  respect  to  the  exact  extent 
of  the  circuit  they  differ.  The  estimate  of 
Herodotus  and  of  Pliny  is  480  stades,  of 
Strabo  385,  of  Q.  Curtius  368,  of  Clitarchus 
365,  and  of  Ctesias  360  stades.  It  is  evident 
that  here  we  have  merely  the  moderate  varia- 
tions to  be  expected  in  independent  measure- 

45 


ments,  except  in  the  first  of  the  numbers.  Per- 
haps the  true  explanation  is  that  Herodotus 
spoke  of  the  outer  wall,  which  could  be  traced 
in  his  time.  Taking  the  lowest  estimate  of 
the  extent  of  the  circuit,  we  shall  have  for 
the  space  within  the  rampart  an  area  of  above 
100  square  miles ;  nearly  five  times  the  size  of 
London  1  It  is  evident  that  this  vast  space 
cannot  have  been  entirely  covered  with 
houses.  With  regard  to  the  height  and  breadth 
of  the  walls  there  is  nearly  as  much  difference 
of  statement  as  with  regard  to  their  extent. 
The  gates  and  walls  are  alike  mentioned  in 
Scripture;  the  height  of  the  one  and  the 
breadth  of  the  other  being  specially  noticed 
(Jer.  li.  58;  comp.  1.  15,  and  li.  53). — About 
five  miles  above  Hilah,  on  the  opposite  or 
left  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  occurs  a  series  of 
artificial  mounds  of  enormous  size.  They  con- 
sist chiefly  of  three  great  masses  of  building, 
— the  high  pile  of  unbaked  brickwork,  called 
by  Rich  "Mujellibe,"  but  which  is  known  to 
the  Arabs  as  "Babil;"  the  building  denomi- 
nated the  "Kasr"  or  palace;  and  a  lofty  mound, 
upon  which  stands  the  modern  tomb  of 
Amramibn-'Alb.  On  the  west,  or  right  bank, 
the  remains  are  very  slight  and  scanty.  Scat- 
tered over  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the 
Euphrates  are  a  number  of  remarkable 
mounds,  usually  standing  single,  which  are 
plainly  of  the  same  date  with  the  great  mass 
of  ruins  upon  the  river  bank.  The  most  re- 
markable fact  connected  with  the  magnifi- 
cence of  Babylon  is  the  poorness  of  the  ma- 
terial with  which  such  wonderful  results  were 
produced.  With  bricks  made  from  the  soil 
of  the  country,  in  many  parts  an  excellent  clay, 
and  at  first  only  "slime  for  mortar"  (Gen.  xi. 
3),  were  constructed  edifices  of  so  vast  a  size 
that  they  still  remain  among  the  most  enor- 
mous ruins  in  the  world. — Scripture  represents 
the  "beginning  of  the  kingdom"  as  belonging 
to  the  time  of  Nimrod,  the  grandson  of  Ham 
(Gen.  X.  6-10).  The  most  ancient  inscriptions 
appear  to  show  that  the  primitive  inhabitants 
of  the  country  were  really  Cushite,  i.  e.  iden- 
tical in  race  with  the  early  inhabitants  of 
Southern  Arabia  and  of  Ethiopia.  The  early 
annals  of  Babylon  are  filled  by  Berosus,  the 
native  historian,  with  three  dynasties ;  one  of 
49  Chaldean  kings,  who  reigned  458  years ; 
another  of  9  Arab  kings,  who  reigned  245 
years ;  and  a  third  of  49  Assyrian  monarchs, 
who  held  dominion  for  526  years.  The  line 
of  Babylonian  kings  becomes  exactly  known 
to  us  from  the  year  B.  C.  747.  The  "Canon 
of  Ptolemy"  gives  us  the  succession  of  Babv- 
lonian  monarchs,  with  the  exact  length  of  the 
reign  of  each,  from  the  year  B.  C.  747,  when 


BABEL,  TOWER  OF 


BADGER-SKINS 


Nabonassar  mounted  the  throne,  to  B.  C.  331, 
when  the  last  Persian  king  was  dethroned  by 
Alexander.  Of  the  earlier  kings  of  the  Canon, 
the  only  one  worthy  of  notice  is  Mardocem- 
palus  (B.  C.  721),  the  Merodach-Baladan  of 
Scripture,  but  it  is  not  till  we  come  to  Nabo- 
polassar,  the  father  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  that 
a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Babylon  com- 
mences. On  the  fall  of  Nineveh  (B.  C.  625) 
Babylon  became  not  only  an  independent 
kingdom,  but  an  empire.  The  city  was  taken 
by  surprise  (B.  C.  539),  as  Jeremiah  had 
prophesied  (li.  31),  by  an  army  of  Medes  and 
Persians  under  Cyrus,  as  intimated  170  years 
earlier  by  Isaiah  (xxi,  1-9),  and,  as  Jeremiah 
had  also  foreshown  (li.  39),  during  a  festival. 
According  to  the  book  of  Daniel,  it  would 
seem  as  if  Babylon  was  taken,  not  by  Cyrus, 
king  of  Persia,  but  by  a  Median  king,  named 
Darius  (v.  31).  There  is,  however,  sufficient 
indication  that  "Darius  the  Mede"  was  not 
the  real  conqueror,  but  a  monarch  with  a  cer- 
tain delegated  authority  (see  Dan.  v.  31,  and 
ix.  i).  With  the  conquest  by  Cyrus  com- 
menced the  decay  and  ruin  of  Babylon, 
though  it  continued  a  royal  residence  through 
the  entire  period  of  the  Persian  empire.  The 
defenses  and  public  buildings  suffered  griev- 
ously from  neglect  during  the  long  period  of 
peace  which  followed  the  reign  of  Xerxes. 
After  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the 
removal  of  the  seat  of  empire  to  Antioch  under 
the  Seleucidae  gave  the  finishing  blow  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  place.  Since  then  Babylon 
has  been  a  quarry  from  which  all  the  tribes  in 
the  vicinity  have  derived  the  bricks  with 
which  they  have  built  their  cities.  The  "great 
city,"  "the  beauty  of  the  Chaldees'  excellency," 
has  thus  emphatically  "become  heaps"  (Jer. 
li.37)- 

Ba'bel,  Tower  of.  The  "tower  of  Babel"  is 
only  mentioned  once  in  Scripture  (Gen.  xi.  4, 
5),  and  then  as  incomplete.  It  was  built  of 
bricks,  and  the  "slime"  used  for  mortar  was 
probably  bitumen.  Such  authorities  as  we 
possess  represent  the  building  as  destroyed 
soon  after  its  erection.  When  the  Jews,  how- 
ever, were  carried  captive  into  Babylonia, 
they  were  struck  with  the  vast  magnitude  and 
peculiar  character  of  certain  of  the  Babylonian 
temples,  in  one  or  other  of  which  they  thought 
to  recognize  the  very  tower  itself.  The  pre- 
dominant opinion  was  in  favor  of  the  great 
temple  of  Nebo  at  Borsippa,  the  modern  Birs- 
Nimrud.  But  the  Birs-Nimrud,  though  it  ca-n 
not  be  the  tower  of  Babel  itself,  may  well  be 
taken  to  show  the  probable  shape  and  charac- 
ter of  the  edifice.  This  building  appears  to 
have  been  a  sort  of  oblique  pyramid  built  in 


seven  receding  stages.  "Upon  a  platform  of 
crude  brick,  raised  a  few  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  alluvial  plain,  was  built  of  burnt  brick 
the  first  or  basement  stage, — an  exact  square, 
272  feet  each  way,  and  26  feet  in  perpendicular 
height.  Upon  this  stage  was  erected  a  second, 
230  feet  each  way,  and  likewise  26  feet  high ; 
which,  however,  was  not  placed  exactly  in  the 
middle  of  the  first,  but  considerably  nearer 
to  the  south-western  end,  which  constituted 
the  back  of  the  building.  The  other  stages 
were  arranged  similarly ;  the  third  being  188 
feet,  and  again  26  feet  high ;  the  fourth,  146 
feet  square,  and  15  feet  high;  the  fifth  104 
feet  square,  and  the  same  height  as  the  fourth ; 
the  sixth  62  feet  square,  and  again  the  same 
height;  and  the  seventh  20  feet  square,  and 
once  more  the  same  height.  On  the  seventh 
stage  there  was  probably  placed  the  ark  or 


Birs-Nimrud. 

tabernacle,  which  seems  to  have  been  again  15 
feet  high,  and  must  have  nearly,  if  not  en- 
tirely, covered  the  top  of  the  seventh  story. 
The  entire  original  height,  allowing  three  feet 
for  the  platform,  would  thus  have  been  156 
feet,  or,  without  the  platform,  153  feet.  The 
whole  formed  a  sort  of  oblique  pyramid,  the 
gentler  slope  facing  the  N.  E.,  and  the  steeper 
inclining  to  the  S.  W.  On  the  N.  E.  side  was 
the  grand  entrance,  and  here  stood  the  vesti- 
bule, a  separate  building,  the  debris  from 
which  having  joined  those  from  the  temple 
itself,  fill  up  the  intermediate  space,  and  very 
remarkably  prolong  the  mound  in  this  direc- 
tion" (Rawlinson's  "Herodotus,"  vol.  ii.  pp. 
582-3). 

Badger-Skins.  There  is  much  obscurity  as 
to  the  meaning  of  the  word  tachash  rendered 


46 


THE  mmt 


j 


BAG 


"badger' 


in  our  A.  V.  (Ex.  xxv.  5,  xxxv,  7, 
&c.)  ;  the  ancient  versions  seem  nearly  all 
agreed  that  it  denotes,  not  an  animal,  but  a 
color,  either  black  or  sky-blue.  The  badger  is 
not  found  in  the  Bible  lands.  The  Arabic 
duchash,  or  tuchash,  denotes  a  dolphin,  but 
in  all  probability  is  not  restricted  in  its  appli- 
cation, but  may  refer  to  either  a  seal  or  a 
cetacean.  The  skin  of  the  Halicore,  from  its 
hardness,  would  be  well  suited  for  making 
soles  for  shoes  (Ez.  xvi.  10),  and  it  is  worthy 
of  remark  that  the  Arabs  near  Cape  Mussen- 
dum  employ  the  skins  of  these  animals  for  a 
similar  purpose.  The  Halicore  Tabernaculi  is 
found  in  the  Red  Sea,  and  on  the  coral  banks 
of  the  Abyssinian  coast.  Perhaps,  however, 
tachash  may  denote  a  seal,  the  skin  of  which 
animal  would  suit  all  the  demands  of  the 
Scriptural  allusions. 

Bag  is  the  rendering  of  several  words  in 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  i.  Cliaritim, 
the  "bags"  in  which  Naaman  bound  up  the 
two  talents  of  silver  for  Gehazi  (2  K.  v.  23). 
The  word  only  occurs  besides  in  Is.  iii.  22, 
and  there  denotes  the  reticules  carried  by  the 
Hebrew  ladies.  2.  Cis,  a  bag  for  carrying 
weights  (Deut.  xxv.  13;  Prov.  xvi.  11;  Mic. 
vi.  11),  also  used  as  a  purse  (Prov.  i.  14;  Is. 
xlvi.  6).  3.  Celi,  in  Gen.  xlii.  25,  is  the  "sack" 
in  which  Jacob's  sons  carried  the  corn  which 
they  brought  from  Egypt,  and  in  I  Sam.  ix.  7, 
xxi.  5,  it  denotes  a  bag,  or  wallet,  for  carry- 
ing food.  The  shepherd's  "bag"  which  David 
had  seems  to  have  been  worn  by  him  as  neces- 
sary to  his  calling,  and  was  probably,  from  a 
comparison  of  Zech.  xi.  15,  16  (where  A.  V. 
"instruments"  is  the  same  word),  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  the  lambs  which  were  un- 
able to  walk  or  were  lost,  and  contained  ma- 
terials for  healing  such  as  were  sick  and  bind- 
ing up  those  that  were  broken  (comp.  Ez. 
xxxiv.  4,  16).  4.  Tsepor,  properly  a  "bundle" 
(Gen.  xlii.  35;  i  Sam.  xxv.  29),  appears  to 
have  been  used  by  travellers  for  carrying 
money  during  a  long  journey  (Prov.  vii.  20; 
Hag.  i.  6;  comp.  Luke  xii.  33).  The  "bag" 
which  Judas  carried  was  probably  a  small  box 
or  chest  (John  xii.  6,  xiii.  29).  The  Greek 
word  is  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  LXX.  for 
"chest"  in  2  Chr.  xxiv.  8,  10,  11. 

Ba'laam,  the  son  of  Beor,  a  man  endowed 
with  the  gift  of  prophecy  (Num.  xxii.  5).  He 
belonged  to  the  Midianites,  and  perhaps  as  the 
prophet  of  his  people  possessed  the  same 
authority  that  Moses  did  among  the  Israelites. 
At  any  rate,  he  is  mentioned  in  conjunction 
with  the  five  kings  of  Midian,  apparently  as 
a  persoTj  of  the  same  rank  (Num.  xxxi.  8;  cf. 
xxxi.  16).   He  seems  to  have  lived  at  Pethor, 


' BANQUETS 

which  is  said  at  Deut.  xxiii.  4  to  have  been 
a  city  of  Mesopotamia.  He  himself  speaks 
of  being  "brought  from  Aram  out  of  the  moun- 
tains of  the  East"  (Num.  xxiii.  7).  Balaam 
is  one  of  those  instances  which  meet  us  in 
Scripture  of  persons  dwelling  among  heathens 
but  possessing  a  certain  knowledge  of  the  one 
true  God.  When  the  Israelites  were  encamped 
in  the  plains  of  Moab,  Balak,  the  king  of 
]Moab,  sent  for  Balaam  to  curse  him.  Balaam 
was  prohibited  by  God  from  going.  The  king 
of  ]\Ioab,  however,  sent  again  for  him.  The 
prophet  again  refused,  but  was  at  length 
allowed  to  go.  Balaam  therefore  proceeded  on 
his  journey  with  the  messengers  of  Balak. 
But  God's  anger  was  kindled  at  this  manifes- 
tation of  determined  self-will,  and  the  angel 
of  the  Lord  stood  in  the  way  for  an  adversary 
against  him.  "The  dumb  ass,  speaking  with 
man's  voice,  forbade  the  madness  of  the 
prophet"  (2  Pet.  ii.  16).  Balaam  predicted  a 
magnificent  career  for  the  people  whom  he 
was  called  to  curse,  but  he  nevertheless  sug- 
gested to  the  Moabites  the  expedient  of  seduc- 
ing them  to  commit  fornication.  The  effect 
of  this  is  recorded  in  ch.  xxv.  A  battle  was 
afterwards  fought  against  the  Midianites,  in 
which  Balaam  sided  with  them  and  was  slain 
by  the  sword  of  the  people  whom  he  had  en- 
deavored to  curse  (Num.  xxxi.  8). 

Baldness.  There  are  two  kinds  of  bald- 
ness, viz.  artificial  and  natural.  The  latter 
seems  to  have  been  uncommon,  since  it  ex- 
posed people  to  public  derision,  and  is  per- 
petually alluded  to  as  a  mark  of  squalor  and 
misery  (2  K.  ii.  23 ;  Is.  iii.  24,  xv.  2 ;  Jer.  xlvii. 
5;  Ez.  vii.  18,  &c.).  In  Lev.  xiii.  29,  &c.,  very 
careful  directions  are  given  to  distinguish  "the 
plague  upon  the  head  and  beard"  from  mere 
natural  baldness,  which  is  pronounced  to  be 
clean,  ver.  40.  Artificial  baldness  marked  the 
conclusion  of  a  Nazarite's  vow  (Acts  xviii. 
18;  Num.  vi.  9),  and  was  a  sign  of  mourning. 

Balm  occurs  in  Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  xliii.  11; 
Jer.  viii.  22,  xlvi.  11,  li.  8;  and  Ez.  xxvii.  17. 
It  is  impossible  to  identify  it  with  any  cer- 
tainty. It  may  represent  the  gum  of  the  Pis- 
tacia  lentiscus,  or  that  of  the  Balsamodendron 
opobalsamum.  It  is  now  called  the  Balm  of 
Gilead,  the  tree  or  shrub  being  indigenous  in 
the  mountains  around  Mecca.  [Spices.] 

Banquets,  among  the  Hebrews,  were  not 
only  a  means  of  social  enjoyment,  but  were  a 
part  of  the  observance  of  religious  festivity. 
At  the  three  solemn  festivals  the  family  also 
had  its  domestic  feast  (Deut.  xvi.  11).  Prob- 
ably both  males  and  females  went  up  (i  Sam. 
i.  9)  together,  to  hold  the  festival.  Sacri- 
fices, both  •  ordinary  and  extraordinary  (Ex. 


47 


i 

'i 


BAPTISM 


BARLEY 


xxxiv.  15;  Judg.  xvi.  23),  included  a  banquet, 
and  Eli's  sons  made  this  latter  the  prominent 
part.  Birthday-banquets  are  only  mentioned 
in  the  cases  of  Pharaoh  and  Herod  (Gen.  xl. 
20;  Matt.  xiv.  6).   The  usual  time  of  the  ban- 


Balm  of  Gilead. 

quet  was  the  evening,  and  to  begin  early  was 
a  mark  of  excess  (Is.  v.  il;  Eccl.  x.  16).  The 
most  essential  materials  of  the  banqueting- 
room,  next  to  the  viands  and  wine,  which  last 
was  often  drugged  with  spices  (Prov.  ix.  2; 
Cant.  viii.  2),  were  perfumed  unguents,-  gar- 
lands or  loose  flowers,  white  or  brilliant  robes ; 
after  these,  exhibitions  of  music,  singers  and 
dancers,  riddles,  jesting  and  merriment  (Is. 
xxviii.  I ;  Wisd.  ii.  7 ;  2  Sam.  xix.  35 ;  Is.  xxv. 
6,  V.  12;  Judg.  xiv.  12;  Neh.  viii.  10;  Eccl.  x. 
19;  Matt.  xxii.  11  ;  Am.  vi.  5,  6;  Luke  xv.  25). 
The  posture  at  table  in  early  times  was  sit- 
ting (i  Sam.  xvi.  11,  xx.  5,  18),  and  the  guests 
were  ranged  in  order  of  dignity  (Gen.  xliii. 
33 ;  I  Sam.  ix.  22)  :  the  words  which  imply 
the  recumbent  posture  belong  to  the  N.  T. 
The  separation  of  the  women's  banquet  was 
not  a  Jewish  custom  (Esth.  i.  9). 

Baptism.  It  is  well  known  that  ablution 
or  bathing  was  common  in  most  ancient  na- 
tions as  a  preparation  for  prayers  and  sacri- 
fice or  as  expiatory  of  sin.  There  is  a  natural 
connection  in  the  mind  between  the  thought 
of  physical  and  that  of  spiritual  pollution.  In 
warm  countries  this  connection  is  probably 
even  closer  than  in  colder  climates ;  and  hence 
the  frequency  of  ablution  in  the  religious  rites 
throughout  the  East.  The  history  of  Israel 
and  the  Law  of  Moses  abound  with  such  illus- 
trations (Gen.  xxxv.  2;  Ex.  xix.  10;  Lev.  xv., 
xvii.  15,  xxii.  4,  6,  xvi.  26,  28;  Num.  xix.  10). 
The  baptism  of  John.— There  has  been  some 
uncertainty  as  to  the  nature  of  John's  bap- 
tism and  its  spiritual  significance.    It  appears 


to  have  been  a  kind  of  transition  from  the 
Jewish  baptism  to  the  Christian.  The  dis- 
tinction between  John's  baptism  and  Christian 
baptism  appears  in  the  case  of  Apollos  (Acts 
xviii.  26,  27),  and  of  the  disciples  of  Ephesus, 
mentioned  Acts  xix.  1-6.  We  cannot  but  draw 
from  this  history  the  inference  that  in  Chris- 
tian baptism  there  was  a  deeper  spiritual  sig- 
nificance. The  baptism  of  Jesus. — Plainly  the 
most  important  action  of  John  as  a  baptist 
was  his  baptism  of  Jesus,  which  was  His  for- 
mal setting  apart  for  His  ministry,  and  was  a 
most  important  portion  of  His  consecration  to 
be  the  High-Priest  of  God.  He  was  just  en- 
tering on  the  age  of  thirty  (Luke  iii.  23),  the 
age  at  which  the  Levites  began  their  ministry 
and  the  rabbis  their  teaching.  Baptism  of  the 
Disciples  of  Christ. — Whether  our  Lord  ever 
baptized  has  been  doubted.  The  only  passage 
which  may  distinctly  bear  on  the  question  is 
John  iv.  I,  2,  where  it  is  said  "that  Jesus  made 
and  baptized  more  disciples  than  John,  though 
Jesus  Himself  baptized  not,  but  His  disciples." 
The  command  to  baptize  was  co-extensive 
with  the  command  to  preach  the  Gospel.  All 
nations  were  to  be  evangelized ;  and  they 
were  to  be  made  disciples,  admitted  into  the 
fellowship  of  Christ's  religion,  by  baptism 
(Matt,  xxviii.  19).  The  language  of  the  New 
Testament  and  of  the  primitive  fathers  suf- 
ficiently points  to  immersion  as  the  common 
mode  of  baptism.  But  in  the  case  of  the  family 
of  the  jailer  at  Philippi  (Acts  xvi.  33),  and 
of  the  three  thousand  converted  at  Pentecost 
(Acts  ii.),  it  seems  hardly  likely  that  immer- 
sion should  have  been  possible.  Moreover, 
the  ancient  Church,  which  mostly  adopted  im- 
mersion, was  satisfied  with  effusion  in  case 
of  clinical  baptism — the  baptism  of  the  sick 
and  dying. 

Barab'bas,  a  robber  (John  xviii.  40),  who 
had  committed  murder  in  an  insurrection 
(Mark  xv.  7;  Luke  xxiii.  19)  in  Jerusalem, 
and  was  lying  in  prison  at  the  time  of  the  trial 
of  Jesus  before  Pilate. 

Barbarian.  "Every  one  not  a  Greek  is  a 
barbarian"  is  the  common  Greek  definition, 
and  in  this  strict  sense'  the  word  is  used  in 
Rom.  i.  14,  "I  am  debtor  both  to  Greeks  and 
barbarians."  It  often  retains  this  primitive 
meaning,  as  in  i  Cor.  xiv.  il  (of  one  using 
an  unknown  tongue),  and  Acts  xxviii.  2,  4  (of 
the  Maltese,  who  spoke  a  Punic  dialect). 

Barley  was  grown  by  the  Hebrews  (Lev. 
xxvii.  16;  Deut.  viii.  8;  Ruth  ii.  17,  &c.),  who 
used  it  for  baking  into  bread,  chiefly  amongst 
the  poor  (Judg.  vii.  13;  2  K.  iv.  42;  John  vi. 
9,  13)  ;  for  making  into  bread  by  mixing  it 
with  wheat,  beans,  lentils,  millet,  &c.  (Ez.  iv. 


48 


BARNABAS 


BASIN 


9)  ;  and  as  fodder  for  horses  (i  K.  iv.  28).  The 
barley  harvest  (Ruth  i.  22,  ii.  23  ;  2  Sam.  xxi.  9, 

10)  takes  place  in  Palestine  in  March  and  April 
and  in  the  hilly  districts  as  late  as  May  ;  but  the 
period,  of  course,  varies  according  to  the  locali- 
ties where  the  corn  grows.  It  always  precedes 
the  wheat  harvest,  in  some  places  by  a  week, 
in  others  by  fully  three  weeks.  In  Egypt  the 
barley  is  about  a  month  earlier  than  the  wheat ; 
whence  its  total  destruction  by  the  hail-storm 
(Ex.  ix.  31).  Barley  was  sown  at  any  time 
between  November  and  March,  according  to 
the  season.  Barley  bread  is  even  to  this  day 
little  esteemed  in  Palestine.  This  fact  is  im- 
portant, as  serving  to  elucidate  some  passages 
in  Scripture. 

Bar'nabas,  a  name  signifying  "son  of  proph- 
ecy," or  "exhortation"  (or,  but  not  so  prob- 
ably, "consolation,"  as  A.  V.),  given  by  the 
Apostles  (Acts  iv.  36)  to  Joseph  (or  Joses), 
a  Levite  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  who  was 
early  a  disciple  of  Christ.  In  Acts  ix.  27,  we 
find  him  introducing  the  newly  converted  Saul 
to  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem,  in  a  way  which 
seems  to  imply  previous  acquaintance  between 
the  two.  On  tidings  coming  to  the  church 
at  Jerusalem  that  men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene 
had  been  preaching  to  Gentiles  at  Antioch, 
Barnabas  was  sent  thither  (Acts  xi.  19-26), 
and  went  to  Tarsus  to  seek  Saul,  as  one  spe- 
cially raised  up  to  preach  to  the  Gentiles  (Acts 
xxvi.  17).  Having  brought  him  to  Antioch, 
he  was  sent  with  him  to  Jerusalem  with  relief 
for  the  brethren  in  Judaea  (Acts  xi.  30).  On 
their  return,  they  (Acts  xiii.  2)  were  ordained 
by  the  church  for  the  missionary  work,  and 
sent  forth  (A.  D.  45).  From  this  time  Bar- 
nabas and  Paul  enjoy  the  title  of  dignity  of 
Apostles.  The  Epistle  attributed  to  Barna- 
bas is  believed  to  have  been  written  early  in 
the  second  century. 

Barthoromew,  one  of  the  Twelve  Apostles 
of  Christ  (Matt.  x.  3;  Mark  iii.  18;  Luke  vi. 
14;  Acts  i.  13).  It  has  been  not  improbably 
conjectured  that  he  is  identical  with  Nathan- 
ael  (John  i.  45  fiE.).  He  is  said  to  have 
preached  the  Gospel  in  India,  that  is,  prob- 
ably, Arabia  Felix,  and,  according  to  some,  in 
Armenia. 

Bartimae'us,  a  blind  beggar  of  Jericho  who 
(Mark  x.  46  £f.)  sat  by  the  wayside  begging 
as  our  Lord  passed  out  of  Jericho  on  His  last 
journey  to  Jerusalem. 

Ba'ruch.  Son  of  Neriah,  the  friend  (Jer. 
xxxii.  12),  amanuensis  (Jer.  xxxvi.  4-32),  and 
faithful  attendant  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  10 
flf. ;  B.  C.  603),  in  the  discharge  of  his  pro- 
phetic office.  He  was  of  a  noble  family  (comp. 
Jer.  li.  59;  Bar.  i.  i),  and  of  distinguished  ac- 


quirements ;  and  his  brother  Seraiah  held  an 
honorable  office  in  the  court  of  Zedekiah  (Jer. 
li.  59).  His  enemies  accused  him  of  influenc- 
ing Jeremiah  in  favor  of  the  Chaldaeans  (Jer. 
xliii.  3;  cf.  xxxvii.  13);  and  he  was  thrown 
into  prison  with  that  prophet,  where  he  re- 
mained till  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  B.  C. 
586.  By  the  permission  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
he  remained  with  Jeremiah  at  Mizpeh  (Jos. 
Ant.  x.  9,  §1)  ;  but  was  afterwards  forced  to 
go  down  to  Egypt  (Jer.  xliii.  6).  Nothing  is 
known  certainly  of  the  close  of  his  life. 

Baruch,  The  Book  of.  It  exists  at  present 
in  Greek,  and  in  several  translations  which 
were  made  from  the  Greek.  Of  the  two  Old 
Latin  versions  which  remain,  that  which  is 
incorporated  in  the  Vulgate  is  generally  lit- 
eral ;  the  other  is  more  free.  The  book  was 
held  in  little  esteem  among  the  Jews.  From 
the  time  of  Irenaeus  it  was  frequently  quoted 
both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  and  gener- 
ally as  the  work  of  Jeremiah.  At  the  Council 
of  Trent  Baruch  was  admitted  into  the  Romish 
Canon. 

Ba'shan,  a  district  on  the  east  of  Jordan. 
It  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  "land  of 
Bashan"  (i  Chr.  v.  11;  and  comp.  Num.  xxi. 


33,  xxxii.  33),  and  sometimes  as  "all  Bashan" 
(Deut.  iii.  10,  13;  Josh.  xii.  5,  xiii.  12,  30), 
but  mostly  commonly  without  any  addition. 
It  was  taken  by  the  children  of  Israel  after 
their  conquest  of  the  land  of  Sihon  from  Arnon 
to  Jabbok. 

Basin.  Among  the  smaller  vessels  for  the 
Tabernacle  or  Temple  service,  many  must 
have  been  required  to  receive  from  the  sacri- 
ficial victims  the  blood  to  be  sprinkled  for 
purification.  The  form  and  material  of  these 
vessels  can  only  be  conjectured  from  the  anal- 
ogy of  ancient  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  speci- 
mens of  works  of  the  same  kind.  The  "basin" 
from  which  our  Lord  washed  the  disciples' 


BASKET 


BEARD 


feet  was  probably  deeper  and  larger  than  the 
hand-basin  for  sprinkling. 

Basket.  The  Hebrew  terms  used  in  the  de- 
scription of  this  article  are  as  follows:  (i) 
Sal,  so  called  from  the  twigs  of  which  it  was 
originally  made,  specially  used  for  holding 
bread  (Gen.  xl.  i6  f¥. ;  Ex.  xxix.  3,  23;  Lev. 
viii.  2,  26,  31;  Num.  vi.  15,  17,  19).  (2)  Sal- 
silloth,  a  word  of  kindred  origin,  applied  to 
the  basket  used  in  gathering  grapes  (Jer.  vi. 
9).  (3)  Tene,  in  which  the  first-fruits  of  the 
harvest  were  presented  (Deut.  xxvi.  2,  4).  We 
may  infer  that  it  was  used  for  household  pur- 
poses, perhaps  to  bring  the  corn  to  the  mill. 
(4)  Celub,  so  called  from  its  similarity  to  a 
bird  cage  or  trap,  probably  in  regard  to  its 


Egyptian  Baskets. 

having  a  lid :  it  was  used  for  carrying  fruit 
(Am.  viii.  I,  2).  (5)  Dud,  used  for  carrying 
fruit  (Jer.  xxiv.  i,  2),  as  well  as  on  a  larger 
scale  for  carrying  clay  to  the  brickyard  (Ps. 
Ixxxi.  6;  pots,  A.  V.),  or  for  holding  bulky 
articles  (2  K.  x.  7).  In  the  N.  T.  baskets  are 
described  under  three  different  terms. 

Bastard.  Among  those  who  were  excluded 
from  entering  the  congregation,  even  to  the 
tenth  generation,  was  the  mamzer  (A.  V. 
bastard),  who  was  classed  in  this  respect  with 
the  Ammonite  and  Moabite  (Deut.  xxiii.  2). 
The  term  is  not,  however,  applied  to  any  ille- 
gitimate offspring,  born  out  of  wedlock,  but  is 
restricted  by  the  Rabbins  to  the  issue  of  any 
connection  within  the  degrees  prohibited  by 
the  Law. 

Bat.  Many  travellers  have  noticed  the  im- 
mense numbers  of  bats  that  are  found  in  cav- 
erns in  the  East,  and  Mr.  Layard  says  that  on 
the  occasion  of  a  visit  to  a  cavern  these 
noisome  beasts  compelled  him  to  retreat. 

Bath.  This  was  a  prescribed  part  of  the 
Jewish  ritual  of  purification  in  cases  of  acci- 
dent, leprous  or  ordinary  uncleanness  (Lev. 
XV.,  xvi.  28,  xxii.  6;  Num.  xix.  7,  19;  2  Sam.  xi. 
2,  4;  2  K,.  V.  10)  ;  as  also  after  mourning,  which 
always  implied  (^efilement  (Ruth  iii.  3;  2  Sam. 
xii.  20).  With  bathing,  anointing  was  cus- 
tomarily joined;  the  climate  making  both 
these  essential  alike  to  health  and  pleasure, 
to  which  1  uxury  added  the  use  of  perfumes 
(Susan.  17;  Jud.  x.  3;  Esth.  ii.  12).  The 
"pools,"  such  as  that  of  Siloam  and  Hezekiah 
(Neh._  iii.  15,  16;  2  K.  xx.  20;  Is.  xxii.  11 ; 
John  ix.  7),  often  sheltered  by  porticos  (John 


V.  2),  are  the  first  indications  we  have  of  pub- 
lic bathing  accommodation. 
Battle-axe,  Jer.  li.  20. 

Beans  (2  Sam.  xvii.  28;  Ezr.  iv.  9).  Beans 
are  cultivated  in  Palestine,  which  produces 
many  of  the  leguminous  order  of  plants,  such 
as  lentils,  kidney-beans,  vetches,  &c.  Beans 
are  in  blossom  in  January ;  they  have  been 
noticed  in  flower  at  Lydda  on  the  23d,  and  at 
Sidon  and  Acre  even  earlier;  they  continue  in 
flower  till  March. 

Bear  (i  Sam.  xvii.  34,  2  Sam.  xvii.  8).  The 
Syrian  bear  (Ursus  Syriacus),  which  is  with- 
out doubt  the  animal  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
is  still  found  on  the  higher  mountains  of  Pal- 
estine. During  the  summer  months  these 
bears  keep  to  the  snowy  parts  of  Lebanon, 
but  descend  in  winter  to  the  villages  and  gar- 
dens ;  it  is  probable  also  that  at  this  period  in 
former  days  they  extended  their  visits  to  other 
parts  of  Palestine. 


Syrian  Bear. 

Beard.  W estern  Asiatics  have  always  cher- 
ished the  beard  as  the  badge  of  the  dignity 
of  manhood,  and  attached  to  it  the  importance 
of  a  feature.  The  Egyptians,  on  the  contrary, 
for  the  most  part  shaved  the  hair  of  the  face 
and  head,  though  we  find  some  instances  to 
the  contrary.  It  is  impossible  to  decide  with 
certainty  the  meaning  of  the  precept  (Lev. 
xix.  27,  xxi.  5)  regarding  the  "corners  of  the 
beard."  Probably  the  Jews  retained  the  hair 
on  the  sides  of  the  face  between  the  ear  and 
the  eye,  which  the  Arabs  and  others  shaved 
away.  The  beard  is  the  object  of  an  oath, 
and  that  on  which  blessings  or  shame  are 
spoken  of  as  resting.  The  custom  was  and 
is  to  shave  or  pluck  it  and  the  hair  out  in 
mourning  (Is.  1.  6,  xv.  2;  Jer.  xH.  5,  xlviii.  37; 
Ezr.  ix.  3;  Bar.  vi.  31);  to  neglect  it  is  sea- 
sons of  permanent  affliction  (2  Sam.  xix.  24), 
and  to  regard  any  insult  to  it  as  the  last  out- 
rage which  enmity  can  -inflict  (2  Sam.  x.  4). 


50 


•J 


i 


BED 


BEERSHEBA 


The  beard  was  the  object  of  salutation  (2 
Sam.  XX.  9).  The  dressing,  trimming,  anoint- 
ing, &c.,  of  the  beard  was  performed  with 
much  ceremony  by  persons  of  wealth  and  rank 
(Ps.  cxxxiii.  2).  The  removal  of  the  beard 
was  a  part  of  the  ceremonial  treatment  proper 
to  a  leper  (Lev.  xiv.  9). 

Bed  and  Bed-chamber.  We  may  distinguish 
in  the  Jewish  bed  five  principal  parts:  i.  The 
mattress,  which  was  limited  to  a  mere  mat, 


Bed  and  Head-rest. 

or  one  or  more  quilts.  2.  The  covering,  a 
quilt  finer  than  those  used  in  i.  In  summer 
a  thin  blanket  or  the  outer  garment  worn  by 
day  (i  Sam.  xix.  13)  sufficed.  Hence  the  law 
provided  that  it  should  not  be  kept  in  pledge 
after  sunset,  that  the  poor  man  might  not  lack 
his  needful  covering  (Deut.  xxiv.  13).  3.  The 
only  material  mentioned  for  this  is  that  which 
occurs  in  i  Sam.  xix.  13,  and  the  word  used 
is  of  doubtful  meaning,  but  seems  to  signify 
some  fabric  woven  or  plaited  of  goat's  hair. 
It  is  clear,  however,  that  it  was  something 
hastily  adopted  to  serve  as  a  pillow,  and  is 
not  decisive  of  the  ordinary  use.  Such  pil- 
lows are  common  to  this  day  in  the  East, 
formed  of  sheep's  fleece  or  goat's  skin,  with  a 
stuffing  of  cotton,  &c.  4.  The  bedstead  was 
not  always  necessary,  the  divan,  or  platform 
along  the  side  or  end  of  an  Oriental  room, 
sufficing  as  a  support  for  the  bedding.  Yet 
some  slight  and  portable  frame  seems  implied 
among  the  senses  of- the  word,  which  is  used 
for  a  "bier"  (2  Sam.  iii.  31),  and  for  the  ordi- 
nary bed  (2  K.  iv.  10),  for  the  litter  on  which 
a  sick  person  might  be  carried  (i  Sam.  xix. 
15),  for  Jacob's  bed  of  sickness  (Gen.  xlvii. 
31),  and  for  the  couch  on  which  guests  re- 
clined at  a  banquet  (Esth.  i.  6).  5.  The  orna- 
mental portions  were  pillars  and  a  canopy 
(Jud.  xiii.  9),  ivory  carvings,  gold  and  silver, 
and  probably  mosaic  work,  purple  and  fine 
linen  (Esth.  i.  6;  Cant.  iii.  9,  10).  The  ordi- 
nary furniture  of  a  bed-chamber  in  private  life 
is  given  in  2  K.  iv.  10.  The  "bed-chamber" 
in  the  Temple  where  Joash  was  hidden  was 
probably  a  store-chamber  for  keeping  beds  (2 
K.  xi.  2;  2  Chr.  xxii.  11).   The  position  of  the 


parts  of  the  palace  seems  marked  in  the  pass- 
ages, Ex.  viii.  3,  2  K.  vi.  12. 

Bee,  Deut.  i.  44 ;  Judg.  xiv.  8 ;  Ps.  cxviii. 
12;  Is.  vii.  18.  That  Palestine  abounded  in 
bees  is  evident  from  the  description  of  that 
land  by  Moses,  for  it  was  a  land  "flowing 
with  milk  and  honey;"  nor  is  there  any  reason 
for  supposing  that  this  expression  is  to  be 
understood  otherwise  than  in  its  literal  sense. 
English  naturalists  know  little  of  the  species 
of  bees  that  are  found  in  Palestine.  Mr.  F. 
Smith,  our  best  authority  on  the  Hymenop- 
tera,  is  inclined  to  believe  that  the  honey-bee 
of  Palestine  is  distinct  from  the  honey-bee 
(A.  mellifica)  of  this  country.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  attacks  of  bees  in  Eastern 
countries  are  more  to  be  dreaded  than  they  are 
in  more  temperate  climates.  Swarms  in  the 
East  are  far  larger  than  they  are  with  us,  and, 
on  account  of  the  heat  of  the  climate,  one  can 
readily  imagine  that  their  stings  must  give 
rise  to  very  dangerous  symptoms. 

Beel'zebul,  the  title  of  a  heathen  deity,  to 
whom  the  Jews  ascribed  the  sovereignty  of 
the  evil  spirits  (Matt.  X.  25,  xii.  24.1  Mark  iii. 
22;  Luke  xi.  15  fif.).  The  correct  reading  is 
without  doubt  Beelzebul,  and  not  Beelzebub, 
as  given  in  the  Syriac,  the  Vulgate  and  some 
other  versions. 

Beer'-sheba  (well  of  the  lion),  the  name  of 
one  of  the  old  places  in  Palestine,  which 
formed  the  southern  limit  of  the  country. 
There  are  two  accounts  of  the  origin  of  the 
name.    i.  According  to  the  first,  the  well  was 


•Beor-sheba. 


dug  by  Abraham,  and  the  name  given,  because 
there  he  and  Abimelech  the  king  of  the  Philis- 
tines "sware"  both  of  them  (Gen.  xxi.  31). 
2.  The  other  narrative  ascribes  the  origin  of 
the  name  to  an  occurrence  almost  precisely 
similar,  in  which  both  Abimelech,  the  king  of 
the  Philistines,  and  Phichol,  his  chief  cap- 
bed-chamber  in  the  most  remote  and  secret! tain,  are  again  concerned,  with  the  difference 


51 


BEHEMOTH 


BELSHAZZAR 


that  the  person  on  the  Hebrew  side  of  the 
transaction  is  Isaac  instead  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
xxvi.  31-33).  There  are  at  present  on  the 
spot  two  principal  wells,  and  five  smaller  ones. 
The  curb-stones  round  the  mouth  of  both 
wells  are  worn  into  deep  grooves  by  the  action 
of  the  ropes  of  so  many  centuries,  and  "look 
as  if  frilled  or  fluted  all  round."  Beefsheba 
was  given  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (xix.  2 ;  i 
Chr.  iv.  28).  In  the  time  of  Jerome  it  was 
still  a  considerable  place ;  and  later  it  is  men- 
tioned as  an  episcopal  city  under  the  Bishop 
of  Jerusalem. 

Be'hemoth.  There  can  be  little  or  no  doubt 
that  by  this  word  (Job  xl.  15-24)  the  hippo- 
potamus is  intended,  since  all  the  details  de- 
scriptive of  the  behemoth  accord  entirely  with 
the  ascertained  habits  of  that  animal.  Since 
in  the  first  part  of  Jehovah's  discourse  (Job 
xxxviii.,  xxxix.)  land  animals  and  birds  are 


Hippopotamus. 

mentioned,  it  suits  the  general  purpose  of  that 
discourse  better  to  suppose  that  aquatic  or 
amphibious  creatures  are  spoken  of  in  the  last 
half  of  it:  and  since  the  leviathan,  by  almost 
universal  consent,  denotes  the  crocodile,  the 
behemoth  seems  clearly  to  point  to  the  hippo- 
potamus, his  associate  in  the  Nile.  The  de- 
scription of  the  animal's  lying  under  "the 
shady  trees,"  amongst  the  "reeds"  and  willows, 
is  peculiarly  appropriate. 

Be'lial.  The  translators  of  our  A.  V.,  fol- 
lowing the  Vulgate,  have  frequently  treated 
this  word  as  a  proper  name,  and  given  it  in 
the  form  Belial,  in  accordance  with  2  Cor.  vi. 
15.  There  can  be  no  question,  however,  that 
the  word  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  proper 
name  in  the  O.  T. ;  its  meaning  is  worthless- 
ness,  and  hence  recklessness,  lawlessness.  The 
expression  son  or  man  of  Belial  must  be  under- 
stood as  meaning  simply  a  worthless,  lawless 
fellow.   Tlie  term  as  used  in  2  Cor.  vi.  15  is 


generally  understood  as  an  appellative  of 
Satan,  as  the  personification  of  all  that  was 
bad. 

Bellows.  The  word  occurs  only  in  Jer.  vi. 
29,  "The  bellows  aj"e  burned ;"  where  their 
use  is  to  heat  a  smelting  furnace.  A  picture 
of  two  different  kinds  of  bellows,  both  of 
highly  ingenious  construction,  may  be  found 
in  Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt,  iii.  338.  "They 
consisted,"  he  says,  "of  a  leather,  secured  and 
fitted  into  a  frame,  from  which  a  long  pipe 
extended  for  carrying  the  wind  to  the  fire. 
They  were  worked  by  the  feet,  the  operator 
standing  upon  them,  with  one  under  each  foot, 
and  pressing  them  alternately  while  he  pulled 
up  each  exhausted  skin  with  a  string  he  held 
in  his  hand.  In  one  instance  we  observe  from 
the  painting,  that  when  the  man  left  the  bel- 
lows they  were  raised  as  if  inflated  with  air; 
and  this  would  imply  a  knowledge  of  the 
valve.  The  pipes,  even  in  the  time  of  Thot- 
mes  II.  [supposed  to  be]  the  contemporary 
of  Moses,  appear  to  have  been  simply  of  reed, 
tipped  with  a  metal  point  to  resist  the  action 
of  the  fire." 

Bells.  In  Ex.  xxviii.  33  the  bells  alluded  to 
were  the  golden  ones,  according  to  the  Rabbis 
72  in  number,  round  the  hem  of  the  high- 
priest's  ephod.  The  object  of  them  was  "that 
his  sound  might  be  heard  when  he  went  in 
unto  the  holy  place,  and  when  he  came  out, 
that  he  die  not"  (Ex.  xxviii.  34;  Ecclus.  xlv. 
9).  To  this  day  bells  are  frequently  attached, 
for  the  sake  of  their  pleasant  sound,  to  the 
anklets  of  women.  The  little  girls  of  Cairo 
wear  strings  of  them  round  their  feet.  In 
Zech.  xiv.  20,  "bells  of  the  horses"  is  probably 
a  wrong  rendering.  It  is  more  probable  that 
they  are  not  bells,  but  concave  or  flat  pieces  of 
brass,  which  were  sometimes  attached  to 
horses  for  the  sake  of  ornament. 

Belshaz'zar,  the  last  king  of  Babylon.  Ac- 
cording to  the  well-known  narrative  in  Dan. 
v.,  he  was  slain  during  a  splendid  feast  in  his 
palace.  Similarly,  Xenophon  tells  us  that 
Babylon  was  taken  by  Cyrus  in  the  night, 
while  the  inhabitants  were  engaged  in  feast- 
ing and  revelry,  and  that  the  king  was  killed. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  narratives  of  Berosus 
in  Josephus  and  of  Herodotus  differ  from  the 
above  account  in  some  important  particulars. 
Berosus  calls  the  last  king  of  Babylon  Nabon- 
nedus  or  Nabonadius,  and  says  that  jn  the 
17th  year  of  his  reign  Cyrus  took  Babylon, 
the  king  having  retired  to  the  neighboring  city 
of  Borsippus  or  Borsippa.  According  to  He- 
rodotus the  last  king  was  called  Labynetus. 
These  discrepancies  have  lately  been  cleared 
up  by  the  discoveries  of  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson. 


52 


THE  \mm 

0?  THE 


BENJAMIN 

From  the  inscriptions  it  appears  that  the  eld- 
est son  of  Xabonnedus  was  called  Bel-shar- 
ezar,  contracted  into  Belshazzar,  and  admitted 
by  his  father  to  a  share  in  the  government. 
So  that  Belshazzar,  as  joint  king  with  his 
father,  may  have  been  governor  of  Babylon 
when  the  city  was  attacked  by  the  combined 
forces  of  the  !Medes  and  Persians,  and  may 
have  perished  in  the  assault  which  followed; 
while  Xabonnedus  leading  a  force  to  the  relief 
of  the  place  was  defeated,  and  obliged  to  take 
refuge  in  Borsippa.  In  Dan.  v.  2,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar is  called  the  father  of  Belshazzar.  This, 
of  course,  need  only  mean  grandfather  or  an- 
cestor. Rawlinson  connects  Belshazzar  with 
Nebuchadnezzar  through  his  mother;  but 
Marcus  Niebuhr  considers  Belshazzar  to  be 
another  name  for  Evil-merodach,  the  son  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  On  Rawlinson's  view,  Bel- 
shazzar died  B.  C.  538;  on  Niebuhr's,  B.  C. 
559- 

Ben'jamin  (son  of  the  right-hand,  for- 
tunate). The  yongest  of  the  children  of  Jacob. 
His  birth  took  place  on  the  road  between 
Bethel  and  Bethlehem,  a  short  distance  from 
the  latter,  and  his  mother  Rachel  died  in  the 
act  of  givig  him  birth,  named  him  with  her 
last  breath  Ben-oni,  "son  of  my  sorrow."  This 
was  by  Jacob  changed  into  Benjamin  (Gen. 
XXXV.  16-18).  Until  the  journeys  of  Jacob's 
sons  and  of  Jacob  himself  into  Egypt  we  hear 
nothing  of  Benjamin.  Henceforward  the  his- 
tory of  Benjamin  is  the  history  of  the  tribe. 
And  up  to  the  time  of  the  entrance  on  the 
Promised  Land  that  history  is  as  meagre  as  it 
is  afterwards  full  and  interesting.  The  con- 
trast between  the  warlike  character  of  the 
tribe  and  the  peaceful  image  of  its  progenitor 
comes  out  in  many  scattered  notices.  Ben 
jamin  was  the  only  tribe  which  seems  to  have 
pursued  archery  to  any  purpose,  and  their 
skill  in  the  bow  (i  Sam.  xx.  20,  36;  2  Sam.  i 
22;  I  Chr.  viii.  40,  xii.  2;  2  Chr.  xvii.  17)  and 
the  sling  (Judg.  xx.  16)  is  celebrated.  The 
dreadful  deed  recorded  in  Judg.  xix.,  though 
repelled  by  the  whole  country,  was  unhesi 
tatingly  adopted  and  defended  by  Benjamin 
with  an  obstinacy  and  spirit  truly  extraordi 
nary.  That  frightful  transaction  was  indeed 
a  crisis  in  the  history  of  the  tribe:  the  six 
hundred  who  took  refuge  in  the  cliff  Rimmon 
were  the  only  survivors.  A  long  interval  must 
have  elapsed  between  so  abject  a  condition 
and  the  culminating  point  at  which  we  next 
meet  with  the  tribe.  Several  circumstances 
may  have  conduced  to  its  restoration  to  that 
place  which  it  was  now  to  assume.  Ramah 
(i  Sam.  ix.  12,  &c.),  Mizpeh  (i  Sam.  vii.  5), 
Bethel,  and  Gibeon  (i  K.  iii.  4)  were  all  in 


BethaNy 

the  land  of  Benjamin.  The  people  who  re- 
sorted to  these  sanctuaries  must  gradually 
have  been  accustomed  to  associate  the  tribe 
with  power  and  sanctity.  The  struggles  and 
contests  which  followed  the  death  of  Saul 
arose  from  the  natural  unwillingness  of  the 
tribe  to  relinquish  its  position  at  the  head  of 
the  nation,  especially  in  favor  of  Judah,  and 
we  do  not  hear  of  any  cordial  cooperation  or 
firm  union  between  the  two  tribes  until  the 
disruption  of  the  kingdoms.  Henceforward 
the  history  of  Benjamin  becomes  merged  in 
that  of  the  southern  kingdom. 

Ben-o'ni,  the  name  which  the  dying  Rachel 
gave  to  her  newly-born  son,  but  which  by  his 
father  was  changed  into  Benjamin  (Gen. 
XXXV.  18). 

Ber'achah,  Valley  of,  a  valley  in  which 
Jehoshaphat  and  his  people  assembled  to 
"bless"  Jehovah  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
hosts  of  Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  Mehunim, 
who  had  come  against  them,  and  which  from 
that  fact  acquired  its  name  of  "the  valley 
of  blessing"  (2  Chr.  xx.  26). 

Berni'ce  and  Bereni'ce,  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (Acts  xii.  i,  &c.).  She 
was  first  married  to  her  uncle  Herod,  king  of 
Chalcis,  and  after  his  death  (A.  D.  48)  she 
lived  under  circumstances  of  great  suspicion 
with  her  own  brother,  Agrippa  II.,  in  connec- 
tion with  whom  she  is  mentioned  (Acts  xxv. 
13,  23,  xxvi.  30)  as  having  visited  Festus  on 
his  appointment  as  Procurator  of  Judaea. 

Beryl  (tarshish).  It  is  generally  supposed 
that  the  tarshish  derives  its  name  from  the 
place  so  called.  The  ancient  chr3^solite  or  the 
modern  yellow  topaz  appears  to  have  a  better 
claim  than  any  other  gem  to  represent  the 
tarshish  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  certainly  a  bet- 
ter claim  than  the  beryl  of  the  A.  V.,  a  render- 
ing which  appears  to  be  unsupported  by  any 
kind  of  evidence. 

Beth,  the  most  general  word  for  a  house 
or  habitation. — Beth  is  more  frequently  em- 
ployed in  compound  names  of  places  than  any 
other  word.  Beth-eked,  the  "shearing  house" 
(2  K.  x.  12),  lay  between  Jezreel  and  Samaria, 
according  to  Jerome  15  miles  from  the  town 
of  Legio,  and  in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  Betli- 
haggan,  "the  garden-house"  (2  K.  ix.  27),  is 
doubtless  the  same  place  as  Engannin,  "spring 
of  gardens." 

Beth'any  (house  of  dates),  a  village  which, 
scanty  as  are  the  notices  of  it  contained  in 
Scripture,  is  more  intimately  associated  in  our 
minds  than  perhaps  any  other  place  with  the 
most  familiar  acts  and  ^scenes  of  the  last  days 
of  the  life  of  Christ.  It  was  situated  "at"  the 
Mount  of  Olives  (Mark  xi.  i;  Luke  xix.  29), 


53 


BETHEL 


BETHLEHEM 


about  fifteen  stadia  from  Jerusalem  (John  xi. 
i8),  or  on  near  the  usual  road  from  Jericho 
to  the  city.  Bethany  is  now  known  by  a  name 
derived  from  Lazarus, — el-'Azariyeh  or  Laza- 
rieh.  It  lies  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Mount 
of  Olives,  fully  a  mile  beyond  the  summit, 
and  not  very  far  from  the  point  at  which  the 
road  to  Jericho  begins  its  more  sudden  descent 
towards  the  Jordan  valley.  Beth-any  has  been 
commonly  explained  "House  of  Dates,"  but 
it  more  probably  signifies  "House  of  Misery." 

Beth' el  (the  house  of  God).  i.  A  well- 
known  city  and  holy  place  of  central  Pales- 
tine. Of  the  origin  of  the  name  of  Bethel  there 
are  two  accounts  extant:  i.  It  was  bestowed 
on  the  spot  by  Jacob  under  the  awe  inspired 
by  the  nocturnal  vision  of  God,  when  on  his 
journey  from  his  father's  house  at  Beersheba 
to  seek  his  wife  in  Haran  (Gen.  xxviii.  19). 
2.  But,  according  to  the  other  account,  Bethel 
received  its  name  on  the  occasion  of  a  blessing 
bestowed  by  God  upon  Jacob  after  his  return 
from  Padanaram ;  at  which  time  also  (accord- 
ing to  this  narrative)  the  name  of  Israel  -was 
given  him  (Gen.  xxxv.  14,  15). — Early  as  is 
the  date  involved  in  these  narratives,  yet,  if 
we  are  to  accept  the  precise  definition  of  Gen. 
xii.  8,  the  name  of  Bethel  would  appear  to 
have  existed  at  this  spot  even  before  the  ar- 
rival of  Abram  in  Canaan  (Gen.  xii.  8,  xiii.  3, 
4).  I'n  one  thing,  however,  the  above  narra- 
tives all  agree, — in  omitting  any  mention  of 
town  or  buildings  at  Bethel  at  that  early 
period,  and  in  drawing  a  marked  distinction 
between  the  "city"  of  Luz  and  the  consecrated 
"place"  in  its  neighborhood  (comp.  Gen.  xxxv. 
7).  The  appropriation  of  the  name  of  Bethel 
to  the  city  appears  not  to  have  been  made 
till  still  later,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  tribe 
of  Ephraim ;  after  which  the  name  of  Luz  oc- 
curs no  more  (Judg.  i.  22-26). — After  the  con- 
quest Bethel  is  frequently  heard  of.  In  the 
troubled  times  when  there  was  no  king  in 
Israel,  it  was  to  Bethel  that  the  people  went 
up  in  their  distress  to  ask  counsel  of  God 
(Judg.  XX.  18,  26,  31 ;  xxi.  2:  A.  V.  "house  of 
God").  Here  was  the  ark  of  the  covenant 
under  the  charge  of  Phinehas,  the  grandson  of 
Aaron  (xx.  26-28,  xxi.  4).  Later  we  find  it 
named  as  one  of  the  holy  cities  to  which  Sam- 
uel went  in  circuit  (i  Sam.  vii.  16).  Here 
Jeroboam  placed  one  of  the  two  calves  of  gold. 
Towards  the  end  of  Jeroboam's  life  Bethel  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Judah  (2  Chr.  xiii.  ig). 
Elijah  visited  Bethel,  and  we  hear  of  "sons  of 
the  prophets"  as  residents  there  (2  K.  ii.  2,  3), 
two  facts  apparently  incompatible  with  the 
active  existence  of  the  calf-worship.  But, 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Baal  worship  by 


Jehu,  Bethel  comes  once  more  into  view  (2 
K.  X.  29).  After  the  desolation  of  the  north- 
ern kingdom  by  the  king  of  Assyria,  Bethel 
still  remained  an  abode  of  priests  (2  K.  xvii. 
28.  27). 

Bethesda  (house  of  mercy,  or  the  flowering 


Traditional  Pool  of  Bethesda. 

water),  the  Hebrew  name  of  a  reservoir  or 
tank,  with  five  "porches,"  close  upon  the 
sheep-gate  or  "market"  in  Jerusalem  (John 
V.  2).  The  porches — i.  e.  cloisters  or  colon- 
nades— were  extensive  enough  to  accommo- 
date a  large  number  of  sick  and  infirm  people, 
whose  custom  it  was  to  wait  there  for  the 
"troubling  of  the  water."  The  large  reservoir 
Birket  Israil,  within  the  walls  of  the  city,  close 
by  the  St.  Stephen's  Gate,  and  under  the  north- 
east wall  of  the  Haram  area,  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  be  the  modern  representative  of 
Bethesda. 


Bethlehem  from  the  Chapel  of  the  Nativity. 

Beth'lehem  (house  of  bread).  One  of  the 
oldest  towns  in  Palestine,  already  in  existence 
at  the  time  of  Jacob's  return  to  the  country. 
Its  earliest  name  was  Ephrath  or  Ephratah 
(see  Gen.  xxxv.  16,  19,  xlviii.  7),  and  it  is  not 
till  long  after  the  occupation  of  the  country 
by  the  Israelites  that  we  meet  with  it  under 
its  new  name  of  Bethlehem.    After  the  con- 


54 


BETHSAIDA 


BIBLE 


quest  Bethlehem  appears  under  its  own  name 
LJethlehem-judah  (Judg.  xvii.  7;  i  Sam.  xvii. 
12;  Ruth  i.  I,  2).  The  Book  of  Ruth  is  a 
page  from  the  domestic  history  of  Bethle- 
hem :  the  names,  almost  the  very  persons,  of 
the  Bethlehemites  are  there  brought  before  us ; 
we  are  allowed  to  assist  at  their  most  peculiar 
customs,  and  to  witness  the  very  springs  of 
those  events  which  have  conferred  immortal- 
ity on  the  name  of  the  place.  The  elevation 
of  David  to  the  kingdom  does  not  appear  to 
have  altected  the  fortunes  of  his  native  town. 
— The  few  remaining  casual  notices  of  Bethle- 
hem in  the  Old  Testament  may  be  quickly 
enumerated.  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Chr.  xi.  6).  By  the  time  of  the  captivity, 
the  Inn  of  Chimham  by  Bethlehem  appears 
to  have  become  the  recognized  point  of  de- 
parture for  travellers  to  Egypt  (Jer.  xli.  17). — 
In  the  New  Testament  Bethlehem  retains  its 
distinctive  title  of  Bethlehem-judah  (Matt.  ii. 
I,  5),  and  once,  in  the  announcement  of  the 
Angels,  the  "city  of  David"  (Luke  ii.  4;  comp. 
John  vii.  42).  The  passages  just  quoted,  and 
the  few  which  follow,  exhaust  the  references 
to  it  in  the  N.  T.  (Matt.  ii.  6,  8,  16;  Luke  ii. 
15).  The  modern  town  of  Beit-lahm  lies  to 
the  E.  of  the  main  road  from  Jerusalem  to 
Hebron,  6  miles  from  the  former.  The  popu- 
lation is  about  3,000  souls,  entirely  Christians. 


Chapel  of  the  Nativity,  Bethlehem. 

Beth-sa'ida  (house  of  fish),  i.  "Bethsaida 
of  Galilee"  (John  xii.  21),  a  city  which  was 
the  native  place  of  Andrew,  Peter,  and  Philip 
(John  i.  44,  xii.  21),  in  the  land  of  Gennesa- 
reth  (Mark  vi.  45;  comp.  53),  and  therefore 
on  the  west  side  of  the  lake.  Dr.  Robinson 
places  Bethsaida  at  'Ain  et-Tabigah,  a  short 
distance  north  of  Khan  Minyeh,  which  he 
identifies  with  Capernaum.  2.  By  comparing 
the  narratives  in  Mark  vi.  31-53,  and  Luke  ix. 
10-17,  it  appears  certain  that  the  Bethsaida  at 


which  the  5,000  were  fed  must  have  been  a 
second  place  of  the  same  name  on  the  east  of 
the  lake.  Such  a  place  there  was  at  the  north- 
eastern extremity,  formerly  a  village,  but  re- 
built and  adorned  by  Philip  the  Tetrarch,  and 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  town  under  the  name 
of  Julias,  after  the. daughter  of  the  emperor. 
Here  in  a  magnificent  tomb  Philip  was  buried. 
Of  this  Bethsaida  we  have  certainly  one  and 
propably  two  mentions  in  the  Gospels :  i.  That 


Site  of  Bethsaida. 

named  above,  of  the  feeding  of  the  5,000  (Luke 
ix.  10).  2.  The  other,  most  probably,  is  Mark 
viii.  22. 

Betrothing.  [Marriage.] 

Beu'lah,  "married,"  the  name  whi:h  the  land 
of  Israel  is  to  bear,  when  "the  land  shall  be 
married"  (Is.  Ixii.  4). 

Bible.  I.  When  the  Books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament were  formed  into  a  Canon  [Canon]  it 
was  natural  to  give  a  general  name  to  the  col- 
lection. The  earliest  instance  of  such  a  title 
occurs  in  Daniel,  who  refers  to  "the  books" 
(Dan.  ix.  2)  in  a  manner  which  seems  to 
mark  the  prophetic  writings  as  already  col- 
lected into  one  whole.  The  word  Bible,  or 
The  Book,  has  been  given  to  the  collected 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  The 
writers  of  the  New  Testament  call  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  either  The  Scripture 
(Acts  viii.  32;  Gal.  iii.  22;  2  Tim.  iii.  16),  or 
The  Scriptures  (Matt.  xxi.  42;  Luke  xxiv.  27), 
or  The  Holy  Scriptures  (2  Tim.  iii.  15).  Of 
the  Latin  equivalents,  which  were  adopted  by 
different  writers  (Instrumentum,  Testamen- 
tum),  the  latter  met  with  the  most  general 
acceptance,  and  perpetuated  itself  in  the  lan- 
guages of  modern  Europe,  whence  the  terms 
Old  Testament  and  New  Testament,  though 
the  Greek  word  properly  signifies  "Covenant" 
rather  than  "Testament."  But  the  application 
of  the  word  Bible  to  the  collected  books  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  is  not  to  be 
traced  further  back  than  the  fifth  century  of 
our  era.    II.    The  existence  of  a  collection 


55 


Bible 


BIBLE 


of  sacred  books  recognized  as  authoritative 
leads  naturally  to  a  more  or  less  systematic 
arrangement.  The  Prologue  to  Ecclesiasticus 
mentions  "the  law  of  the  prophets  and  the 
other  Books."  In  the  N.  T.  there  is  the  same 
kind  of  recognition.  "The  Law  and  the 
Prophets"  is  the  shorter  (Matt.  xi.  13,  xxii.  40; 
Acts  xiii.  15,  &c.)  ;  "the  Law,  the  Prophets, 
and  the  Psalms"  (Luke  xxiv.  44),  the  fuller 
statement  of  the  division  popularly  recognized. 
The  arrangement  of  the  books  of  the  Hebrew 
txet  under  these  three  heads  requires,  however, 
a  further  notice,  i.  The  Law,  containing  Gen- 
esis, Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers  and  Deuter- 
onomy, naturally  continued  to  occupy  the  po- 
sition which  it  must  have  held  from  the  first 
as  the  most  ancient  and  authoritative  portion. 
In  the  Hebrew  classification  the  titles  were 
taken  from  the  initial  words,  or  prominent 
words  in  the  initial  verse ;  in  that  of  the  LXX. 
they  were  intended  to  be  significant  of  the  sub- 
ject of  each  book.  2.  The  next  group  presents 
a  more  singular  combination.  The  arrange- 
ment stands  as  follows : 

,  fjoshua 

Elder  J  Judges 

j  1  &  2  Samuel 
ll  &  2  Kings 


Prophets. 


Later 


Greater 


1  Isaiah 
■j  .Teremiah 
lEzekiel 


Txhe  twelve 

Lesser  -i  minor 

LProphets 


— the  Hebrew  titles  of  these  books  correspond- 
ing to  those  of  the  English  Bibles.  3.  Last  in 
order  came  the  group  known  to  the  Jews  as 
Cethubim,  including  the  remaining  books  of 
the  Hebrew  Canon,  arranged  in  the  following 
order,  and  with  subordinate  divisions :  (a) 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job.  (b)  The  Song  of  Songs, 
Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  Esther — the 
five  rolls,  (c)  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  i  and 
2  Chronicles.  The  history  of  the  arrangement 
of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament  presents 
some  variations,  not  without  interest,  as  indi- 
cating differences  of  feeling  or  modes  of 
thought.  The  four  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  uniformly  stand  first.  They  are 
so  far  to  the  New  what  the  Pentateuch 
was  to  the  Old  Testament.  The  position 
of  the  Acts  as  an  intermediate  book,  the  sequel 
to  the  Gospels,  the  prelude  to  the  Epistles,  was 
obviously  a  natural  one.  After  this  we  meet 
with  some  striking  dififerences.   The  order  in 


the  Alexandrian,  Vatican  and  Ephraem  MSS. 
(A  B  C)  gives  precedence  to  the  Catholic 
Epistles,  and  this  would  appear  to  have  been 
characteristic  of  the  Eastern  Churches.  The 
Western  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  as  rep- 
resented by  Jerome,  Augustine  and  their  suc- 
cessors, gave  priority  of  position  to  the  Pauline 
Epistles.  Ihe  Apocalypse,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  the  peculiar  character  of  its  con- 
tents, occupied  a  position  by  itself.  III.  Divi- 
sion into  Chapters  and  Verses. — The  Hebrew 
of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  hardly  possible  to 
conceive  of  the  liturgical  use  of  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  without  some  kind 
of  recognized  division.  The  references,  how- 
ever, in  Mark  xii.  26  and  Luke  xx.  37,  Rom. 
xi.  2,  and  Acts  viii.  32,  indicate  a  division  which 
had  become  familiar,  and  show  that  some  at 
least  of  the  sections  were  known  popularly  by 
the  titles  taken  from  their  subjects.  In  like 
manner  the  existence  of  a  cycle  of  lessons  is 
indicated  by  Luke  iv.  17;  Acts  xiii.  15,  xv.  21 ; 
2  Cor.  iii.  14.  The  Talmudic  division  is  on 
the  following  plan :  The  Law  was  in  the  first 
instance  divided  into  fifty-four  Parshioths,  or 
sections,  so  as  to  provide  a  lesson  for  each  Sab- 
bath in  the  Jewish  intercalary  year.  Coexist- 
ng  with  this  there  was  a  subdivision  into  lesser 
Parshioth.  A  different  terminology  was  em- 
ployed for  the  Elder  and  Later  Prophets,  and 
the  division  was  less  uniform.  The  name  of 
the  sections  in  this  case  was  Haphtaroth.  Of 
the  traditional  divisions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
however,  that  which  has  exercised  most  influ- 
ence in  the  received  arrangement  of  the  text 
was  the  subdivision  of  the  larger  sections  into 
verses  (Pesukim).  These  do  not  appear  to 
have  been  used  till  the  post-Talmudic  recen- 
sion of  the  text  by  the  Masoretes  of  the  9th 
century!  The  chief  facts  that  remain  to  be 
stated  as  to  the  verse  division  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  that  it  was  adopted  by  Stephens  in 
his  edition  of  the  Vulgate,  1555,  and  by  Frellon 
in  that  of  1556;  that  it  appeared  for  the  first 
time  in  an  English  translation,  in  the  Geneva 
Bible  of  1560,  and  was  thence  transferred  to 
the  Bishops'  Bible  of  1568,  and  the  Authorized 
Version  of  161 1.  With  the  New  Testament, 
the  division  into  chapters  adopted  by  Hugh 
de  St.  Cher  superseded  those  that  had  been  in 
use  previously,  appeared  in  the  early  editions 
of  the  Vulgate,  was  transferred  to  the  English 
Bible  by  Coverdale,  and  so  became  universal. 
As  to  the  division  into  verses,  the  absence  of 
an  authoritative  standard  left  more  scope  to 
the  individual  discretion  of  editors  or  printers, 
and  the  activity  of  the  two  Stephenses  caused 
that  which  they  adopted  in  their  numerous 
editions  of  the  Greek  Testament  and  Vulgate 


56 


THE  ur^n 

Of  IHB 


BIRDS 


BLINDNESS 


to  be  generally  received.  In  the  Preface  to 
the  Concordance,  pubhshed  by  Henry  Ste- 
phens, 1594,  he  gives  an  account  of  the  origin 
of  this  division.  The  whole  work  was  accom- 
plished '"inter  equitandum"  on  his  journey 
from  Paris  to  Lyons.  While  it  was  in  prog- 
ress men  doubted  of  its  success.  No  sooner 
was  it  known  than  it  met  with  universal  ac- 
ceptance. The  edition  in  wdiich  this  division 
was  first  adopted  was  published  in  1551.  It 
was  used  for  the  English  version  published  in 
Geneva  in  1560,  and  from  that  time,  with 
slight  variations  in  detail,  has  been  univer- 
sally recognized. 
Birds.  [Sparrow.] 

Birthdays.  The  custom  of  observing  birth- 
days is  very  ancient  (Gen.  xl.  20;  Jer.  xx.  15)  ; 
and  in  Job  i.  4,  &c.,  we  read  that  Job's  sons 
"feasted  every  one  his  day."  In  Persia  they 
were  celebrated  with  peculiar  honors  and  ban- 
quets, and  in  Egypt  the  king's  birthdays  were 
kept  with  great  pomp.  It  is  very  probable  that 
in  Matt.  xiv.  6  the  feast  to  commemorate  Her- 
od's accession  is  intended,  for  we  know  that 
such  feasts  were  common  and  were  called  "the 
day  of  the  king"  (Hos.  vii.  5). 

Birthright.  The  advantages  accruing  to  the 
eldest  son  were  not  definitely  fixed  in  patri- 
archal times.  Great  respect  was  paid  to  him 
in  the  household,  and,  as  the  family  widened 
into  a  tribe,  this  grew  into  a  sustained  author- 
ity, undefined,  save  by  custom,  in  all  matters 
of  common  interest.  Thus  the  "princes"  of  the 
congregation  had  probably  rights  of  primogen- 
iture (Num.  vii.  2,  xxi.  18,  xxv.  14).  A  "double 
portion"  of  the  paternal  propery  was  allotted 
by  the  Mosaic  law  (Deut.  xxi.  15-17).  The 
first-born  of  the  king  was  his  successor  by  law 
(2  Chr.  xxi.  3)  ;  David,  however,  by  divine  ap- 
pointment, excluded  Adonijah  in  favor  of  Solo- 
mon. 

Bishop.  This  word,  applied  in  the  N.  T.  to 
the  officers  of  the  Church  who  were  charged 
with  certain  functions  of  superintendence,  had 
been  in  use  before  as  a  title  of  office.  When 
the  organization  of  the  Christian  churches  in 
Gentile  cities  involved  the  assignment  of  the 
work  of  pastoral  superintendence  to  a  distinct 
order,  the  title  bishop  presented  itself  as  at 
once  convenient  and  familiar,  and  was  there- 
fore adopted  as  readily  as  the  word  elder  had 
been  in  the  mother  church  of  Jerusalem.  The 
duties  of  the  bishop-elders  appear  to  have  been 
as  follows:  i.  General  superintendence  over 
the  spiritual  well-being  of  the  flock  (i  Pet.  v. 
2).  2.  Tbe  work  of  teaching,  both  publicly 
and  privately  (i  Thess.  v.  12;  Tit.  i.  9;  i  Tim. 
V.  17).  3.  The  work  of  visiting  the  sick  ap- 
pears in  Jam.  v.  14  as  assigned  to  the  elders 


of  the  Church.  4.  Among  other  sects  of  char- 
ity, that  of  receiving  strangers  occupied  a  con- 
spicuous place  (I  Tim.  iii.  2;  Tit.  i.  8).  The 
mode  in  which  these  officers  of  the  Church 
were  supported  or  remunerated  varied  prob- 
ably in  different  cities.  Collectively  at  Jeru- 
salem, and  probably  in  other  churches,  the 
body  of  bishop-elders  took  part  in  deliberations 
(Acts  XV.  6-22,  xxi.  18),  addressed  other 
churches  (ibid.  xv.  23),  were  joined  with  the 
apostles  in  the  work  of  ordaining  by  the  lay- 
ing on  of  hands  (2  Tim.  i.  6).  III.  It  is  clear 
from  what  has  been  said  that  episcopal  func- 
tions in  the  modern  sense  of  the  words,  as 
implying  a  special  superintendence  over  the 
ministers  of  the  Church,  belonged  only  to  the 
apostles  and  those  whom  they  invested  with 
their  authority. 

Bitter  Herbs.  The  Israelites  were  com- 
manded to  eat  the  Paschal  lamb  "with  unleav- 
ened bread  and  with  bitter  herbs"  (Ex.  xii.  8). 
These  may  well  be  understood  to  denote  va- 
rious sorts  of  bitter  plants,  such  particularly 
as  belong  to  the  cruciferae,  as  some  of  the  bet- 
ter cresses,  or  to  the  chicory  group  of  the  com- 
positae,  the  hawkweeds,  and  sow-thistles,  and 
wild  lettuces  which  grow  abundantly  in  the 
Peninsula  of  Sinai,  in  Palestine  and  in  Egypt. 

Bittern.  The  Hebrew  word  has  been  the 
subject  of  various  interpretations.  Philologi- 
cal arguments  appear  to  be  rather  in  favor  of 
the  "hedgehog"  or  "porcupine,"  for  the  He- 
brew word  appears  to  be  identical  with  the 
Arabic  word  for  the  hedgehog;  but  zoologi- 
cally the  hedgehog  or  porcupine  is  quite  out 
of  the  question.  The  word  occurs  in  Is.  xiv. 
23,  xxxiv.  II ;  Zeph.  ii.  14,  and  we  are  inclined 
to  believe  that  the  A.  V.  is  correct.  The  bit- 
tern belongs  to  the  heron  family  of  birds. 

Blasphemy,  in  its  technical  English  sense, 
signifies  the  speaking  evil  of  God,  and  in  this 
sense  it  is  found  Ps.  Ixxiv.  18 ;  Is.  lii.  5  ;  Rom. 
ii.  24,  &c.  But  according  to  its  derivation  it 
may  mean  any  species  of  calumny  and  abuse ; 
see  I  K.  xxi.  10;  Acts  xviii.  6;  Jude  9,  &c. 
Blasphemy  was  punished  with  stoning,  which 
was  inflicted  on  the  son  of  Shelomith  (Lev. 
xxiv.  11).  On  this  charge  both  our  Lord  and 
St.  Stephen  were  condemned  to  death  by  the 
Jews.  It  only  remains  to  speak  of  "the  blas- 
phemy against  the  Holy  Ghost,"  which  has 
iDcen  so  fruitful  a  theme  for  speculation  and 
controversy  (Matt.  xii.  32;  Mark  iii.  28).  It 
consisted  in  attributing  to  the  power  of  Satan 
those  vmquestionable  miracles  which  Jesus  per- 
formed by  "the  finger  of  God,"  and  the  power 
of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

Blindness  is  extremely  common  in  the  East 
from  many  causes.    Blind  beggars  figure  re- 


57 


BLOOD 


BOTTLE 


peatedly  in  the  N.  T.  (Matt.  xii.  22),  and 
"opening  the  eyes  of  the  blind"  is  mentioned 
in  prophecy  as  a  peculiar  attribute  of  the  Mes- 
siah (Is.  xxix.  18,  &c.).  The  Jews  were  spe- 
cially charged  to  treat  the  blind  with  compas- 
sion and  care  (Lev.  xix.  14;  Deut.  xxvii.  18). 
'Blindness  willfully  inflicted  for  political  or 
other  purposes  is  alluded  to  in  Scripture  (i 
Sam.  xi.  2;  Jer.  xxxix.  7). 

Blood.  To  blood  is  ascribed  in  Scripture  the 
mysterious  sacredness  which  belongs  to  life, 
and  God  reserves  it  to  Himself  when  allowing 
man  the  dominion  over  and  the  use  of  the 
lower  animals  for  food.  Thus  reserved,  it 
acquires  a  double  power:  i.  that  of  sacrificial 
atonement;  and  2.  that  of  becoming  a  curse 
when  wantonly  shed,  unless  duly  expiated 
(Gen.  ix.  4;  Lev.  vii.  26,  xvii.  11-13). 

Blood,  Revenger  of.  It  was,  and  even  still 
is,  a  common  practice  among  nations  of  ptitri- 
archal  habits,  that  the  nearest  of  kin  should, 
as  a  matter  of  duty,  avenge  the  death  of  a  mur- 
dered relative.  Compensation  for  murder  is 
allowed  by  the  Koran.  Among  the  Bedouins, 
and  other  Arab  tribes,  should  the  offer  of 


Skin  Dottles. 

blood-money  be  refused,  the  "Thar,"  or  law  of 
blood,  comes  into  operation,  and  any  person 
within  the  fifth  degree  of  blood  from  the  homi- 
cide may  be  legally  killed  by  any  one  within 
the  same  degree  of  consanguinity  to  the  vic- 
tim. The  right  to  blood-revenge  is  never  lost, 
except  as  annulled  by  compensation ;  it  des- 
cends to  the  latest  generation.  The  law  of 
Moses  was  very  precise  in  its  directions  on  the 
subject  of  Retaliation,  i.  The  wilful  murder- 
er was  to  be  put  to  death  without  permission 
of  compensation.  The  nearest  relative  of  the 
deceased  became  the  authorized  avenger  of 
blood  (Num.  xxxv.  19).  2.  The  law  of  retalia- 
tion was  not  to  extend  beyond  the  immediate 
offender  (Deut.  xxiv.  16;  2  K.  xiv.  6;  2  Chr. 
XXV.  4';  Jer.  xxxi.  29,  30;  Ezek.  xviii.  20).  3. 
The  involuntary  shedder  of  blood  was  permit- 
ted to  take  flight  to  one  of  six  Levitical  cities, 
specially  appointed  as  cities  of  refuge  (Num. 
xxxv.  22,  23:  Deut.  xix.  4-6). 
Boar,  [Swine.] 

Bo'az.  A  wealthy  Bethlehemite,  kinsman  to 
Elimclech,  the  husband  of  Naomi.  He  mar- 
ried Ruth,  and  redeemed  the  estates  of  her  de- 


ceased husband  Mahlon  (iv.  i,  fif.).  Boaz  is 
mentioned  in  the  genealogy  of  Christ  (Matt, 
i.  5),  but  there  is  great  difficulty  in  assigning 
his  date. 

Boil,  [Medicine.] 

Bondage.  [Slavery,] 

Book.  [Writing.] 

Booty  consisted  of  captives  of  both  sexes, 


Arab  Water-carrier. 

cattle,  and  whatever  a  captured  city  might  con- 
tain, especially  metallic  treasures.  Within  the 
limits  of  Canaan  no  captives  were  to  be  made 
(Deut.  XX.  14  and  16)  ;  beyond  these  limits,  in 
case  of  warlike  resistance,  all  the  women  and 
children  were  to  be  made  captives,  and  the 
men  put  to  death.  The  law  of  booty  is  given 
in  Num.  xxxi.  26-47.  regarded  the  army 
David  added  a  regulation  that  the  baggage 
guard  should  share  equally  with  the  troops 
engaged  (i  Sam.  xxx.  24,  25). 

Bottle.  I.  The  skin  bottle;  2.  the  bottle  of 
earthen  or  glass  ware,  both  of  them  capable 


Eastern  Tear-bottles. 

of  being  closed  from  the  air.  I.  The  Arabs 
keep  their  water,  milk  and  other  liquors  in 
leathern  bottles.  These  are  made  of  goatskins. 
When  the  animal  is  killed  they  cut  off  its  feet 
and  its  head,  and  they  draw  it  in  this  manner 
out  of  the  skin,  without  opening  its  belly.  The 
great  leathern  bottles  are  made  of  the  skin 
of  a  he-goat,  and  the  small  ones,  that  serve 


58 


BOX-TREE 


BRICK 


instead  of  a  bottle  of  water  on  the  road,  are 
made  of  kid's  skin.  The  effect  of  external 
heat  upon  a  skin  bottle  is  indicated  in  Ps.  cxix. 
83,  "a  bottle  in  the  smoke,"  and  of  expansion 
prodviced  by  fermentation  in  Matt.  ix.  17,  "new 
wine  in  old  bottles."  2.  Vessels  of  metal, 
earthen  or  glass  ware  for  liquids  were  in  use 
among  the  Greeks,  Eg\'ptians,  Etruscans  and 
Assyrians,  and  also  no  doubt  among  the  Jews, 
especially  in  later  times.  Thus  Jer.  xix.  i,  "a 
potter's  earthen  bottle."  The  Jews  probably 
borrowed  their  manufactures  in  this  particular 
from  Egypt. 

Box-tree.  The  Heb.  teasshiir  occurs  in  Is. 
xli.  19,  Ix.  13.  The  Talmudical  and  Jewish 
writers  generally  are  of  opinion  that  the  box- 
tree  is  intended.  Box-wood 
are  alluded  to  in  2  Esdr.  xiv.  24. 


writing  tablets 


BRACELETS. 

1.    Gold  Egyptian  Bracelets.    2.  Silver  Bracelet.    .3.  Bronze, 
with   bell   attached,  from   the   mummy  of  a  girl. 
4.  Iron,  with  Coruclia  sotting.    5.  Brace- 
let of  cowries. 

Bracelet,  [see  Armlet.]  Bracelets  of  fine 
twisted  Venetian  gold  are  still  common  in 
Egypt.  In  Gen.  xxxviii.  i8,  25,  the  word  ren- 
dered "bracelet"  means  probably  "a  string  by 
which  a  seal-ring  was  suspended."  Men  as 
.well  as  women  wore  bracelets,  as  we  see  from 
Cant.  V.  14.  Layard  says  of  the  Assyrian 
kings:  "The  arms  were  encircled  by  armlets, 
and  the  wrists  by  bracelets." 

Bramble  [Thorns]. 

Brass.  In  most  places  of  the  O.  T.  the  cor- 
rect translation  would  be  copper,  although  it 
may  sometimes  possibly  mean  bronze,  a  com- 
pound of  copper  and  tin.  Indeed,  a  simple 
metal  was  obviously  intended,  as  we  see  from 
Dcut.  viii.  9,  xxxii.  25,  and  Job  xxviii.  2.  Cop- 
per was  known  at  a  very  early  period  (Gen. 
iv.  22). 

Bread.  The  preparation  of  bread  as  an  article 
of  food  dates  from  a  very  early  period ;  the  ear- 
liest undoubted  instance  of  its  use  is  found  in 
Gen.  xviii.  6.  The  corn  or  grain  employed  was  of 
various  sorts ;  the  best  bread  was  made  of 
wheat,  which  after  being  ground  produced  the 
"flour"  or  "meal"  (Judg.  vi.  19;  i  Sam.  i.  24; 
I  K.  iv.  22,  xvii.  12,  14),  and  when  sifted  the 


"fine  flour"  (Ex.  xxix.  2;  Gen.  xviii.  6)  usually 
employed  in  the  sacred  offerings  (Ex.  xxix.  40; 
Lev.  ii.  I ;  Ez.  xlvi.  14),  and  in  the  meals  of  the 
wealthy  (i  K.  iv.  22;  2  K.  vii.  i;  Ez.  xvi.  13, 
19;  Rev.  xviii.  13).  "Barley"  was  used  only 
by  the  very  poor  (John  vi.  9,  13),  or  in  times 
of  scarcity  (Ruth  iii.  15,  compared  with  i.  i ; 
2  K.  iv.  38,  42;  Rev.  vi.  6).  "Spelt"  was  also 
used  both  in  Egypt  (Ex.  ix.  32)  and  Palestine 
(Is.  xxviii.  25;  Ez.  iv.  .9;  i  K.  xix.  6).  The 
bread  taken  by  persons  on  a  journey  (Gen.  xlv. 
23 ;  Josh.  ix.  12)  was  probably  a  kind  of  bis- 
cuit. The  process  of  making  bread  was  as 
follows :  The  flour  was  first  mixed  with  water, 
or  perhaps  milk ;  it  was  then  kneaded  with  the 
hands  (in  Egypt  with  the  feet  also)  in  a  small 
wooden  bowl  or  "kneading  trough"  until  it 
became  dough  (Ex.  xii.  34,  39;  2  Sam.  xiii.  3; 
Jer.  vii.  18;  Hos.  vii.  4).  When  the  kneading 
was  completed,  leaven  was  generally  added 
[Leaven]  ;  but  when  the  time  for  preparation 
was  short,  it  was  omitted,  and  unleavened 
cakes,  hastily  baked,  were  eaten,  as  is  still  the 
prevalent  custom  among  the  Bedouins  (Gen. 
xviii.  6,  xix.  3;  Ex.  xii.  39;  Judg.  vi.  19;  i  Sam. 
xxviii.  24).  The  leavened  mass  was  allowed 
to  stand  for  some  time  (Matt.  xiii.  33 ;  Luke 
xiii.  21).  The  dough  was  then  divided  into 
round  cakes  (Ex.  xxix.  23;  Judg.  vii.  13,  viii. 
5;  I  Sam.  x.  3;  Prov.  vi.  26),  not  unlike  flat 
stones  in  shape  and  appearance  (Matt.  vii.  9; 
comp.  iv.  3),  about  a  span  in  diameter  and  a 
finger's  breadth  in  thickness.  In  the  towns 
where  professional  bakers  resided  there  were 
no  doubt  fixed  ovens,  in  shape  and  size  resem- 
bling those  in  use  among  ourselves ;  but  more 
usually  each  householcF  possessed  a  portable 


Egyptian  Loaves  and  Seed  Bread. 

oven,  consisting  of  a  stone  or  metal  jar,  about 
three  feet  high,  which  was  heated  inwardly 
with  wood  (i  K.  xvii.  12;  Is.  xliv.  15;  Jer.  vii. 
18)  or  dried  grass  and  flower-stalks  (Matt, 
vi.  20). 

Breastplate.  [Arms.] 

Brethren  of  Jesus.  [James.] 

Brick.  Herodotus  (i.  179),  describing  the 
mode  of  building  the  walls  of  Babylon,  says 
that  the  clay  dug  out  of  the  ditch  was  made 
into  bricks  as  soon  as  it  was  carried  up,  and 


59 


BRIDE 


BURIAL 


burnt  in  kilns.  The  bricks  were  cemented  with 
hot  bitumen,  and  at  every  thirtieth  row  crates 
of  reeds  were  stuffed  in  (comp.  Gen.  xi.  3). 
The  Babylonian  bricks  were  more  commonly 
burnt  in  kilns  than  those  used  at  Nineveh, 
which  are  chiefly  sun-dried  like  the  Egyptian. 
They  are  usually  from  12  to  13  in.  square  and 
33^  in.  thick.  They  thus  possess  more  of  the 
character  of  tiles  (Ez.  iv,  i).  The  Israelites, 
in  common  with  other  captives,  were  employed 
by  the  Egyptian  monarchs  in  making  bricks 
and  in  building  (Ex.  i.  14,  v.  7).  Egyptian 
bricks  were  not  generally  dried  in  kilns,  but 
in  the  sun.  When  made  of  the  Nile  mud  they 
required  straw  to  prevent  cracking ;  and  crude 
brick  walls  had  frequently  the  additional  se- 
curity of  a  layer  of  reeds  and  sticks,  placed 
at  intervals  to  act  as  binders.  A  brick  pyra- 
mid is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (ii.  136) '  as 
the  work  of  King  Asychis.  The  Jews  learned 
the  art  of  brick-making  in  Egypt,  and  we  find 
the  use  of  the  brick-kiln  in  David's  time  (2 


Brick-making  in  Egypt. 

Sam.  xii.  31),  and  a  complaint  made  by  Isaiah 
that  the  people  built  altars  of  brick  instead  of 
tmhewn  stone  as  the  law  directed  (Is.  Ixv.  3 ; 
Ex.  XX.  25).    [See  Straw.] 

Bride,  Bridegroom,  [Marriage.] 

Bridge.  The  only  mention  of  a  bridge  in 
the  Canonical  Scriptures  is  indirectly  in  the 
proper  name  Geshur,  a  district  in  Bashan,  N. 
E.  of  the  sea  of  Galilee.  At  this  place  a  bridge 
still  exists,  called  the  bridge  of  the  sons  of 
Jacob.  Judas  Maccabaeus  is  said  to  have  in- 
tended to  make  a  bridge  in  order  to  besiege  the 
town  of  Casphor  or  Caspis,  situate  near  a  lake 
(2  Mace.  xii.  13).  The  Romans  were  the  first 
constructors  of  arched  bridges.  The  bridge 
connecting  the  Temple  with  the  upper  city,  of 
which  Josephus  speaks,  seems  to  have  been 
an  arched  viaduct. 

Brimstone.  The  Hebrew  word  is  connected 
with  gopher,  "gopher-wood,"  A.  V.  Gen.  vi. 
14,  and  probably  signified  in  the  first  instance 
the  gum  or  resin  that  exuded  from  that  tree ; 
hence  it  was  transferred  to  all  inflammable 


substances,  and  especially  to  sulphur,  which 
is  found  in  considerable  quantities  on  the 
shores  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Gen.  xix.  24). 

Brother.  The  Hebrew  word  is  used  in  va- 
rious senses  in  the  O.  T.,  as:  i.  Any  kinsman, 
and  not  a  mere  brother;  e.  g.  nephew  (Gen. 
xiv.  16,  xiii.  8),  husband  (Cant.  iv.  ,9).  2.  One 
of  the  same  tribe  (2  Sam. , xix.  13).  3.  Of  the 
same  people  (Ex.  ii.  14),  or  even  of  a  cognate 
people  (Num.  xx.  14).  4.  An  ally  (Am.  i.  9). 
5.  Any  friend  (Job,  v,  15),  6.  One  of  the  same 
office  (i  K.  ix.  13),  7.  A  fellow-man  (Lev. 
xix.  17).  8.  Metaphorically  of  any  similarity, 
as  in  Job  xxx.  19. 

Bull,  Bullock,  terms  used  synonymously 
with  ox,  oxen,  in  the  A.  V.,  as  the  representa- 
tives of  several  Hebrew  words.  Bakar,  the 
most  common,  is  properly  a  generic  name  for 
horned  cattle  when  of  full  age  and  fit  for  the 
plough.  Accordingly  it  is  variously  rendered 
bullock  (Is.  Ixv.  25),  cow  (Ez.  iv.  15),  oxen 
(Gen.  xii.  16).  In  Is.  li.  20  the  "wild  bull" 
("wild  ox"  in  Deut.  xiv.  5)  was  possibly  one 
of  the  larger  species  of  antelopes,  and  took  its 
name  from  its  swiftness.  Dr.  Robinson  men- 
tions large  herds  of  black  and  almost  hairless 
buffaloes  as  still  existing  in  Palestine,  and 
these  may  be  the  animal  indicated. 

Burial,  Sepulchres,  [Tombs.]  On  this  sub- 
ject we  have  to  notice:  i.  the  place  of  burial, 
its  site  and  shape ;  2.  the  mode  of  burial ;  3. 
the  prevalent  notions  regarding  this  duty.  i. 
A  natural  cave  enlarged  and  adapted  by  exca- 
vation, or  an  artificial  imitation  of  one,  was 
the  standard  type  of  sepulchre.  This  was  what 
the  structure  of  the  Jewish  soil  supplied  or 
suggested.  Sepulchres,  when  the  owner's 
means  permitted  it,  were  commonly  prepared 
beforehand,  and  stood  often  in  gardens,  by 
roadsides,  or  even  adjoining  houses.  Kings 
and  prophets  alone  were  probably  buried  with- 
in towns  (i  K.  ii.  10,  xvi.  6,  28 ;  2  K.  x.  35,  xiii. 
9;  2  Chr.  xvi.  14,  xxviii.  27;  i  Sam.  xxv.  i, 
xxviii.  3).  Sarah's  tomb  and  Rachel's  seem  to 
have  been  chosen  merely  from  the  accident  of 
the  place  of  death ;  but  the  successive  inter- 
ments at  the  former  (Gen.  xlix.  31)  are  a 
chronicle  of  the  strong  family  feeling  among 
the  Jews.  Cities  soon  became  populous  and 
demanded  cemeteries  (Ez.  xxxix.  15),  which 
were  placed  without  the  walls.  Sepulchres 
were  marked  sometimes  by  pillars,  as  that  of 
Rachel,  or  by  pyramids,  as  those  of  the  As- 
moneans  at  Modin.  Such  as  were  not  other- 
wise noticeable  were  scrupulously  "whited" 
(Matt,  xxiii.  27)  once  a  year,  after  the  rains 
before  the  passover,  to  warn  passersby  of  de- 
filement. 2.  "The  manner  of  the  Jews"  in- 
cluded the  use  of  spices,  wher^  they  could  com- 


60 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF  THE 


I 


^  BURNT-OFFERING 


CAESAREA 


mand  the  means.  Thus  Asa  lay  in  a  "bed  of 
spices"  (2  Chr.  xvi.  ii).  A  portion  of  these 
were  burnt  in  honor  of  the  deceased,  and  to 
this  use  was  probably  destined  part  of  the  loo 
pounds'  weight  of  "myrrh  and  aloes"  in  our 
Lord's  case.  In  no  instance,  save  that  of  Saul 
and  his  sons,  w^ere  the  bodies  burned ;  and  even 
then  the  bones  were  interred,  and  reexhumed 
for  solemn  entombment.  It  was  the  ofifice  of 
the  next  of  kin  to  perform  and  preside  over 
the  whole  funereal  office ;  but  a  company  of 
public  buriers,  originating  in  an  exceptional 
necessity  (Ez.  xxxix  12-14),  become,  it 

seems,  customary  in  the  times  of  the  N.  T. 
(Acts  V.  6,  10).  The  bier,  the  word  for  which 
in  the  O.  T.  is  the  same  as  that  rendered  '"bed," 
was  borne  by  the  nearest  relatives.  The  grave- 
clothes  were  probably  of  the  fashion  worn  in 
life,  but  swathed  and  fastened  with  bandages, 
and  the  head  covered  separately.  3.  The  prec- 
edent of  Jacob's  and  Joseph's  remains  being 
returned  to  the  land  of  Canaan  was  followed, 
in  wish  at  least,  by  every  pious  Jew.  Follow- 
ing a  similar  notion,  some  of  the  Rabbins 
taught  that  only  in  that  land  could  those  who 
w§re  buried  obtain  a  share  in  the  resurrection 
which  was  to  usher  in  Messiah's  reign  on  earth. 
Tombs  were,  in  popular  belief,  led  by  the  same 
teaching,  invested  with  traditions. 

Burnt-offering.  The  word  is  applied  to  the 
offering  which  was  wholly  consumed  by  fire  on 
the  altar,  and  the  whole  of  which,  except  the 
refuse  ashes,  "ascended"  in  the  smoke  to  God. 
The  burnt-ofifering  is  first  named  in  Gen.  viii. 
20  as  offered  after  the  Flood.  Throughout  the 
whole  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  (see  xv.  9,  17, 
xxii.  2,  7,-  8,  13)  it  appears  to  be  the  only  sac- 
rifice referred  to ;  afterwards  it  became  distin- 
guished as  one  of  the  regular,  classes  of  sacri- 
fice under  the  Mosaic  law.  The  meaning  of 
the  whole  burnt-offering  was  that  which  is  the 
original  idea  of  all  sacrifice,  the  offering  by  the 
sacrificer  of  himself,  soul  and  body,  to  God,  the 
submission  of  his  will  to  the  will  of  the  Lord. 
The  ceremonies  of  the  burnt-offering  are  given 
in  detail  in  the  Book  of  Leviticus.  There  were, 
as  public  burnt-offerings:  ist.  The  daily  burnt- 
offering  (Ex.  xxix.  38-42;  Num.  xviii.  3-8). 
2dly.  The  Sabbath  burnt-offering  (Num.  xxviii. 
9,  19).  3dly.  The  offering  at  the  new  moon, 
at  the  three  great  festivals,  the  great  Day  of 
Atonement,  and  feast  of  trumpets.  (See  Num. 
xxviii.  ii-xxix.  39).  Private  burnt-offerings 
were  appointed  at  the  consecration  of  priests 
(Ex.  xxxix.  15  ;  Lev.  viii.  18,  ix.  12) ,  at  the  puri- 
fication of  women  (Lev.  xii.  6,  8),  at  the  cleans- 
ing of  lepers  (Lev.  xiv.  19),  and  removal  of 
other  ceremonial  uncleanliness  (xv.  15,  30),  on 
any  accidental  breach  of  the  Nazaritic  vow, 

6 


or  at  its  conclusion  (Num.  vi.;  comp.  Acts  xxi. 
26),  &c.  But  freewill  burnt-offerings  were  of- 
fered and  accepted  by  God  on  any  solemn  oc- 
casions (Num.  vii. ;  i  K.  viii.  64). 

Bush.  The  Hebrew  word  seneh  occurs  only 
in  those  passages  which  refer  to  Jehovah's  ap- 
pearance to  Moses  "in  the  flame  of  fire  in  the 
bush"  (Ex.  iii.  2,  3,  4;  Deut.  xxxiii.  16).  Cel- 
sius has  argued  in  favor  of  the  bramble  or 
blackberry  bush.  Sprengel  identifies  the  seneh 
with  what  he  terms  the  Rubus  sanctus,  and 
says  it  grows  abundantly  near  Sinai.  It  is 
quite  impossible  to  say  what  kind  of  thorn 
bush  is  intended. 

Bushel.  [Measures.] 

Butter,  curdled  milk  (Gen.  xviii.  8;  Deut. 
xxxii.  14;  Judg.  V.  25;  Job.  xx.  17).  Milk  is 
generally  offered  to  travelers  in  Palestine  in  a 
curdled  or  sour  state,  "lebben,"  thick,  almost 
like  butter.  Hasselquist  describes  the  method 
of  making  butter  employed  by  the  Arab  wom- 
en :  "They  made  butter  in  a  leather  bag,  hung 
on  three  poles,  erected  for  the  purpose,  and  in 
the  form  of  a  cone,  and  drawn  to  and  fro  by 
two  women." 

C. 

Cab.  [Measure.] 

Cae'sar,  always  in  the  N.  T.  the  Roman  em- 
peror, the  sovereign  of  Judaea  (John  xix.  12, 
15  ;  Acts  xvii.  7). 

Caesare'a  (Acts  viii.  40,  ix.  30,  x.  i,  24,  xi. 
II,  xii.  19,  xviii.  22,  xxi.  8,  16,  xxiii..23,  33,  xxv. 


Ruins  at  Caesarea. 

I,  4,  6,  13)  was  situated  on  the  coast  of  Pales- 
tine, on  tlie  line  of  the  great  road  from  Tyre  to 
Egypt,  and  about  half  way  between  Joppo  and 
Dora.  The  distance  from  Jerusalem  was  about 
70  miles;  Josephus  states  it  in  round  numbers 
as  600  stadia.  It  was  the  official  residence  of 
the  Herodian  kings,  and  of  Festus,  Felix  and 
the  other  Roman  procurators  of  Judaea.  Ceas- 

I 


CAESAREA  PHILLIPPI 


CALVARY 


area  continued  to  be  a  city  of  some  importance 
even  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades. 

Caesare'a  Phillip'pi  is  mentioned  only  in  the 
two  first  Gospels  (Matt.  xvi.  i8;  Mark  viii.  27) 
and  in  accounts  of  the  same  transactions.  It 
was  at  the  easternmost  and  most  important  of 
the  two  recognized  sources  of  the  Jordan,  the 
other  being  at  Tel-el-Kadi.  The  spring  rises, 
and  the  city  was  built,  on  a  limestone  terrace 
in  a  valley  at  the  base  of  Mount  Hermon. 


View  of  the  Valley  of  Caesarea  Philippi. 

Caesarea  Philippi  has  no  O.  T.  history,  though 
it  has  been  not  unreasonably  identified  with 
Baal-Gad.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  identifying 
it  with  the  Panium  of  Josephus. 

Cage.  The  term  so  rendered  in  Jer.  v.  27  is 
more  properly  a  trap,  in  which  decoy  birds 
were  placed  (comp.  Ecclus.  xi.  30).  In  Rev. 
xviii.  2  the  Greek'  term  means  a  prison. 

Cain  (possession).  The  historical  facts  in 
the  life  of  Cain,  as  recorded  in  Gen.  iv.,  are 
briefly  these :  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Adam 
and  Eve ;  he  followed  the  business  of  agricul- 
ture;  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  roused  by  the  rejec- 
tion of  his  own  sacrifice  and  the  acceptance  of 
Abel's,  he  committed  the  crime  of  murder,  for 
which  he  was  expelled  from  Eden,  and  led  the 
life  of  an  exile ;  he  settled  in  the  land  of  Nod, 
and  built  a  city  which  he  named  after  his  son 
Enoch ;  his  descendants  are  enumerated,  to- 
gether with  the  inventions  for  which  they  were 
remarkable. 

Caldron,  a  vessel  for  boiling  flesh,  either  for 
ceremonial  or  domestic  use  (2  Chr.  xxxv.  13; 
I  Sam.  ii.  14;  Mic.  iii.  3;  Job  xli.  20). 

Ca'leb  (capable),  i.  According  to  I  Chr.  ii. 
9,  18,  19,  42,  50,  the  son  of  Hezron,  the  son  of 
Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah,  and  the  father  of 
Hur  by  Ephrath  of  Ephratah,  and  consequent- 
ly grandfather  of  Caleb  the  spy.  2.  Son  of 
Jephunneh,  by  which  patronymic  the  illustrious 


spy  is  usually  designated  (Num.  xiii.  6,  and  ten 
other  places),  with  the  addition  of  that  of 
"the  Kenezite,"  or  "son  of  Kenaz,"  in  Num. 
xxxii.  12;  Josh.  xiv.  6,  14.  Caleb  is  first  men- 
tioned in  the  list  of  the  rulers  or  princes  who 
were  sent  to  search  the  land  of  Canaan  in  the 
second  year  of  the  Exodus.  He  and  Oshea  or 
Joshua  the  son  of  Nun  were  the  only  two  of 
the  whole  number  who  encouraged  the  people 
to  enter  in  boldly  to  the  land  and  take  posses- 
sion of  it.  Forty-five  years  afterwards  Caleb 
came  to  Joshua  and  claimed  possession  of  the 
land  of  the  Anakims,  Kirjath-Arba,  or  Hebron, 
and  the  neighboring  hill  country  (Josh.  xiv.). 
This  was  immediately  granted  to  him,  and  the 
following  chapter  relates  how  he  took  posses- 
sion of  Hebron,  driving  out  the  three  sons  of 
Anak;  and  how  he  offered  Achsah  his  daugh- 
ter in  marriage  to  whoever  would  take  Kirjath- 
Sepher,  i.  e.  Debir;  and  how  when  Othnielj 
his  younger  brother,  had  performed  the  feat, 
he  not  only  gave  him  his  daughter  to  wife,  but 
with  her  the  upper  and  nether  springs  of  water 
which  she  asked  for.  It  is  probable  that  Caleb 
was  a  foreigner  by  birth ;  a  proselyte,  incorpo- 
rated into  the  tribe  of  Judah. 

Calf.  In  Ex.  xxxii.  4  we  are  told  that  Aaron, 
constrained  by  the  people  in  the  absence  of 
Moses,  made  a  molten  calf  of  the  golden  ear- 
rings of  the  people,  to  represent  the  Elohim 
which  brought  Israel  out  of  Egypt.  Probably 
it  was  a  wooden  figure  laminated  with  gold, 
a  process  which  is  known  to  have  existed  in 
Egypt.  "A  gilded  ox  covered  with  a  pall"  was 
an  emblem  of  Osiris  (Wilkinson,  iv.  335).  To 
punish  the  apostasy  Moses  burnt  the  calf,  and 
then  grinding  it  to  powder  scattered  it  over 
the  water,  which  he  made  the  people  drink. 
The  process  which  he  used  is  difficult  of  ex- 
planation. Bochart  and  Rosenmiiller  think 
that  he  merely  cut,  ground  and  filed  the  gold 
to  powder.  It  has  always  been  a  great  dis- 
pute respecting  this  calf  and  those  of  Jero- 
boam, whether  I.  the  Jews  intended  them  for 
some  Egyptian  god,  or  II.  for  a  mere  cherubic 
symbol  of  Jehovah.  Of  the  various  sacred 
cows  of  Egypt,  those  of  Isis,  of  Athor,  and  of 
the  three  kinds  of  sacred  bulls.  Apis,  Basis  and 
Mnevis,  Sir  G.  Wilkinson  fixes  on  the  latter  as 
the  prototype  of  the  golden  calf.  It  seems  to 
us  more  likely  that  in  this  calf-worship  the 
Jews  merely  "Likened  their  Maker  to  the 
graved  ox,"  or,  in  other  words,  adopted  a  well- 
understood  cherubic  emblem.  The  calf  at  Dan 
was  carried  away  by  Tiglath-Pileser,  and  that 
of  Bethel  ten  years  after  by  his  son  Shalman- 
eser. 

Cal'vary,  a  word  occurring  in  the  A.  V.  only 
in  Luke  xxiii.  33,  and  there  arising  from  the 


62 


CAMEL 


CAMPHIRE 


translators'  having  literally  adopted  the  word 
caJvaria,  i.  e.  a  bare  skull,  the  Vulgate  render- 
ing is  nothing  but  the  Greek  for  Golgotha.  The 
popular  expression  "Mount  Calvary"'  is  not 
warranted  by  any  statement  in  the  accounts  of 
the  place  of  our  Lord's  crucifixion. 

Camel.  It  is  clear  from  Gen.  xii.  i6  that 
camels  were  early  known  to  the  Egyptians, 


Camels. 

though  no  representation  of  this  animal  has. 
yet  been  discovered  in  the  paintings  or  hiero- 
glyphics. The  Ethiopians  had  "camels  in 
abundance"  (2  Chr.  xiv.  15)  ;  the  queen  of 
Sheba  came  to  Jerusalem  "with  camels  that 
bare  spices  and  gold  and  precious  stones"  (i 
K.  X.  2)  ;  the  men  of  Kedar  and  of  Hazor  pos- 
sessed camels  (Jer.  xlix.  29,  32)  ;  David  took 
away  the  camels  from  the  Geshurites  and  the 
Amalekites  (i  Sam.  xxvii.  2,  xxx.  17) ;  forty 


Camphire. 

camels'  burden  of  good  things  were  sent  to 
Elisha  by  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  from  Da- 
mascus (2  K.  viii.  9)  ;  the  Ishmaelites  traf- 
ficked with  Egypt  in  the  precious  gums  of  Gil- 
ead,  carried  on  the  backs  of  camels  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  25) ;  the  Midianites  and  the  Amalek- 


ites possessed  camels  "as  the  sand  by  the  sea- 
side for  multitude"  (Judg.  vii.  12)  ;  Job  had 
three  thousand  camels  before  his  affliction  (Job 
i.  3),  and  six  thousand  afterwards  (xlii.  12). 
The  camel  was  used  for  riding  (Gen.  xxiv.  64; 
I  Sam.  xxx.  17)  ;  as  a  beast  of  burden  gener- 
ally (Gen.  xxxvii.  25;  2  K.  viii.  9;  I  K.  x.  2, 
&c.)  ;  and  for  draught  purposes  (Is.  xxi.  7). 
From  I  Sam.  xxx.  17  we  learn  that  camels 
were  used  in  war.  The  species  of  camel  which 
was  in  common  use  amongst  the  Jews  and 
the  heathen  nations  of  Palestine  was  the  Ara- 
bian or  one-humped  camel  (Camelus  Arabi- 
cus).  The  dromedary  is  a  swifter  animal  than 
the  baggage-camel,  and  is  used  chiefly  for 
riding  purposes ;  it  is  merely  a  finer  breed 
than  the  other:  the  Arabs  call  it  the  Heirie. 


Kefr — Kenna — Ca'na  in  Galilee. 

The  speed  of  the  dromedary  has  been  greatly 
exaggerated,  the  Arabs  -asserting  that  it  is 
swifter  than  the  horse ;  eight  or  nine  miles  an 
hour  is  the  utmost  it  is  able  to  perform ;  this 
pace,  however,  it  is  able  to  keep  up  for  hours 
together. 

Camp.  [Encampments.] 

Camphire.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
"camphire"  is  an  incorrect  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  term,  which  occurs  in  the  sense  of 


63 


CANA  OF  GALILEE 


CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE 


some  aromatic  substance  only  in  Cant.  i.  14, 
iv.  13.  The  margin  in  both  passages  has 
"cypress."  The  whole  shrub  is  from  four  to 
six  feet  high. 

Ca'na  of  Galilee,  once  Cana  in  Galilee,  a 
village  or  town  not  far  from  Capernaum,  mem- 
orable as  the  scene  of  Christ's  first  miracle 
(John  ii.  I,  II,  iv.  46)  as  well  as  of  a  subse- 
quent one  (iv.  46,  54),  and  also  as  the  native 
place  of  the  Apostle  Nathanael  (xxi.  2).  The 
traditional  site  is  at  Kefr  Kenna,  a  small  vil- 
lage about  43/2  miles  north-west  of  Nazareth. 
The  rival  site  is  a  village  situated  farther 
north,  about  5  miles  north  of  Sef¥urieh  (Sep- 
phoris)  and  9  of  Nazareth,  near  the  present 
Jefat,  the  Jotapata  of  the  Jewish  wars.  This 
village  still  bears  the  name  of  Kana-el-jelil. 

Ca'naan,  The  Land  of,  lit.  "Lowland,"  a 
name  denoting  the  country  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan and  Dead  Sea,  and  between  those  waters 
and  the  Mediterranean ;  specially  opposed  to 
the  "land  of  Gilead,"  that  is,  the  high  table- 
land on  the  east  of  the  Jordan.  It  is  only  in 
later  notices,  such  as  Zeph.  ii.  5,  and  Matt. 
XV.  22,  that  we  find  it  applied  to  the  low  mari- 
time plains  of  Philistia  and  Phoenicia  (comp. 
Mark  vii.  26). 

Ca'naanites,  The,  a  word  used  in  two  senses : 
I.  a  tribe  which  inhabited  a  particular  locality 
of  the  land  west  of  the  Jordan  before  the  con- 
quest ;  and  2.  the  people  who  inhabited  gen- 
erally the  whole  of  that  country,  i.  For  the 
tribe  of  "the  Canaanites"  only — the  dwellers 
in  the  lowland.  The  whole  of  the  country 
west  of  Jordan  was  a  "lowland"  as  compared 
with  the  loftier  and  more  extended  tracts  on 
the  east :  but  there  was  a  part  of  this  western 
country  which  was  still  more  emphatically  a 
"lowland."  "The  Canaanite  dv/ells  by  the  sea, 
and  by  the  side  of  Jordan"  (Num.  xiii.  29). 
In  Gen.  x.  18-20  the  seats  of  the  Canaanite 
tribe  are  given  as  on  the  sea-shore  and  in 
the  Jordan  Valley  (comp.  Josh  xi.  3).  2.  Ap- 
plied as  a  general  name  to  the  non-Israelite 
inhabitants  of  the  land,  as  we  have  already 
seen  was  the  case  with  "Canaan."  Instances 
of  this  are,  Gen.  xii.  6;  Num.  xxi.  3;  Judg.  i. 
10;  and  Gen.  xiii.  12.  See  also  Gen.  xxiv.  3, 
37,  comp.  xxviii.  2,  6;  Ex.  xiii.  11,  comp.  5. 
Like  the  Phoenicians,  the  Canaanites  were 
probably  given  to  commerce ;  and  thus  the 
name  became  probably  in  later  times  an  occa- 
sional synonym  for  a  merchant  (Job  xli.  6; 
Prov.  xxxi.  24;  comp.  Is.  xxiii.  8,  li ;  Hos.  xii. 
7;  Zeph.  i.  11. 

Candlestick,  which  Moses  was  commanded 
to  make  for  the  tabernacle,  is  described,  Ex. 
xxv.  31-37;  xxxvii.  17-24.  It  is  called  in  Lev. 
xxiv.  4,  "the  pure,"  and  in  Ecclus.  xxvi.  17, 


"the  holy  candlestick."  The  candlestick  was 
placed  on  the  south  side  of  the  first  apart- 
ment of  the  tabernacle,  opppsite  the  table  of 
shew-bread  (Ex.  xxv.  37),  and  was  lighted 
every  evening  and  dressed  every  morning  (Ex. 
xxvii.  20,  21,  XXX.  8;  comp.  i  Sam.  iii.  2).  Each 
lamp  was  supplied  with  cotton,  and  half  a 
log  of  the  purest  olive-oil  (about  two  wine- 
glasses), which  was  sufficient  to  keep  them 
burning  during  a  long  night.  In  Solomon's 
Temple,  instead  of  this  candlestick,  there  were 
ten  golden  candlesticks,  similarly  embossed, 
five  on  the  right  and  five  on  the  left  (i  K. 
vii.  49;  2  Chr.  iv.  7). 


Golden  Candlestick. 

Cane.  [Reed.] 

Cankerworm.  [Locust.] 

Canon  of  Scripture,  The,  may  be  generally 

described  as  "the  collection  of  books  which 
form  the  original  and  authoritative  written 
rule  of  the  faith  and  practice  of  the  Christian 
Church.  The  word  Canon,  in  classical  Greek, 
is  properly  a  straight  rod,  as  the  rod  of  a 
shield,  or  that  used  in  weaving,  or  a  car- 
penter's rule.  The  first  direct  application  of 
the  term  Canon  to  the  Scriptures  seems  to  be 
in  the  verses  of  Amphilochius  (c.  380  A.  D.), 
where  the  word  indicates  the  rule  by  which 
the  contents  of  the  Bible  must  be  determined, 
and  thus  secondarily  an  index  of  the  constitu- 
ent books.  Among  Latin  writers  it  is  com- 
monly found  from  the  time  of  Jerome  and 
Augustine,  and  there  usage  of  the  word,  which 
is  wider  than  that  of  Greek  writers,  is  the 
source  of  its  modern  acceptation.  The  un- 
canonical  books  were  described  simply  as 
"those  without,"  or  "those  uncanonized."  The 
Apocryphal  books  which  were  supposed  to  oc- 
cupy an  intermediate  position  were  called 
"books  read,"  or  "ecclesiastical,"  though  the 
latter  title  was  also  applied  to  the  canonical 
Scriptures.  Popular  belief  assigned  to  Ezra 
and  "the  great  synagogue"  the  task  of  collect- 
ing and  promulgating  the  Scriptures  as  part 


64 


J 


I 


CANTICLES 

of  their  work  in  organizing  the  Jewish  Church. 
Doubts  have  been  thrown  upon  this  belief, 
but  it  is  in  every  way  consistent  with  the  his- 
tory of  Judaism  and  with  the  internal  evidence 
of  the  books  themselves.  After  the  Mac- 
cabaean  persecution  the  history  of  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Canon  is  merged  in  the  history  of 
its  contents.  The  Old  Testament  appears  from 
that  time  as  a  whole.  The  complete  Canon 
of  the  New  Testament,  as  commonly  received 
at  present,  was  ratified  at  the  third  Council  of 
Carthage  (A.  D.  397),  and  from  that  time  was 
accepted  throughout  the  Latin  Church.  Re- 
specting the  books  of  which  the  Canon  is  com- 
posed, see  the  article  Bible. 

Canticles,  Song  of  Songs,  i.  e.  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  songs,  entitled  in  the  A.  V.  The  Song 
of  Solomon.  By  the  Hebrew  title  it  is  ascribed 
to  Solomon;  and  so  in  all  the  versions,  and 
by  the  majority  of  Jewish  and  Christian  writ- 
ers, ancient  and  modern.  A  few  of  the  Tal- 
mudical  writers  assigned  it  to  the  age  of  Heze- 
kiah.  More  recent  criticism,  however,  has 
called  in  question  this  deep-rooted  and  well- 
accredited  tradition,  but  on  the  whole  it  seems 
unnecessary  to  depart  from  the  plain  mean- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  title.  Supposing  the  date 
fixed  to  the  reign  of  Solomon,  there  is  great 
difficulty  in  determining  at  what  period  of  that 
monarch's  life  the  poem  was  written.  It  may 
be -called  a  drama,  as  it  contains  the  dra*matic 
evolution  of  a  simple  love-story.  The  schools 
of  interpretation  may  be  divided  into  three : — 
the  mystical,  or  typical ;  the  allegorical ;  and 
the  literal.  The  mystical  interpretation  is 
properly  an  offshoot  of  the  allegorical,  and 
probably  owes  its  origin  to  the  necessity  which 
was  felt  of  supplying  a  literal  basis  for  the 
speculation  of  the  allegorists.  This  basis  is 
either  the  marriage  of  Solomon  with  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  or  his  marriage  with  an  Israelitish 
woman,  the  Shulamite.  The  mystical  inter- 
pretation makes  its  first  appearance  in  Origen, 
who  wrote  a  voluminous  commentary  upon 
the  Canticles.  Notwithstanding  the  attempts 
which  have  been  made  to  discover  the  prin- 
ciple of  interpretation  in  the  LXX.  (Cant, 
iv.  8),  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach  (xlvii.  14-17;  Wisd. 
viii.  2),  and  Josephus  (c.  Apion.  i.  §  8),  it  is 
impossible  to  trace  it  with  any  certainty  fur- 
ther back  than  the  Talmud.  According  to  the 
Talmud,  the  beloved  is  taken  to  be  God;  the 
loved  one,  or  bride,  is  the  congregation  of 
Israel.  In  the  Christian  Church,  the  Talmudi- 
cal  interpretation,  imported  by  Origen,  was  all 
but  universally  received.  —  According  to  the 
most  generally  received  interpretation  of  the 
modern  literalists,  the  Song  is  intended  to  dis- 
play the  victory  of  humble  and  constant  love 


CAPTIVITIES  OF  THE  JEWS 

over  the  temptations  of  wealth  and  royalty. 
— The  book  has  been  rejected  from  the  Canon 
by  some  critics;  but  in  no  case  has  its  rejec- 
tion been  defended  on  external  grounds.  It  is 
found  in  the  LXX.,  and  in  the  translations 
of  Aquilla,  Symmachus,  and  Theodotion.  It 
is  contained  in  the  catalogue  given  in  the  Tal- 
mud, and  in  the  catalogue  of  Melito ;  and,  in 
short,  we  have  the  same  evidence  for  its 
canonicity  as  that  which  is  commonly  adduced 
for  the  canonicity  of  any  book  of  the  O.  T. 

Caper'naum  was  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  (Matt.  iv.  13;  comp.  John 
vi.  24),  and,  if  recent  discoveries  are  to  be 
trusted,  was  of  sufficient  importance  to  give 
to  that  Sea,  in  whole  or  in  part,  the  name  of 
the  "Lake  of  Capernaum."  It  was  in  the 
"land  of  Gennesaret"  (Matt.  xiv.  34,  comp. 
John  vi.  17,  21,  24).  It  was  of  sufficient  size 
to  be  always  called  a  "city"  (Matt.  ix.  i ;  Mark 
i.  33)  ;  had  its  own  synagogue,  in  which  our 
Lord  frequently  taught  (John  vi.  59;  Mark  i. 
21 ;  Luke  iv.  33,  38) — a  synagogue  built  by 
the  centurion  of  the  detachment  of  Roman 


site  of  Tell  HOm  (Capernaum). 

soldiers  which  appears  to  have  been  quartered 
in  the  place  (Luke  vii.  i,  comp.  8;  Matt.  viii. 
8).  But  besides  the  garrison  there  was  also  a 
customs'  station,  where  the  dues  were  gath- 
ered both  by  stationary  (Matt.  ix.  9;  Mark  ii. 
14;  Luke  V.  27)  and  by  itinerant  (Matt.  xvii. 
24)  officers.  The  only  interest  attaching  to 
Capernaum  is  as  the  residence  of  our  Lord  and 
his  Apostles,  the  scene  of  so  many  miracles 
and  "gracious  words."  At  Nazareth  He  was 
"brought  up,"  but  Capernaum  was  emphatic- 
ally His  "own  city;"  it  was  when  He  returned 
thither  that  He  is  said  to  have  been  "at  home" 
(Mark  ii.  i). 

Captivities  of  the  Jews.  The  present  article 
is  confined  to  the  forcible  deportation  of  the 
Jews  from  their  native  land,  and  their  forcible 
detention,  under  the  Assyrian  or  Babylonian 
kings.   The  kingdom  of  Israel  was  invaded  by 


65 


i 


CAPTIVITIES  OF  THE  JEWS 


CART 


three  or  four  successive  kings  of  Assyria.  Pul 
or  Sardanapalus,  according  to  Rawlinson,  im- 
posed a  tribute  (B.  C.  771  or  762  Rawl.)  upon 
Menahem  (r  Chr.  v.  26,  and  2  K.  xv.  19).  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  carried  away  (B.  C.  740)  the  trans- 
Jordanic  tribes  (i  Chr.  v.  26)  and  the  in- 
habitants of  Galilee  (2  K.  xv.  29,  comp.  Is.  ix. 
i)  to  Assyria.  Shalmaneser  twice  invaded  (2 
K.  xvii.  3,  5)  the  kingdom  which  remained  to 
Hoshea,  took  Samaria  (B.  C.  721)  after  a  siege 
of  three  years,  and  carried  Israel  away  into 
Assyria.  Sennacherib  (B.  C.  713)  is  stated  to 
have  carried  into  Assyria  200,000  captives 
from  the  Jewish  cities  which  he  took  (2  K. 
xviii.  13).  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  the  first  half 
of  his  reign  (B.  C.  606-562),  repeatedly  in- 
vaded Judaea,  besieged  Jerusalem,  carried 
away  the  inhabitants  to  Babylon,  and  de- 
stroyed the  Temple.  Two  distinct  deporta- 
tions are  mentioned  in  2  K.  xxiv.  14  (including 
10,000  persons)  and  xxv.  11.  One  in  2  Chr. 
xxxvi.  20.  Three  in  Jer.  Hi.  28-30,  including 
4600  persons,  and  one  in  Dan.  i.  3.  The  two 
principal  deportations  were,  (i)  that  which 
took  place  B.  C.  598,  when  Jehoiachin  with  all 
the  nobles,  soMiers,  and  artificers  was  carried 
away ;  and  (2)  that  which  followed  the  de- 
struction of  the  Temple  and  the  capture  of 
Zedekiah  B.  C.  588.  The  70  years  of  captivity 
predicted  by  Jeremiah  (xxv.  12)  are  dated  by 
Prideaux  from  B.  C.  606.  The  captivity  of 
Ezekiel  dates  from  B.  C.  598,  when  that 
prophet,  like  Mordecai  the  uncle  of  Esther 
(Esth.  ii.  6),  accompanied  Jehoiachin.  The 
captives  were  treated  not  as  slaves  but  as 
colonists.  The  Babylonian  captivity  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  decree  (Ezr.  i.  2)  of 
Cyrus  (B.  C.  536),  and  the  return  of  a  portion 
of  the  nation  under  Sheshbazzar  or  Zerub- 
babel  (B.  C.  535),  Ezra  (B.  C.  458),  and 
Nehemiah  (B.  C.  445).  The  number  who  re- 
turned upon  the  decree  of  B.  C.  536  was  42,360, 
besides  servants.  Those  who  were  left  in 
Assyria  (Esth.  viii.  9,  11),  and  kept  up  their 
national  distinctions,  were  known  as  The  Dis- 
persion (John  vii.  35;  i  Pet.  i.  i;  James  i.  i). 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  discover 
the  ten  tribes  existing  as  a  distinct  community. 
But  though  history  bears  no  witness  of  their 
present  distinct  existence,  it  enables  us  to 
track  the  footsteps  of  the  departing  race  in 
four  directions  after  the  time  of  the  Captivity, 
(i.)  Some  returned  and  mixed  with  the  Jews 
(Luke  ii.  36;  Phil.  iii.  5,  &c.).  (2.)  Some  were 
left  in  Samaria,  mingled  with  the  Samaritans 
(Ezr.  vi.  21 ;  John  iv.  12),  and  became  bitter 
enemies  of  the  Jews.  (3.)  Many  remained  in 
Assyria,  and  were  recognized  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  Dispersion  (see  Acts  ii.  9,  xxvi.  7). 


(4.)  Most,  probably,  apostatized  in  Assyria, 
adopted  the  usages  and  idolatry  of  the  nations 
among  whom  they  were  planted,  and  bdcame 
wholly  swallowed  up  in  them. 

Carbuncle.  A  general  term  to  denote  any 
bright  sparkling  gem,  but  it  is  impossible  to 
determine  its  real  meaning.  The  gem  of  Ex. 
xxviii.  17,  xxxix.  10;  Ez.  xxviii.  13,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  smaragdus  or  emerald. 

Car'mel.  i.  A  mountain  which  forms  one 
of  the  most  striking  and  characteristic  features 
of  the  country  of  Palestine.  As  if  to  accentu- 
ate rnore  distinctly  the  bay  which  forms  the 
one  indentation  in  the  coast,  this  noble  ridge, 
the  only  headland  of  lower  and  central  Pales- 
tine, forms  its  southern  boundary,  running  out 
with  a  bold  blul¥  promontory  all  but  into  the 
very  waves  of  the  Mediterranean.  There  seem 
to  be  grounds  for  believing  that  from  very 
early  times  it  was  considered  as  a  sacred  spot. 
In  later  times  we  know  that  its  reputation  was 
not  confined  to  Palestine.  But  that  which  has 
made  the  name  of  Carmel  most  familiar  to  the 
modern  world  its  its  intimate  connection  with 
the  history  of  the  two  great  prophets  of  Israel 
— Elijah  and  Elisha.  It  is  now  commonly  called 


Egyptian  Cart  with  Two  Wheels. 

Mar  Elyas ;  Kurmel  being  occasionally,  but 
only  seldom,  heard.  2.  A  town  in  the  moun- 
tainous country  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  55),  fa- 
miliar to  us  as  the  residence  of  Nabal  (i  Sam. 
xxv.  2,  5,  7,  40). 

Carriage.  This  word  occurs  only  six  times 
in  the  text  of  the  A.  V.,  and  signifies  what  we 
now  call  "baggage."  In  the  margin  of  i  Sam. 
xvii.  20,  and  xxvi.  5-7 — and  there  only — "car- 
riage" is  employed  in  the  sense  of  a  wagon 
or  cart. 

Cart,  Gen.  xlv.  19-27;  Num.  vii.  3,  7,  8,  a 
vehicle  drawn  by  cattle  (2  Sam.  vi.  6),  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  chariot  drawn  by 
horses.  Carts  and  wagons  were  either  open  or 
covered  (Num.  vii.  3,  and  were  used  for  con- 
veyance of  persons  (Gen.  xlv.  19),  burdens  (i 
Sam.  vi.  7,  8),  or  produce  (Am.  ii.  13).  The 
only  cart  used  in  Western  Asia  has  two  wheels 
of  solid  wood.    But  in  the  monuments  of  an- 


66 


1 


CARVING 


CENSER 


cient  Egypt  representations  are  found  of  carts 
with  two  wheels,  having  four  or  six  spokes, 
used  for  carrying  produce,  and  of  one  used  for 
rehgious  purposes  having  four  wheels  with 
eight  spokes. 

Carving.  The  arts  of  carving  and  engrav- 
ing were  much  in  request  in  the  construction 
both  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the  Temple  (Ex. 
xxxi,  5,  XXXV.  33;  I  K.  vi.  18,  35;  Ps.  Ixxiv.  6), 
as  well  as  in  the  ornamentation  of  the  priestly 
dresses  (Ex.  xxviii.  9-36;  Zech.  iii.  9;  2  Chr. 
ii,  6,  14). 

Castle.  [Fortifications.] 
Cas'tor  and  Pollux  (Acts  xxviii.  11).  The 
twin  sons  of  Jupiter  and  Leda  were  regarded 
as  the  tutelary  divinities  of  sailors.  They  ap- 
peared in  heaven  as  the  constellation  Gemini. 
In  art  they  were  sometimes  represented  simply 
as  stars  hovering  over  a  ship,  but  more  fre- 
quently as  young  men  on  horseback,  with 
conical  caps  and  stars  above  them.  Such  fig- 
ures were  probably  painted  or  sculptured  at 
the  bow  of  the  ship. 

Cats  occur  only  in  Baruch  vi.  22.  The  con- 
text of  the  passage  appears  to  point  to  the 
domesticated  animal.  Perhaps  the  people  of 
Babylon   originally   procured   the    cat  from 


Egypt. 
Cattle 
Cave. 


[Bull.] 

The  chalky  limestone  of  which  the 
rocks  of  Syria  and  Palestine  chiefly  consist 
presents,  as  in  the  case  in  all  limestone  for- 
mations, a  vast  number  of  caverns  and  natural 
fissures,  many  of  which  have  also  been  arti- 
ficially enlarged  and  adapted  to  various  pur- 
poses both  of  shelter  and  defence.  The  most 
remarkable  caves  noticed  in  Scripture  are : 
I.  That  in  which  Lot  dwelt  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Sodom  (Gen.  xix.  30).  2.  The  cave  of 
Machpelah  (xxiii.  17).  3.  Cave  of  Makkedah 
(Josh.  X.  10).  4.  Cave  of  Adullam  (i  Sam. 
xxii.  i).  5.  Cave  of  Engedi  (xxiv.  3).  6.  Oba- 
diah's  cave  (i  K.  xviii.  4).  7.  Elijah's  cave  in 
Horeb  (xix.  9).  8,  9.  The  rock  sepulchres  of 
Lazarus,  and  of  our  Lord  (John  xi.  38;  Matt, 
xxvii.  60). 

Cedar.  The  Heb.  word  erez,  invariably  ren- 
dered "cedar"  by  the  A.  V.,  stands  for  that 
tree  in  most  of  the  passages  where  the  word 
occurs.  The  erez,  or  "firmly  rooted  and  strong 
tree,"  from  an  Arabic  root  which  has  this  sig- 
nification, is  particularly  the  name  of  the  cedar 
of  Lebanon  (Cedrus  Libani)  ;  but  that  the 
word  is  used  in  a  wider  sense  to  denote  other 
trees  of  the  Coniferae  is  clear  from  some 
Scriptural  passages  where  it  occurs.  For  in- 
stance, the  "cedar  wood"  mentioned  in  Lev. 
xiv.  6  can  hardly  be  the  wood  of  the  Lebanon 
cedars,  seeing  that  the  Cedrus  Libani  could 


never  have  grown  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai. 
There  is  another  passage  (Ez.  xxvii.  5),  in 
which  perhaps  erez  denotes  some  fir ;  in  all 
probability  the  Pinus  Halepensis,  which  grows 
in  Lebanon,  and  is  better  fitted  for  furnish- 
ing ship-masts  than  the  wood  of  the  Cedrus 
Libani.  The  Cedrus  Libani,  Pinus  Halepensis, 
and  Juniperus  excelsa,  were  probably  all  in- 
cluded under  the  term  erez ;  though  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  by  this  name  is  more  espe- 
cially denoted  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  as  being 
the  firmest  and  grandest  of  the  conifers.  As 
far  as  is  at  present  known,  the  cedar  of  Leba- 
non is  confined  in  Syria  to  one  valley  of  the 
Lebanon  range,  viz.,  that  of  the  Kedisha  river, 
which  flows  from  near  the  highest  point  of  the 
range  westward  to  the  Mediterranean,  and 
enters  the  sea  at  the  port  of  Tripoli.  The 


The  Cedar. 

grove  is  at  the  very  upper  part  of  the  valley, 
about  15  miles  from  the  sea,  6,500  feet  above 
that  level,  and  its  position  is  moreover  above 
that  of  all  other  arboreous  vegetation. 

Ceiling,  The  descriptions  of  Scripture  (i  K. 
vi.  9,  15,  vii.  3;  2  Chr.  iii.  5,  9;  Jer.  xxii.  14; 
Hag.  i.  4),  and  of  Josephus,  show  that  the  ceil- 
ings of  the  Temple  and  the  palaces  of  the  Jew- 
ish kings  were  formed  of  cedar  planks  applied 
to  the  beams  or  joints  crossing  from  wall  to 
wall,  probably  with  sunk  panels,  edged  and 
ornamented  with  gold,  and  carved  with  incised 
or  other  patterns,  sometimes  painted  (Jer. 
xxii.  14). 

Censer.  A  small  portable  vessel  of  metal 
htted  to  receive  burning  coals  from  the  altar, 
and  on  which  the  incense  for  burning  was 
sprinkled  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  18;  Luke  i.  9).  The 
only  distinct  precepts  regarding  the  use  of  the 
censer  are  found  in  Num.  iv.  14,  and  in  Lev. 
xvi.  12.  Solomon  prepared  "censers  of  pure 
gold"  as  part  of  the  same  furniture  (i  K.  vii. 
50;  2  Chr.  iv.  22).  Possibly  their  general  use 
may  have  been  to  take  up  coals  from  the 
brazen  altar,  and  convey  the  incense  while 


67 


CENSUS 


CHALDEA 


burning  to  the  "golden  altar,"  or  "altar  of  in- 
cense," on  which  it  was  to  be  offered  morning 
and  evening  (Ex.  xxx.  7,  8).  So  Uzziah,  when 
he  was  intending  "to  burn  incense  upon  the 
altar  of  incense,"  took  "a  censer  in  his  hand" 
(2  Chr.  xxvi.  16,  19).  The  word  rendered 
"censer"  in  Hebr.  ix.  4  probably  means  the 
"altar  of  incense." 


Censer. 

Census.  [Taxing.] 
Centurion.  [Army.] 

Chaff,    The  Heb.  words  rendered  chaff  in 

A.  V.  do  not  seem  to  have  precisely  the  same 
meaning :  chashash=dry  grass,  hay ;  and  oc- 
curs twice  only  in  O.  T.,  viz.,  Is.  v.  24,  xxxiii. 
II.  Mots  is  chaff  separated  by  winnowing 
from  the  grain — the  husk  of  the  wheat.  The 
carrying  away  of  chaff  by  the  wind  is  an  ordi- 
nary Scriptural  image  of  the  destruction  of  the 


Egyptian  Censers. 

wicked,  and  of  their  powerlessness  to  resist 
God's  judgments  (Ps.  i.  4;  Is.  xviii.  13;  Hos. 
xiii.  3 ;  Zeph.  ii.  2). 

Chain.  Chains  were  used,  I,  as  badges  of 
office;  2.  for  ornament;  3.  for  confining  prison- 
ers. I.  The  gold  chain  placed  about  Joseph's 
neck  (Gen.  xli.  42),  and  that  promised  to  Dan- 


iel (Dan.  V.  7),  are  instances  of  the  first  use. 
In  Ez.  xvi.  II,  the  chain  is  mentioned  as  the 
symbol  of  sovereignty.  2.  Chains  for  orna- 
mental purposes  were  worn  by  men  as  well  as 
women  in  many  countries  both  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  probably  this  was  the  case  among 
the  Hebrews  (Prov.  i.  9).  The  necklace  con- 
sisted of  pearls,  corals,  &c.,  threaded  on  a 
string.  Besides  the  necklace,  other  chains 
were  worn  (Jud.  x.  4),  hanging  down  as  far 
as  the  waist,  or  even  lower.  Some  were 
adorned  with  pieces  of  metal,  shaped  in  the 
form  of  the  moon  ("round  tires  like  the 
moon,"  A.  V.;  Is.  iii.  18).  The  Midianites 
adorned  the  necks  of  their  camels  with  it 
(Judg.  viii.  21,  26).  To  other  chains  were  sus- 
pended various  trinkets — as  scent-bottles  (Is. 
iii.  20)  and  mirrors  (Is.  iii.  23).  Step-chains 
were  attached  to  the  ankle-rings,  which  short- 
ened the  step  and  produced  a  mincing  gait  (I^. 
iii.  16,  18).  3.  The  means  adopted  for  con- 
fining prisoners  among  the  Jews  were  fetters 
similar  to  our  handcuffs  (Judg.  xvi.  21 ;  2  Sam. 
iii.  34;  2  K.  XXV.  7;  Jer.  xxxix.  7).  Among 
the  Romans,  the  prisoner  was  handcuffed  to 
one,  and  occasionally  to  two  guards  (Acts  xii. 
6,  7,  xxi.  33). 

Chalcedony,  only  in  Rev.  xxi.  19.  The  name 
is  applied  in  modern  mineralogy  to  one  of  the 
varieties  of  agate.  There  can,  however,  be  lit- 
tle doubt  that  the  stone  to  which  Theophrastus 
refers,  as  being  found  in  the  island  opposite 
Chalcedon  and  used  as  a  solder,  must  have 
been  the  green  transparent  carbonate  of  cop- 
per, or  our  copper  emerald. 

Chalde'a,  more  correctly  Chaldaea,  properly 
only  the  most  southern  portion  of  Babylonia, 
is  used  in  Scripture  to  signify  that  vast  -al- 
luvial plain  which  has  been  formed  by  the 
deposits  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris. 
This  extraordinary  flat,  unbroken  except  by 
the  works  of  man,  extends  a  distance  of  400 
miles  along  the  course  of  the  rivers,  and  is  on 
an  average  about  100  miles  in  width.  The 
vast  plains  of  Babylon  were  nourished  by  a 
complicated  system  of  canals  and  water- 
courses, which  spread  over  the  surface  of  the 
country  like  a  network.  The  wants  of  a  teem- 
ing population  were  supplied  by  a  rich  soil, 
not  less  bountiful  than  "on  the  banks  of  the 
Egyptian  Nile.  All  that  remains  of  that  an- 
cient civilization — that  "glory  of  kingdoms," 
— "the  praise  of  the  whole  earth"— is  recog- 
nizable in  the  numerous  mouldering  heaps  of 
brick  and  rubbish  which  overspread  the  sur- 
face of  the  plain.  Instead  of  the  luxurious 
fields,  the  groves  and  gardens,  nothing  now 
meets  the  eye  but  an  arid  waste — the  dense 
population  of  former  times  is  vanished,  and  no 

68 


THE  l""'^'^^ 

Or  m 


CHALDEANS 


CHAMBERLAIN 


man  dwells  there.  The  true  Chaldaea  is  al- 
ways in  the  geographies  a  distinct  region, 
being  the  most  southern  portion  of  Babylonia, 
lying  chiefly  (if  not  solely)  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Euphrates.  Babylonia  above  this  is 
separated  into  two  districts,  called  respectively 
Amordacia  and  Auranitis.  The  former  is  the 
name  of  the  central  territory  round  Babylon 
itself;  the  latter  is  applied  to  the  regions  to- 
wards the  north,  where  Babylonia  borders  on 
Assyria.  Cities — Babylonia  was  celebrated  at 
all  times  for  the  number  and  antiquity  of  its 
cities.  The  most  important  of  those  which 
ha\€  been  identified  are  Borsippa  (Birs-Nim- 
rud).  Sippara  or  Sepharvaim  (Alosaib),  Cutha 
(Ibrahim),  Calneh  (Xiflfer),  Erech  (Warka), 
Ur  (^lugheir),  Chilmad  (Kalwadha),  Laran- 
cha  (Senkereh),  Is  (Hit),  Duraba  (Akkerkuf)  ; 
but  besides  these  there  were  a  multitude  of 
others,  the  sites  of  which  have  not  been  de- 
termined. The  extraordinary  fertility  of  the 
Chaldaean  soil  has  been  noticed  by  various 
writers.  It  is  said  to  be  the  only  country  in 
the  world  where  wheat  grows  wild.  Herod- 
otus declared  (i.  193)  that  grain  commonly  re- 
turned 200-fold  to  the  sower,  and  occasionally 
30G-fold.  The  palm  was  undoubtedly  one  of 
the  principal  objects  of  cultivation.    The  soil 


Kiiins  of  Mugheir,  Proboble  Site  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 

is  rich,  but  there  is  now  little  cultivation,  the 
inhabitants  subsisting  chiefly  upon  dates. 
More  than  half  the  country  is  left  dry  and 
waste  from ,  the  want  of  a  proper  system  of 
irrigation ;  while  the  remaining  half  is  to  a 
great  extent  covered  with  marshes,  owing  to 
the  same  neglect. 

Chalde'ans,  or  Chal'dees,  appear  in  Scrip- 
ture, until  the  time  of  the  Captivity,  as  the 
people  of  the  country  which  has  Babylon  for 
its  capital,  and  which  is  itself  termed  Shinar; 
but  in  the  Rook  of  Daniel,  while  this  meaning 
is  still  found  (v.  30,  and  ix.  i),  a  new  sense 
shows  itself.  The  Chaldeans  arc  classed  with 
the  magicians  and  astronomers;  and  evidently 


form  a  sort  of  priest  class,  who  have  a  pecul- 
iar "tongue"  and  "learning"  (i.  4),  and  are 
consulted  by  the  king  on  religious  subjects. 
The  same  variety  appears  in  profane  writers. 
It  appears  that  the  Chaldeans  (Kaldai  or 
Kaldi)  were  in  the  earliest  times  merely  one' 
out  of  the  many  Cushite  tribes  inhabiting  the 
great  alluvial  plain  known  afterwards  as  Chal- 
daea or  Babylonia.  Their  special  seat  was 
probably  that  southern  portion  of  the  country 
which  is  found  to  have  so  late  retained  the 
name  of  Chaldaea.  Here  was  Ur  "of  the  Chal- 
dees," the  modern  Mugheir,  which  lies  south 
of  the  Euphrates,  near  its  junction  with  the 
Shat-el-Hie.  In  process  of  time,  as  the  Kaldi 
grew  in  power,  their  name  gradually  prevailed 
over  those  of  the  other  tribes  inhabiting  the 
country ;  and  by  the  era  of  the  Jewish  cap- 
tivity it  had  begun  to  be  used  generally  for 
all  the  inhabitants  of  Babylonia.  It  had  come 
by  this  time  to  have  two  senses,  both  ethnic : 
in  the  one  it  was  the  special  appellative  of  a 
particular  race  to  whom  it  had  belonged  from 
the  remotest  times,  in  the  other  it  designated 
the  nation  at  large  in  which  this  race  was  pre- 
dominant. It  has  been  observed  above  that 
the  Kaldi  proper  were  a  Cushite  race.  This 
is  proved  by  the  remains  of  their  language, 
which  closely  resembles  the  Gallo  or  ancient 
language  of  Ethiopia.  Now  it  appears  by  the 
inscriptions  that  while,  both  in  Assyria  and 
in  later  Babylonia,  the  Shemitic  type  of  speech 
prevailed  for  civil  purposes,  the  ancient  Cush- 
ite dialect  was  retained  as  a  learned  language 
for  scientific  and  religious  literature.  This  is 
no  doubt  the  "learning"  and  the  "tongue"  ot 
which  reference  is  made  in  the  Book  of  Daniel 
(i.  4).  The  Chaldeans  were  really  the  learned 
class ;  they  were  priests,  magicians,  or  astron- 
omers, and  in  the  last  of  the  three  capacities 
they  probably  ef¥ected  discoveries  of  great  im- 
portance. In  later  times  they  seem  to  have 
degenerated  into  mere  fortune-tellers. 

Chaldees.  [Chaldeans.] 

Chalk  Stones.  [Lime.] 

Chamberlain.  Erastus,  "the  chamberlain" 
of  the  city  of  Corinth,  was  one  of  those  whose 
salutations  to  the  Roman  Christians  are  given 
at  the  end  of  the  Ep.  addressed  to  them  (Rom. 
xvi.  23).  The  office  which  he  held  was  appar- 
ently that  of  public  treasurer,  or  arcarius,  as 
the  Vulgate  renders  his  title.  The3e  arcarii 
were  inferior  magistrates,  who  had  the  charge 
of  the  public  chest  (area  publica),  and  were 
under  the  authority  of  the  senate.  They  kept 
the  accounts  of  the  public  revenues.  The 
office  held  by  Blastus,  "the  king's  chamber- 
lain," was  entirely  different  from  this  (Acts 
xii.  20).    It  was  a  post  of  honor  which  in- 


69 


CHAMELEON 

volved  great  intimacy  and  influence  with  the 
king.  The  margin  of  our  version  gives  "that 
was  over  the  king's  bedchamber."  For  Cham- 
berlain as  used  in  the  O.  T.,  see  Eunuch. 

Chameleon,  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
coach,  which  occurs  in  the  sense  of  some  kind 
of  unclean  animal  in  Lev.  xi.  30.  Others  sup- 
pose it  to  be  the  lizard,  known  by  the  name  of 
the  "Monitor  of  the  Nile,"  a  large  strong  rep- 


Cbameleon. 

tile  common  in  Egypt  and  other  parts  of 
Africa. 

Chamois,  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
zemer  in  Deut.  xiv.  5.  But  the  translation  is 
incorrect;  for  there  is  no  evidence  that  the 
chamois  has  ever  been  seen  in  Palestine  or  the 
Lebanon.  It  is  probable  that  some  mountain 
sheep  is  intended. 

Charger,  a  shallow  vessel  for  receiving 
water  or  blood,  also  for  presenting  offerings  of 
fine  flour  with  oil  (Num.  vii.  79).  The  daugh- 
ter of  Herodias  brought  the  head  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist  in  a  charger  (Mtt.  xiv.  9)  :  prob- 
ably a  trencher  or  platter.  [Basin.] 


CHARIOT 

his  own  chariot  to  meet  his  father  on  his  en- 
trance into  Egypt  from  Canaan  (xlvi.  29),  In 
the  funeral  procession  of  Jacob  chariots  also 
formed  a  part,  possibly  by  way  of  escort  or  as 
a  guard  of  honor  (1.  9).  The  next  mention 
of  Egyptian  chariots  is  for  a  warlike  purpose. 
(Ex.  xiv.  7).  In  this  point  of  view  chariots 
among  some  nations  of  antiquity,  as  elephants 
among  others,  may  be  regarded  as  filling  the 
place  of  heavy  artillery  in  modern  times,  so 
that  the  military  power  of  a  nation  might  be 
estimated  by  the  number  of  its  chariots.  Thus 
Pharaoh  in  pursuing  Israel  took  with  him  600 
chariots.  The  Canaanites  of  the  valleys  of 
Palestine  were  enabled  to  resist  the  Israelites 
successfully  in  consequence  of  the  number  of 
their  chariots  of  iron,  i.  e.  perhaps  armed  with 
iron  scythes  (Josh.  xvii.  18;  Judg.  i.  19). 
Jabin,  king  of  Canaan,  had  900  chariots  (Judg. 


The  Charger. 

Chariot,  a  vehicle  used  either  for  warlike  or 
peaceful  purposes,  but  most  commonly  the 
former.  Of  the  latter  use  the  following  only 
are  the  probable  instances  as  regards  the  Jews, 
I  K.  xviii.  44,  and  as  regards  other  nations, 
Gen.  xli.  43,  xlvi.  29;  2  K.  v.  9;  Acts  viii.  28 
The  earliest  mention  of  chariots  in  Scripture 
is  in  Egypt,  where  Joseph,  as  a  mark  of  dis- 
tmction,  was  placed  in  Pharaoh's  second  char- 
iot (Gen.  3^i.  43),  and  later  when  he  went  in 


IV. 


Egyptian  Chariot. 

3).  The  Philistines  in  Saul's  time  had 
30,000  (i  Sam.  xiii.  5).  David  took  from 
Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah,  1,000  chariots  (2 
Sam.  viii.  4),  and  from  the  Syrians  a  little 
later  700  (x.  18),  who,  in  order  to  recover  their 
ground,  collected  32,000  chariots  (i  Chr.  xix. 
7).  Up  to  this  time  the  Israehtes  possessed 
few  or  no  chariots,  partly  no  doubt  in  conse- 
quence of  the  theocratic  prohibition  against 
multiplying  horses,  for  fear  of  intercourse 
with  Egypt,  and  the  regal  despotism  implied 
in  the  possession  of  them  (Deut.  xvii.  16;  I 
Sam.  viii.  11,  12).  But  to  some  extent  David 
(2  Sam.  viii.  4),  and  in  a  much  greater  degree 
Solomon,  broke  through  the  prohibition.  He 
raised,  therefore,  and  maintained  a  force  of 
1,400  chariots  (i  K.  x.  25)  by  taxation  on  cer- 
tain cities  agreeably  to  Eastern  custom  in 
such  matters  (i  K.  ix.  19,  x.  25).  From  this 
time  chariots  were  regarded  as  among  the 
most  important  arms  of  war,  though  the  sup- 
plies of  them  and  of  horses  appear  to  have 
been  mainly  drawn  from  Egypt  (l  K.  xxii.  34; 
2  K.  ix.  16,  21,  xiii.  7,  14,  xviii.  24,  xxiii.  30; 
Is.  xxxi.  i).  -Most  commonly  two  persons, 
and  sometimes  three,  rode  in  the  chariot,  of 
whom  the  third  was  employed  to  carry  the 


70 


CHEESE 

state  umbrella  (2  K.  ix.  20,  24;  i  K.  xxii.  34; 
Acts  viii.  38).  A  second  chariot  usually  accom- 
panied the  king  to  battle,  to  be  used  in  case  of 
necessity  (2  Chr.  xxv.  34).  The  prophets  al- 
lude frequently  to  chariots  as  typical  of  power 
(Ps.  XX.  7,  civ.  3;  Jer.  li.  21  ;  Zech.  vi.  i).  In 
the  N.  T.,  the  only  mention  made  of  a  chariot, 
except  in  Rev.  ix  9,  is  in  the  case  of  the  Ethi- 
opian or  Abyssinian  eunuch  of  Queen  Candace 
(Acts  viii.  28,  29.  38).  Jewish  chariots  were  no 
doubt  imitated  from  Egyptian  models,  if  not 
actually  imported  from  Egypt. 

Cheese  is  mentioned  only  three  times  in  the 
Bible,  and  on  each  occasion  under  a  diflferent 
name  in  the  Hebrew  (Job.  x.  10;  i  Sam.  xvii. 
18;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  It  is  difficult  to  decide 
how  far  these  terms  correspond  with  our  no- 
tion of  cheese ;  for  they  simply  express  vari- 
ous degrees  of  coagulation.  It  may  be  ob- 
served that  cheese  is  not  at  the  present  day 
common  am.ong  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  butter 
being  decidedly  preferred ;  but  there  is  a  sub- 
stance, closely  corresponding  to  those  men- 
tioned in  I  Sam.  xvii. ;  2  Sam.  xvii.,  consisting 
of  coagulated  buttermilk,  which  is  dried  until 
it  becomes  quite  hard,  and  is  then  ground:  the 
Arabs  eat  it  mixed  with  butter. 

Che'rith,  The  Brook,  the  torrent-bed  or 
wady  in  which  Elijah  hid  himself  during  the 
early  part  of  the  three  years'  drought  (l  K. 
xvii.  3,  5).  The  position  of  the  Cherith  has 
been  much  disputed.  The  argument  from 
probability  is  in  favor  of  the  Cherith  being  on 
the  east  of  Jordan,  and  the  name  may  possibly 
be  discovered  there. 

Cher'ub,  apparently  a  place  in  Babylonia 
from  which  some  persons  of  doubtful  extrac- 
tion returned  to  Judaea  with  Zerub-babel  (Ezr. 
ii.  59 ;  Neh.  vii.  61). 

Cher'ub,  Cher'ubim.  The  symbolical  figure 
so  called  was  a  composite  creature-form  which 
finds  a  parallel  in  the  religious  insignia  of 
Assyria,  Egypt,  and  Persia,  e.  g.  the  sphinx, 
the  winged  bulls  and  lions  of  Ninevah,  &c. 
The  Hebrew  idea  seems  to  limit  the  number 
of  the  cherubim.  A  pair  (Ex.  xxv.  18,  &c.) 
were  placed  on  the  mercy-seat  of  the  ark :  a 
pair  of  colossal  size  overshadowed  it  in  Solo- 
mon's Temple  with  the  canopy  of  their  con- 
tiguously extended  wings.  Ezekiel,  i.  4-14, 
speaks  of  four,  and  similarly  the  apocalyptic 
"beasts"  (Rev.  iv.  6)  are  four. — So  at  the  front 
or  east  of  Eden  were  posted  "the  cher- 
ubim," as  though  the  whole  of  some  recog- 
nized number.  The  cherubim  are  placed  be- 
neath the  actual  presence  of  Jehovah,  whose 
moving  throne  they  appear  to  draw  (Gen.  iii. 
24;  Ez.  i.  5,  25,  26,  X.  I,  2,  6,  7;  Is.  vi.  2,  3,  6). 
The  glory  symbolizing  that  presence  which 


CHILDREN 

eye  cannot  see  rests  or  rides  on  them,  or  one  of 
them,  thence  dismounts  to  the  temple  thresh- 
old, and  then  departs  and  mounts  again  (Ez. 
X.  4,  18;  comp.  ix.  3;  Ps.  xviii.  lo).  There  is 
in  them  an  entire  absence  of  human  sympathy, 
and  even  on  the  mercy-seat  they  probably  ap- 
peared not  merely  as  admiring  and  wondering 
(i  Pet.  i.  12),  but  as  guardians  of  the  covenant 
and  avengers  of  its  breach.  Those  on  the  ark 
were  to  be  placed  with  wings  stretched  forth, 
one  at  each  end  of  the  mercy-seat,  and  to  be 
made  "of  the  mercy-seat."  They  are  called 
the  cherubim  of  glory  (Heb.  ix.  5),  as  on  them 
the  glory,  when  visible,  rested.  They  were 
anointed  with  the  holy  oil,  like  the  ark  itself, 
and  the  other  sacred  furniture.  Their  wings 
were  to  be  stretched  upwards,  and  their  faces 
"towards  each  other  and  towards  the  mercy- 
seat."  It  is  remarkable  that  with  such  precise 
directions  as  to  their  position,  attitude,  and 
material,  nothing,  save  that  they  were  winged, 
is  said  concerning  their  shape.  On  the  whole 
it  seems  likely  that  the  word  "cherub"  meant 
not  only  the  composite  creature-form,  of  which 
the  man,  lion,  ox,  and  eagle  were  the  elements, 
but,  further,  some  peculiar  and  mystical  form 
which  Ezekiel,  being  a  priest,  would  know 
and  recognize  as  "the  face  of  a  cherub"  (Ez.  x. 
14),  but  which  was  kept  secret  from  all  oth- 
ers ;  and  such  probably  were  those  on  the  ark, 
though  those  on  the  hangings  and  panels 
might  be  of  the  popular  device.  What  this 
peculiar  cherubic  form  was  is  perhaps  an  im- 
penetrable mystery.  It  might  well  be  the  sym- 
bol of  Him  whom  none  could  behold  and  live. 
For  as  symbols  of  Divine  attributes,  e.  g. 
omnipotence  and  omniscience,  not  as  repre- 
sentations of  actual  beings,  the  cherubim 
should  be  regarded. 

Chest.  By  this  word  are  translated  in  the 
A.  V.  two  distinct  Hebrew  terms:  i.  aron ;  this 
is  invariably  used  for  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant, 
and  with  two  exceptions,  for  that  only.  The 
two  exceptions  alluded  to  are  (a)  the  "coffin" 
in  which  the  bones  of  Joseph  were  carried 
from  Egypt  (Gen.  1.  26)  ;  and  (b)  the  "chest" 
in  which  Jehoiada  the  priest  collected  the  alms 
for  the  repairs  of  the  Temple  (2  K.  xii.  9,  10; 
2  Chr.  xxiv.  8-1 1). 

Chestnut-tree  (Heb.  'armon :  Gen.  xxx.  37; 
Ezek.  xxxi.  8)  ;  it  is  spoken  of  as  one  of  the 
glories  of  Assyria,  for  which  the  "plane-tree" 
ought  probably  to  have  been  substituted.  The 
context  of  the  passages  where  the  word  oc- 
curs indicates  some  tree  which  thrives  best  in 
low  and  rather  moist  situations,  whereas  the 
chestnut-tree  is  a  tree  which  prefers  dry  and 
hilly  ground. 

Children.    The  blessing  of  offspring,  but 


71 


CHITTIM 


CHRONICLES 


especially  of  the  male  sex,  is  highly  valued 
among  all  Eastern  nations,  while  the  absence 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  severest  punishments 
(Gen.  xvi.  2;  Deut.  vii.  14;  i  Sam.  i.  6;  2  Sam. 
vi.  23;  2  K.  iv.  14;  Is.  xlvii.  9;  Jer.  xx.  15;  Ps. 
cxxvii.  3,  5).  As  soon  as  the  child  was  born, 
it  was  washed  in  a  bath,  rubbed  with  salt,  and 
wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes.  On  the  8th 
day  the  rite  of  circumcision,  in  the  case  of  a 
boy,  was  performed,  and  a  name  given.  At 
the  end  of  a  certain  time  the  mother  was  to 
make  an  offering  of  purification  of  a  lamb  as 
a  burnt-offering,  and  a  pigeon  or  turtle-dove 
as  a  sin-offering,  or,  in  case  of  poverty,  two 
doves  or  pigeons,  one  ?>f  a  burnt  offering,  the 
other  as  a  sin-offering  (  .ev.  xii.  1-8;  Luke  ii. 
22).  The  period  of  ni  1  ling  appears  to  have 
been  sometimes  prolon,  d  to  three  years  (Is. 
xlix.  15;  2  Mace.  vii.  Nurses  were  em- 

ployed in  cases  of  neccisity  (Ex.  ii.  9;  Gen. 
xxiv.  59,  XXXV.  8;  i  Sam.  iv.  4;  2  K.  xi.  2 ;  2 
Chr.  xxii.  11).  The  time  of  weaning  was  an 
occasion  of  rejoicing  (Gen.  xxi.  8).  Both  boys 
and  girls  in  their  early  years  were  under  the 
care  of  the  women  (Prov.  xxxi.  i).  After- 
wards the  boys  were  taken  by  the  father  under 
his  charge.  Those  in  wealthy  families  had 
tutors  or  governors,  who  were  sometimes 
eunuchs  (Num.  xi.  12;  2  K.  x.  i,  5;  Is.  xiix. 
23;  Gal.  iii.  24;  Esth.  ii.  7).  Daughters  usually 
remained  in  the  women's  apartments  till  mar- 
riage (Lev.  xxi.  9;  Num.  xii.  14;  I  Sam.  ix.  ii ; 
Prov.  xxxi.  19,  23;  Ecclus.  vii.  25;  xlii.  9;  2 
Mace.  iii.  19).  The  authority  of  parents,  espe- 
cially of  the  father,  over  children  was  very 
great,  as  was  also  the  reverence  enjoined  by 
the  law  to  be  paid  to  parents.  The  inheritance 
was  divided  equally  between  all  the  sons  ex- 
cept the  eldest,  who  received  a  double  portion 
(Deut.  xxi.  17;  Gen.  xxv.  31 ;  xlix.  3;  i  Chr.  v. 
1",  2;  Judg.  xi.  2,  7).  Daughters  had  by  right 
portion  in  the  inheritance ;  but  if  a  man  had 
no  son,  his  inheritance  passed  to  his  daugh- 
ters, who  were  forbidden  to  marry  out  of  their 
father's  tribe  (Num.  xxvii.  i,  8,  xxxvi.  2,  8). 

Chit'tim,  Kit'tim,  a  family  or  race  descended 
from  Javan  (Gen.  x.  4;  i  Chr.  i.  7;  A.  B.  Kit- 
tim),  closely  related  to  the  Dodanim,  and  re- 
motely to  the  other  descendants  of  Javan. 
Chittim  is  frequently  noticed  in  Scripture : 
Balaam  predicts  that  a  fleet  should  thence  pro- 
ceed for  the  destruction  >:  f  Assyria  (Num. 
xxiv.  24)  :  in  Is.  xxiii.  J(  ic.ephus  considered 
Cyprus  as  the  original  seat  cf  the  Chittim,  ad- 
ducing as  evidence  the  nan;  of  its  principal 
town,  Citium. 

Chora'zin,  one  of  the  cities  in  which  our 
Lord's  mighty  works  were  done,  but  named 
only  in  His  denunciation  (Matt.  xi.  21 ;  Luke 


x.  13).  St.  Jerome  describes  it  as  on  the  shore 
of  the  lake,  two  miles  from  Capernaum,  but  its 
modern  site  is  uncertain. 

Christ.  [Jesus.] 

Christian.    The  disciples,  we  are  told  (Acts 

xi.  26),  were  first  called  Christians  at  Antioch 
on  the  Orontes,  somewhere  about  A.  D.  43. 
The  name,  and  the  place  where  it  was  con- 
ferred, are  both  significant.  They  were  known 
to  each  other  as  brethren  of  one  family,  as 
disciples  of  the  same  Master,  as  believers  in 
the  same  faith,  and  as  distinguished  by  the 
same  endeavors  after  holiness  and  consecra- 
tion of  life ;  and  so  were  called  brethren  (Acts 
XV.  I,  23;  I  Cor.  vii.  12),  disciples  (Acts  ix.  26, 
xi.  29),  believers  (Acts  v.  14),  saints  (Rom. 
viii.  27,  XV.  25).  The  name  "Christian,"  then, 
which,  in  the  only  other  cases  where  it  appears 
in  the  N.  T.  (Acts  xxvi.  28;  i  Pet.  iv.  16),  is 
used  contemptuously,  could  not  have  been  ap- 
plied by  the  early  disciples  to  themselves,  nor 
could  it  have  come  to  them  from  their  own 


Ruins  of  Kerazeh  (Choiazin). 

nation  the  Jews ;  it  must,  therefore,  have  been 
imposed  upon  them  by  the  Gentile  world. 
There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  name 
"Christian"  of  itself  was  intended  as  a  term  of 
scurrility  or  abuse,  though  it  would  naturally 
be  used  with  contempt. 

Chronicles,  First  and  Second  Books  of,  the 
name  originally  given  to  the  record  made  by 
the  appointed  histographers  in  the  kingdoms 
of  Israel  and  Judah.  In  the  LXX.  these  books 
are  called  Paralipomena  (i.  e.  things  omitted), 
which  is  understood  as  meaning  that  they  are 
supplementary  to  the  books  of  Kings.  The 
constant  tradition  of  the  Jews  is  that  these 
books  were  for  the  most  part  compiled  by 
Ezra.  One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  con- 
nected with  the  captivity  and  the  return  must 
have  been  the  maintenance  of  that  genealog- 
ical distribution  of  the  lands  which  yet  was  a 
vital  point  of  the  Jewish  economy.  Another 


72 


THE  li'^^ftfit 

OHHE 


1 


CHRONICLES 

difficulty  intimateh'  connected  with  theTormer 
was  the  maintenance  of  the  temple  services  at 
Jerusalem.  But  Zerubbabel,  and  after  him 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  labored  most  earnestly  to 
restore  the  temple  and  the  public  worship  of 
God  there  to  the  condition  it  had  been  in  under 
the  kings  of  Judah,  and  to  re-infuse  something 
of  national  life  and  spirit  into  the  heart  of  the 
people,  and  to  make  them  feel  that  they  were 
still  the  inheritors  of  God's  covenanted  mer- 
cies, and  that  the  captivity  had  only  tem- 
porarily interrupted,  not  dried  out,  the  stream 
of  God's  favor  to  their  nation.  Now  nothing 
could  more  effectually  aid  these  pious  and 
patriotic  designs  than  setting  before  the  peo- 
ple a  compendious  history  of  the  kingdom  of 
David,  which  should  embrace  a  full  account 
of  its  prosperity,  should  trace  the  sins  which 
led  to  its  overthrow,  should  carry  the  thread 
through  the  period  of  the  captivity,  and  con- 
tinue it  as  it  were  unbroken  on  the  other  side ; 
and  those  passages  in  their  former  history 
would  be  especially  important  which  exhib- 
ited their  greatest  and  best  kings  as  en- 
gaged in  building  or  restoring  the  temple,  in 
reforming  all  corruptions  in  religion,  and  zeal- 
ously regulating  the  services  of  the  house  of 
God.  As  regards  the  kingdom  of  Israel  or 
Samaria,  seeing  it  had  utterly  and  hopelessly 
passed  away,  and  that  the  existing  inhabitants 
were  among  the  bitterest  "adversaries  of  Judah 
and  Benjamin,"  it  would  naturally  engage  very 
little  of  the  compiler's  attention.  These  con- 
siderations explain  exactly  the  plan  and  scope 
of  that  historical  work  which  consists  of  the 
two  books  of  Chronicles  and  the  book  of  Ezra. 
For  after  having  the  first  eight  chapters  given 
the  genealogical  divisions  and  settlements  of 
the  various  tribes,  the  compiler  marks  dis- 
tinctly his  own  age  and  his  own  purpose,  by 
informing  us  in  ch.  ix.  I  of  the  disturbance  of 
those  settlements  by  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
and  in  the  following  verses,  of  the  partial  res- 
toration of  them  at  the  return  from  Babylon 
(2-24)  ;  and  that  this  list  refers  to  the  families 
who  had  returned  from  Babylon  is  clear,  not 
only  from  the  context,  but  from  its  reinsertion, 
Neh.  xi.  3-22,  with  additional  matter  evidently 
extracted  from  the  public  archives,  and  relat- 
ing to  times  subsequent  to  the  return  from 
Babylon,  extending  to  Neh.  xii.  27,  where 
Nehemiah's  narrative  is  again  resumed  in  con- 
tinuance with  Neh.  xi.  2.  Having  thus  shown 
the  re-establishment  of  the  returned  families, 
each  in  their  own  inheritance  according  to  the 
houses  of  their  fathers,  the  compiler  proceeds 
to  the  other  part  of  his  plan,  which  is  to  give 
a  continuous  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
from  David  to  his  own  times,  introduced  by 


CHURCH 

the  closing  scene  of  Saul's  life  (ch.  x.),  which 
introduction  is  itself  prefaced  by  a  genealogy 
of  the  house  of  Saul  (ix.  35-44).  As  regards 
the  materials  used  by  Ezra,  they  are  not  diffi- 
cult to  discover.  The  genealogies  are  obvi- 
ously transcribed  from  some  register,  in  which 
were  preserved  the  genealogies  of  the  tribes 
and  families  drawn  up  at  different  times ;  while 
the  history  is  mainly  drawn  from  the  same 
documents  as  those  used  in  the  Books  of 
Kings.    [Kings,  Books  of.] 

Chronology.  By  this  term  we  understand 
the  technical  and  historical  chronology  of  the 
Jews  and  their  ancestors  from  the  earliest  time 
to  the  close  of  the  New  Testament  Canon,  i. 
Technical  Chronology. — The  technical  part  of 
Hebrew  chronology  presents  great  difficulties, 
ii.  Historical  Chronolog)". — The  historical  part 
of  Hebrew  chronology  is  not  less  difficult  than 
the  technical.  The  information  in  the  Bible  is 
indeed  direct  rather  than  inferential,  although 
there  is  very  important  evidence  of  the  latter 
kind,  but  the  present  state  of  the  numbers 
makes  absolute  certainty  in  many  cases  impos- 
sible. Three  principal  systems  of  Biblical 
Chronology  have  been  founded,  which  may  be 
termed  the  Long  System,  the  Short,  and  the 
Rabbinical.  There  is  a  fourth,  which,  although 
an  ofifshoot  in  part  of  the  last,  can  scarcely  be 
termed  biblical,  inasmuch  as  it  depends  for 
the  most  part  upon  theories,  not  only  inde- 
pendent of,  but  repugnant  to  the  Bible :  this 
last  is  at  present  peculiar  to  Baron  Bunsen. 
The  principal  advocates  of  the  Long  Chronol- 
ogy are  Jackson,  Hales,  and  Des-Vignoles.  Of 
the  Short  Chronology  Ussher  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  most  able  advocate.  The  Rabbini- 
cal Chronology  accepts  the  biblical  numbers, 
but  makes  the  most  arbitrary  corrections.  For 
the  date  of  the  Exodus  it  has  been  virtually 
accepted  by  Bunsen,  Lepsius,  and  Lord  A. 
Hervey.  The  numbers  given  by  the  LXX.  for 
the  antediluvian  patriarchs  would  place  the 
creation  of  Adam  2262  yrs.  before  the  end  of 
the  Flood,  or  B.  C.  cir.  5361  or  5421. 

Church.  The  derivation  of  the  word  Church 
is  uncertain.  It  is  generally  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  Greek  kuriakon,  "belonging  to  the 
Lord."  But  the  derivation  has  been  too  hastily 
assumed.  It  is  probably  connected  with  kirk, 
the  Latin  circus,  circulus,  the  Greek  kuklos. 
Ecclesia,  the  Greek  Word  for  Church,  orig- 
inally meant  an  assembly  called  out  by  the 
magistrate,  or  by  legitimate  authority.  It  was 
in  this  last  sense  that  the  word  was  adopted 
and  applied  by  the  writers  of  the  N.  T.  to  the 
Christian  congregation.  In  the  one  Gospel  of 
St.  Matthew  the  Church  is  spoken  of  no  less 
than  thirty-six  times  as  "the  kingdom."  Other 


73 


CINNAMON 


CISTERN 


descriptions  or  titles  are  hardly  found  in  the 
Evangelists.  It  is  Christ's  household  (Matt. 
X.  25),  the  salt  and  light  of  the  world  (v.  13, 
15),  Christ's  flock  (Matt.  xxvi.  31;  John  x.  i), 
its  members  are  the  branches  growing  on 
Christ  the  Vine  (John  xv.)  ;  but  the  general 
description  of  it,  not  metaphorically  but  di- 
rectly, is,  that  it  is  a  kingdom  (Matt.  xvi.  19). 
From  the  Gospel  then,  we  learn  that  Christ 
was  about  to  establish  His  heavenly  kingdom 
on  earth,  which  was  to  be  the  substitute  for 
the  Jewish  church  and  kingdom,  now  doomed 
to  destruction  (Matt.  xxi.  43).  The  Day 
of  Pentecost  is  the  birth-day  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  Before  they  had  been  individual 
followers  of  Jesus,  now  they  . became  his  mys- 
tical body,  animated  by  His  Spirit.  The 
Church,  then,  at  this  period  was  a  body  of  bap- 
tized men  and  women  who  believed  in  Jesus 
as  the  Christ,  and  in  the  revelation  made  by 
Him,  who  were  united  by  having  the  same 
faith,  hope,  and  animating  Spirit  of  love,  the 
same  Sacraments,  and  the  same  spiritual  in- 
visible Head.  On  the  evening  of  the  Day  of 
Pentecost,  the  3140  members  of  which  it  con- 
sisted were  — (i)  Apostles;  (2)  previous  Dis- 
ciples; (3)  converts.  In  Acts  ii.  41  we  have 
indirectly  exhibited  the  essential  conditions  of 
church  communion.  They  are  (i)  Baptism, 
baptism  implying  on  the  part  of  the  recipient 
repentance  and  faith;  (2)  Apostolic  Doctrine; 
(3)  Fellowship  with  the  Apostles;  (4)  the 
Lord's  Supper;  (5)  Public  Worship.  The  real 
Church  consists  of  all  who  belong  to  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  as  his  disciples,  and  are  one  in 
love,  in  character,  in  hope,  in  Christ  as  the 
head  of  all,  though  as  the  body  of  Christ  it 
consists  of  many  parts. 

Cinnamon,  a  well-known  aromatic  substance, 
the  rind  of  a  tree  growing  in  Ceylon.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Ex.  xxx.  23  as  one  of  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  holy  anointing  oil,  which 
Moses  was  commanded  to  prepare — in  Prov. 
vii.  17  as  a  perfume  for  the  bed — and  in  Cant, 
iv.  14  as  one  of  the  plants  of  the  garden  which 
is  the  image  of  the  spouse.  In^Rev.  xviii.  13 
it  is  enumerated  among  the  merchandise  of  the 
great  Babylon.  It  was  imported  into  Judaea 
by  the  Plioenicians  or  by  the  Arabians,  and  is 
now  found  in  Sumatra,  Borneo,  China,  &c.,  but 
chiefly,  and.  of  the  best  quality,  in  the  S.  W. 
part  of  Ceylon. 

Circumcision  was  peculiarly,  though  not  ex- 
clusively, a  Jewish  rite.  It  was  enjoined  upon 
Abraham,  the  father  of  the  nation,  by  God,  at 
the  institution,  and  as  the  token,  of  the  Cove- 
nant, which  assured  to  him  and  his  descend- 
ants the  promise  of  the  Messiah  (Gen.  xvii.). 
It  was  thus  made  a  necessarv  condition  of 


Jewish  nationality.  Every  male  child  was  to 
be  circumcised  when  eight  days  old  (Lev.  xii. 
3)  on  pain  of  death.  The  biblical  notice  of  the 
rite  describes  it  as  distinctively  Jewish ;  so  that 
in  the  N.  T.  "the  circumcision"  and  "the  uncir- 
cumcision"  are  frequently  used  as  synonymes 
for  the  Jews  and  the  Gentiles.  Circumcision 
certainly  belonged  to  the  Jews  as  it  did  to  no 
other  people,  by  virtue  of  its  divine  institution, 
of  the  religious  privileges  which  were  attached 
to  it,  and  of  the  strict  regulations  which  en- 
forced its  observance.  Moreover,  the  O.  T, 
history  incidentally  discloses  the  fact  that 
many,  if  not  all,  of  the  nations  with  whom  they 
came  in  contact  were  uncircumcised.  The 
origin  of  the  custom  amongst  one  large  section 
of  those  Gentiles  who  follow  it,  is  to  be  found 
in  the  biblical  record  of  the  circumcision  of 
Ishmael  (Gen.  xvii.  25).  Though  Mohammed 
did  not  enjoin  circumcision  in  the  Koran,  he 
was  circumcised  himself,  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  his  country ;  and  circumcision  is  now 
as  common  amongst  the  Mohammedans  as 
amongst  the  Jews.  The  process  of  restoring  a 
circumcised  person  to  his  natural  condition  by 
a  surgical  operation  was  sometimes  undergone. 
Some  of  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  wishing  to  assimilate  themselves 
to  the  heathen  around  them,  "made  themselves 
uncircumcised"  (i  Mace.  i.  15).  Against  hav- 
ing recourse  to  this  practice,  from  an  excessive 
anti-Judaistic  tendency,  St.  Paul  cautions  the 
Corinthians  (i  Cor.  vii.  18).  The  attitude 
which  Christianity,  at  its  introduction,  as- 
sumed towards  circumcision  was  one  of  abso- 
lute hostility,  so  far  as  the  necessity  of  the  rite 
to  salvation,  or  its  possession  of  any  religious 
or  moral  worth  was  concerned  (Acts  xv. ;  Gal. 
V.  2).  The  Abyssinian  Christians  still  prac- 
tise circumcision  as  a  national  custom. 

Cistern,  a  receptacle  for  water,  either  con- 
ducted from  an -external  spring,  or  proceeding 
from  rain-fall.  The  dryness  of  the  summer 
months  between  May  and  September,  in  Syria, 
and  the  scarcity  of  springs  in  many  parts  of 
the  country,  make  it  necessary  to  collect  in 
reservoirs  and  cisterns  the  rain-water,  of 
which  abundance  falls  in  the  intermediate 
period.  The  largest  sort  of  public  tanks  or 
reservoirs  is  usually  called  in  A.  V.  "pool," 
while  for  the  smaller  and  more  private  it  is 
convenient  to  reserve  the  name  cistern.  Both 
pools  and  cisterns  are  frequent  throughout  the 
whole  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  On  the  long  for- 
gotten way  from  Jericho  to  Bethel,  "broken 
cisterns"  of  high  antiquity  are  found  at  regular 
intervals.  Jerusalem  depends  mainly  for  water 
upon  its  cisterns,  of  which  almost  every  pri- 
vate house  possesses  one  or  more,  excavated 


74 


CITHERN 


CLEOPATRA 


in  the  rock  on  which  the  city  is  built.  The  cis- 
terns have  usually  a  round  opening  at  the  top, 
sometimes  built  up  with  stonework  above  and 
furnished  with  a  curb  and  a  wheel  for  the 
bucket  (Eccl.  xii.  6),  so  that  they  have  ex- 
ternally much  the  appearance  of  an  ordinary 
well.  The  water  is  conducted  into  them  from 
the  roofs  of  the  houses  during  the  rainy  sea- 
son, and  with  care  remains  sweet  during  the 
whole  summer  and  autumn.  In  this  manner 
most  of  the  larger  houses  and  public  buildings 
are  supplied.  Empty  cisterns  were  sometimes 
used  as  prisons  and  places  of  confinement. 
Joseph  was  cast  into  a  "pit"  (Gen.  xxxvii.  22), 
and  his  "dungeon"  in  Egypt  is  called  by  the 
"same  name  (xli.  14).  Jeremiah  was  thrown 
into  a  miry  though  empty  cistern,  whose  depth 
is  indicated  by  the  cords  used  to  let  him  down 
(Jer.  xx.wiii.  6). 

Cithern  (i  Alacc.  iv.  54),  a  musical  instru- 
ment, resembling  a  guitar,  most  probably  of 
Greek  origin,  employed  by  the  Chaldeans,  and 
introduced  by  the  Hebrews  into  Palestine  on 
their  return  thither  after  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity. 

Cities.  I.  'Ar,  and  also  Tr:  2.  Kirjath; 
probably  the  most  ancient  name  for  city,  but 
seldom  used  in  prose  as  a  general  name  for 
town.  The  classification  of  the  human  race 
into  dwellers  in  towns  and  nomade  wanderers 
(Gen.  iv.  20,  22)  seems  to  be  intimated  by  the 
etymological  sense  of  both  words,  as  places  of 
security  against  an  enemy,  distinguished  from 
the  unwalled  village  or  hamlet,  whose  resist- 
ance is  more  easily  overcome  by  the  marauding 
tribes  of  the  desert.  The  earliest  notice  in 
Scripture  of  city-building  is  of  Enoch  by  Cain, 
in  the  land  of  his  exile  (Gen.  iv.  17).  After 
the  confusion  of  tongues,  the  descendants  of 
Nimrod  founded  Babel,  Erech,  Accad,  and 
Calneh,  in  the  land  of  Shinar,  and  Asshur,  a 
branch  from  the  same  stock,  built  Nineveh, 
Rehoboth-by-the-river,  Calah,  and  Resen,  the 
last  being  "a  great  city."  The  earliest  descrip- 
tion of  a  city,  properly  so  called,  is  that  of 
Sodom  (Gen.  xix.  1-22).  Hebron  is  said  to 
have  been  built  seven  years  before  Zoan 
(Tanis)  in  Egypt,  and  is  thus  the  only  Syrian 
town  which  presents  the  elements  of  a  date 
for  its  foundation  (Num.  xiii.  22).  Even  be- 
fore the  time  of  Abraham  there  were  cities 
in  Egypt  (Gen.  xii.  14,  15;  Num.  xiii.  22),  and 
the  Israelites,  during  their  sojourn  there,  were 
employed  in  building  or  fortifying  the  "treas- 
ure cities"  of  Pithom  and  Raamses  (Ex.  i.  11). 
Meanwhile  the  settled  inhabitants  of  Syria  on 
both  sides  of  the  Jordan  had  grown  in  power 
and  in  number  of  "fenced  cities,"  which  were 


occupied  and  perhaps  partly  rebuilt  or  forti- 
fied after  the  conquest. 

Cities  of  Refuge,  six  Levitical  cities  specially 
chosen  for  refuge  to  the  involuntary  homicide 
until  released  from  banishment  by  the  death 
of  the  high-priest  (Num.  xxxv.  6,  13,  15;  Josh. 
XX.  2,  7,  9).  There  were  three  on  each  side  of 
Jordan. 

Citizenship.  The  use  of  this  term  in  Scrip- 
ture has  exclusive  reference  to  the  usages  of 
the  Roman  empire.  The  privilege  of  Roman 
citizenship  was  originally  acquired  in  various 
ways,  as  by  purchase  (Acts  xxii.  28),  by  mili- 
tary services,  by  favor,  or  by  manumission. 
The  right  once  obtained  descended  to  a  man's 
children  (Acts  xxii.  28).  Among^the  privileges 
attached  to  citizenship,  we  may  note  that  a 
man  could  not  be  bound  or  imprisoned  with- 
out a  formal  trial  (Acts.  xxii.  29),  still  less  be 
scourged  (Acts  xvi.  37;  Cic.  in  Verr.  v.  63,  66). 
Another  privilege  attaching  to  citizenship  was 
the  appeal  from  a  provincial  tribunal  to  the 
emperor  at  Rome  (Acts  xxv.  11). 

Citron.  [Apple-tree.] 

Clay.  As  the  sediment  of  water  remaining 
in  pits  or  in  streets,  the  word  is  used  frequently 
in  O.  T.  (Is.  Ivii.  20;  Jer.  xxxviii.  6;  Ps.  xviii. 
42),  and  in  N.  T.  (John  ix.  6),  a  mixture  of 
sand  or  dust  with  spittle.  It  is  also  found  in 
the  sense  of  potter's  clay  (Is.  xli.  25).  The 
great  seat  of  the  pottery  of  the  present  day  in 
Palestine  is  Gaza,  where  are  made  the  vessels 
in  dark  blue  clay  so  frequently  met  with.  An- 
other use  of  clay  was  for  sealing  (Job.  xxxviii. 
14).  Wine  jars  in  Egypt  were  sometimes 
sealed  with  clay ;  mummy  pits  were  sealed 
with  the  same  substance,  and  remains  of  clay 
are  still  found  adhering  to  the  stone  door- 
jambs.  Our  Lord's  tomb  may  have  been  thus 
sealed  (Matt,  xxvii.  66),  as  also  the  earthen 
vessel  containing  the  evidences  of  Jeremiah's 
purchase  (Jer.  xxxii.  14).  The  seal  used  for 
public  documents  was  rolled  on  the  moist  clay, 
and  the  tablet  was  then  placed  in  the  fire  and 
baked.  The  practice  of  sealing  doors  with 
clay  to  facilitate  detection  in  case  of  malprac- 
tice is  still  common  in  the  East. 

Cleopa'tra.  i.  The  "wife  of  Ptolemy" 
(Esth.  xi.  i)  was  probably  the  granddaughter 
of  Antiochus,  and  wife  of  Ptol.  VI.  Philometor. 
2.  A  daughter  of  Ptol.  VI.  Philometor  and 
Cleopatra  (i),  who  was  married  first  to  Alex- 
ander Balas  B.  C.  150  (i  Mace.  x.  58),  and 
afterwards  given  by  her  father  to  Demetrius 
Nicator  when  he  invaded  Syria  (i  Mace.  xi. 
12).  During  the  captivity  of  Demetrius  in 
Parthia,  Cleopatra  married  his  brother  An- 
tiochus VII.  Sidetes.  She  afterwards  murdered 
Scleucus,  her  eldest  son  by  Demetrius ;  and  at 


75 


CLOTHING 


COLOSSE 


length  was  herself  poisoned  B.  C.  120  by  a 
draught  which  she  had  prepared  for  her  sec- 
ond son  Antiochus  VIII. 
Clothing.  [Dress.] 

Cloud.  The  shelter  given,  and  refreshment 
of  rain  promised,  by  clouds,  give  them  their 
peculiar  prominence  in  Oriental  imagery,  and 
the  individual  cloud  in  an  ordinary  cloudless 
region  becomes  well  defined  and  is  dwelt  upon 
like  the  individual  tree  in  the  bare  landscape. 
When  a  cloud  appears,  rain  is  ordinarily  ap- 
prehended, and  thus  the  "cloud  without  rain" 
becomes  a  proverb  for  the  man  of  promise 
without  performance  (Prov.  xvi.  15;  Is.  xviii. 
4,  XXV.  5;  Jude  12;  comp.  Prov.  xxv.  14).  The 
cloud  is  a  figure  of  transitoriness  (Job  xxx.  15; 
Hos.  vi.  4),  and  of  whatever  intercepts  divine 
favor  or  human  supplication  (Lam.  ii.  i,  iii. 
44).  Being  the  least  substantial  of  visible 
forms,  it  is  the  one  amongst  material  things 
which  suggests  most  easily  spiritual  being. 
Hence  it  is  the  recognized  machinery  by  which 
supernatural  appearances  are  introduced  (Is. 
xix.  i;  Ez.  i.  4;  Rev.  i.  7).  A  bright  cloud, 
at  any  rate  at  times,  visited  and  rested  on  the 
Mercy  Seat  (Ex.  xxix.  42,  43;  i  K.  viii,  10,  11 ; 
2  Chr.  V.  14;  Ez.  xliii.  4),  and  was  by  later 
writers  named  Shechinah. 

Cloud,  Pillar  of.  This  was  the  active  form 
of  the  symbolical  glory-cloud,  betokening 
God's  presence  to  lead  His  chosen  host,  or  to 
inquire  and  visit  offences,  as  the  luminous 
cloud  of  the  sanctuary  exhibited  the  same  un- 
der an  aspect  of  repose.  The  cloud,  which  be- 
came a  pillar  when  the  host  moved,  seems  to 
have  rested  at  other  times  on  the  tabernacle, 
whence  God  is  said  to  have  "come  down  in  the 
pillar"  (Num.  xii.  5;  so  Ex.  xxxiii.  9,  10).  It 
preceded  the  host,  apparently  resting  on  the 
ark  which  led  the  way  (Ex.  xiii.  21,  xl.  36,  &c. ; 
Num.  ix.  15-23,  x.  34). 

Coal.  In  A.  V.  this  word  represents  no  less 
than  five  different  Heb.  words.  The  fuel  meant 
in  the  above  passages  is  probably  charcoal,  and 
not  coal  in  our  sense  of  the  word. 

Coat.  [Dress.] 

Cock.  In  the  N.  T.  the  "cock"  is  mentioned 
in  reference  to  St.  Peter's  denial  of  our  Lord, 
and  indirectly  in  the  word  "cock-crowing" 
(Matt.  xxvi.  34;  Mark  xiv.  30,  xiii,  35,  &c.). 
We  know  that  the  domestic  cock  and  hen  were 
early  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, and  as  no  mention  is  made  in  the  O.  T. 
of  these  birds,  and  no  figures  of  them  occur 
on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  they  probably 
came  into  Judaea  with  the  Romans,  who,  as  is 
well  known,  prized  these  birds  both  as  articles 
of  food  and  for  cock-fighting. 

Cockatrice.  [Adder.] 


Cockle  occurs  only  in  Job  xxxi.  40.  We  are 
inclined  to  believe  that  the  Hebrew  words  de- 
notes any  bad  weeds  or  fruit,  and  may  in  Job 
signify  bad  or  smutted  barley. 

Coffin.  [Burial.] 

Collar,  For  the  proper  sense  of  this  term, 
as  it  occurs  in  Judg.  viii.  26,  see  Earrings. 

College,  The.  In  2  K.  xxii.  14  it  is  said  in 
the  A.  V.  that  Huldah  the  prophetess  "dwelt 
in  Jerusalem  in  the  college,"  or,  as  the  margin 
has  it,  "in  the  second  part."  The  same  part  of 
the  city  is  undoubtedly  alluded  to  in  Zeph.  i. 
10  (A.  V.  "the  second").  It  is  probable  that 
the  "lower  city,"  built  on  the  hill  Akra,  was 
intended. 

Colony,  a  designation  of  Philippi,  in  Acts 
xvi.  12.  After  the  battle  of  Actium,  Augustus 
assigned  to  his  veterans  those  parts  of  Italy 
which  had  espoused  the  cause  of  Antony,  and 
transported  many  of  the  expelled  inhabitants 
to  Philippi,  Dyrrachium,  and  other  cities.  In 
this  way  Philippi  was  made  a  Roman  colony 
with  the  "Jus  Italicum." 

Colors.  The  terms  relative  to  color,  oc- 
curring in  the  Bible,  may  be  arranged  in  two 
classes,  the  first  including  those  applied  to  the 
description  of  natural  objects,  the  second  those 
artificial  mixtures  which  were  employed  in 
dyeing  or  painting.  The  natural  colors  noticed 


Colos'se. 

in  the  Bible  are  white,  black,  red,  yellow,  and 
green.  The  only  fundamental  color  of  which 
the  Hebrews  appear  to  have  had  a  clear  con- 
ception was  red ;  and  even  this  is  not  very 
often  noticed.  They  had  therefore  no  scientific 
knowledge  of  colors,  and  we  cannot  but  think 
that  the  attempt  to  explain  such  passages  as 
Rev.  iv.  3  by  the  rules  of  philosophical  truth, 
must  fail. 

Colos'se  (more  properly  Colos'sae),  a  city 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Maeander, 
on  one  of  its  affluents  named  the  Lycus.  Hier- 
apolis  and  Laodicaea  were  in  its  immediate 


76 


THE  LIBRARY 
OF  THE 


COLOSSIANS 


CONCUBINE 


neighborhood  (Col.  ii.  i,  iv.  13,  15,  16;  see 
Rev.  i.  II,  iii.  14).  Colossae  fell  as  these  other 
two  cities  rose  in  importance.  It  was  situated 
close  to  the  great  road  which  led  from  Ephesus 
to  the  Euphrates.  Hence  our  impulse  would 
be  to  conclude  that  St.  Paul  passed  this  way, 
and  founded  or  confirmed  the  Colossian 
Church  on  his  third  missionary  journey  (Acts 
xviii.  23,  xix.  l). 

Colossians.  The  Epistle  to  the,  was  written 
by  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  during  his  first  captiv- 
ity at  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  16)  and  apparently 
in  that  portion  of  it  (Col.  iv.  3,  4)  when  the 
Apostle's  imprisonment  had  not  assumed  the 
more  severe  character  which  seems  to  be  re- 
flected in  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  (ch.  i. 
20,  21,  30,  ii.  27),  and  which  not  improbably 
succeeded  the  death  of  Burrus  in  A.  D.  62,  and 
the  decline  of  the  influence  of  Seneca.  This 
epistle  was  addressed  to  the  Christians  of  the 
city  of  Colossae,  and  was  delivered  to  them 
by  Tychicus,  whom  the  Apostle  had  sent  both 
to  them  (ch.  iv.  7,  8),  and  to  the  church  of 
Ephesus  (ch.  vi.  21),  to  inquire  into  their  state 
and  to  administer  exhortation  and  comfort. 
The  epistle  seems  to  have  been  called  forth  by 
the  information  St.  Paul  had  received  from 
Epaphras  (ch.  iv.  12;  Philem.  23)  and  from 
Onesimus,  both  of  whom  appear  to  have  been 
natives  of  Colossae.  The  main  object  of  the 
epistle  is  to  warn  the  Colossians  against  a 
spirit  of  semi-Judaistic  and  semi-Oriental  phi- 
losophy which  was  corrupting  the  simplicity 
of  their  belief,  and  was  noticeably  tending  to 
obscure  the  eternal  glory  and  dignity  of  Christ. 
The  striking  similarity  between  many  portions 
of  this  epistle  and  of  that  of  the  Ephesians 
may  be  accounted  for,  (i)  by  the  proximity 
in  time  at  which  the  two  epistles  were  writ- 
ten; (2)  by  the  high  probability  that  in  two 
cities  of  Asia  within  a  moderate  distance  from 
one  another,  there  would  be  many  doctrinal 
prejudices,  and  many  social  relations,  that 
would  call  forth  and  need  precisely  the  same 
language  of  warning  and  exhortation.  The 
shorter  and  perhaps  jtiore  vividly  expressed 
Epistle  to  the  Colossians  seems  to  have  been 
first  written,  and  to  have  suggested  the  more 
comprehensive,  more  systematic,  but  less  indi- 
vidualizing, epistle  to  the  church  of  Ephesus. 

Commerce.  From  the  time  that  men  began 
to  live  in  cities,  trade,  in  some  shape,  must 
have  been  carried  on  to  supply  the  town-dwell- 
ers with  necessaries;  but  it  is  also  clear  that 
international  trade  must  have  existed,  and  af- 
fected to  some  extent  even  the  pastoral  nomade 
races,  for  we  find  that  Abraham  was  rich,  not 
only  in  cattle,  but  in  silver,  gold,  and  gold  and 
silver  plate  and  ornaments  (Gen.  xiii.  2,  xxiv. 


22,  53).  Among  trading  nations  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  Egypt  holds  in  very  early  times  a 
prominent  position,  though  her  external  trade 
was  carried  on,  not  by  her  own  citizens,  but  by 
foreigners, — chiefly  of  the  nomade  races.  The 
internal  trade  of  the  Jews,  as  well  as  the  ex- 
ternal, was  much  promoted,  as  was  the  case 
also  in  Egypt,  by  the  festivals,  which  brought 
large  numbers  of  persons  to  Jerusalem,  and 
caused  great  outlay  in  victims  for  sacrifices 
and  in  incense  (i  K.  viii.  63).  The  places  of 
public  market  were,  then  as  now,  chiefly  the 
open  spaces  near  the  gates,  to  which  goods 
were  brought  for  sale  by  those  who  came  from 
the  outside  (Neh.  xiii.  15,  16;  Zeph.  i.  10).  The 
traders  in  later  times  were  allowed  to  intrude 
into  the  temple,  in  the  outer  courts,  of  which 
victims  were  publicly  sold  for  the  sacrifices 
(Zech.  xiv.  21  ;  Matt.  xxi.  12;  John  ii.  14). 

Concubine.  The  difference  ,  between  wife 
and  concubine  was  less  marked  among  the 
Hebrews  than  among  us,  owing  to  the  absence 
of  moral  stigma.  The  concubine's  condition 
was  a  definite  one,  and  quite  independent  of 
the  fact  of  there  being  another  woman  having 
the  rights  of  wife  towards  the  same  man.  The 
difference  probably  lay  in  the  absence  of  the 
right  of  the  bill  of  divorce,  without  which  the 
wife  could  not  be  repudiated.  With  regard 
to  the  children  of  wife  and  concubine,  there 
was  no  such  difference  as  our  illegitimacy  im- 
plies ;  the  latter  were  a  supplementary  family 
to  the  former ;  their  names  occur  in  the  patri- 
archal genealogies  (Gen.  xxii.  24;  i  Chr.  i.  22), 
and  their  position  and  provision  would  depend 
on  the  father's  v.'ill  (Gen.  xxv.  6).  The  state 
of  concubinage  is  assumed  and  provided  for 
by  the  law  of  Moses.  A  concubine  would  gen- 
erally be  either,  (i)  a  Hebrew  girl  bought 
of  her  father;  (2)  a  Gentile  captive  taken  in 
war;  (3)  a  foreign  slave  bought;  or  (4)  a 
Canaanitish  woman,  bond  or  free.  The  rights 
of  (i)  and  (2)  were  protected  by  law  (Ex. 
xxi.  7;  Deut.  xxi.  10-14),  (3)  was  unrecog- 
nized, and  (4)  prohibited.  Free  Hebrew 
women  also  might  become  concubines.  So 
Gideon's  concubine  seems  to  have  been  of  a 
family  of  rank  and  influence  in  Shechem,  and 
such  was  probably  the  state  of  the  Levite's 
concubine  (Judg.  xx.).  The  rava.ges  of  war 
among  the  male  sex,  or  the  impoverishment 
of  families,  might  often  induce  this  condition. 
The  case  (i)  was  not  a  hard  lot  (Ex.  xxi.). 
The  provisions  relating  to  (2)  are  merciful 
and  considerate  to  a  rare  degree.  In  the  books 
of  Samuel  and  Kings  the  concubines  mentioned 
belong  to  the  king,  and  their  condition  and 
number  cease  to  be  a  guide  to  the  general  prac- 
tice.   A  new  king  stepped  into  the  rights  of 


77 


CONDUIT 


COPPER 


his  predecessor,  and  by  Solomon's  time  the 
custom  had  approximated  to  that  of  a  Persian 
harem  (2  Sam.  xii.  8,  xvi.  21 ;  i  K.  ii.  22).  To 
seize  on  royal  concubines  for  his  use  was  thus 
a  usurper's  first  act.  Such  was  probably  the 
intent  of  Abner's  act  (2  Sam.  iii.  7),  and  simi- 
larly the  request  on  behalf  of  Adonijah  was 
construed  (i  K.  ii.  21-24). 

Conduit.  Although  no  notice  is  given  either 
by  Scripture  or  by  Josephus  of  any  connection 
between  the  pools  of  Solomon  beyond  Bethle- 
hem and  a  supply  of  water  for  Jerusalem,  it 
seems  unlikely  that  so  large  a  work  as  the 
pools  should  be  constructed  merely  for  irrigat- 
ing his  gardens  (Eccl.  ii.  6),  and  tradition,  both 
oral  and  as  represented  by  Talmudical  writers, 
ascribes  to  Solomon  the  formation  of  the  orig- 
inal aqueduct  by  which  water  was  brought  to 
Jerusalem. 

Coney,  a  gregarious  animal  of  the  class 
Pachydermata,  which  is  found  in  Palestine, 
living  in  the  caves  and  clefts  of  the  rocks,  and 
has  been  erroneously  identified  with  the  Rab- 
bit or  Coney.  In  Lev.  xi.  5  and  in  Deut.  xiv.  7 
it  is  declared  to  be  unclean,  because  it  chews 
the  cud,  but  does  not  divide  the  hoof.  In  Ps. 
civ.  18  we  are  told  "the  rocks  are  a  refuge  for 
the  coneys,"  and  in  Prov.  xxx.  26,  that  "the 


The  Coney. 


coneys  are  but  a  feeble  folk,  yet  make  they 
their  houses  in  the  rocks."  The  Hyrax  satis- 
fies exactly  the  expressions  in  the  two  last 
passages.  Its  color  is  gray  or  brown  on  the 
back,  white  on  the  belly;  it  is  like  the  alpine 
marmot,  scarcely  of  the  size  of  the  domestic 
cat,  having  long  hair,  a  very  short  tail,  and 
round  ears.  It  is  found  on  the  Lebanon  and 
in  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea  valleys. 

Congregation.  This  describes  the  Hebrew 
people  in  its  collective  capacity  under  its  pe- 
culiar aspect  as  a  holy  community,  held  to- 
gether by  religious  rather  than  political  bonds. 
Sometimes  it  is  used  in  a  broad  sense  as  in- 
clusive of  foreign  settlers  (Ex.  xii.  19)  ;  but 
more  properly,  as  exclusively  appropriate  to 
the  Hebrew  element  of  the  population  (Num. 
XV.  15).  Every  circumcised  Hebrew  was  a 
member  of  the  congregation,  and  took  part  in 
its  proceedings,  probably  from  the  time  that 


he  bore  arms.  The  congregation  occupied  an 
important  position  under  the  Theocracy,  as 
the  comitia  or  national  parliament,  invested 
with  legislative  and  judicial  powers;  each 
house,  family,  and  tribe  being  represented  by 
its  head  or  father.  The  number  of  these  rep- 
resentatives being  inconveniently  large  for  or- 
dinary business,  a  further  selection  was  i-nade 
by  Moses  of  70,  who  formed  a  species  of  stand- 
ing committee  (Num.  xi.  16).  Occasionally 
indeed  the  whole  body  of  the  people  was  as- 
sembled at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  hence 
usually  called  the  tabernacle  of  the  congrega- 
tion (Num.  x.  3).  The  people  were  strictly 
bound  by  the  acts  of  their  representatives,  even 
in  cases  where  they  disapproved  of  them 
(Josh.  ix.  18).  After  the  occupation  of  the 
land  of  Canaan,  the  congregation  was  assem- 
bled only  on  matters  of  the  highest  import- 
ance. In  the  later  periods  of  Jewish  history 
the  congregation  was  represented  by  the  San- 
hedrim. 

Consecration.  [Priest.] 

Convocation.  This  term  is  applied  invaria- 
bly to  meetings  of  a  religious  character,  in 
contradistinction  to  congregation.  With  one 
exception  (Is.  i.  13),  the  word  is  peculiar  to 
the  Pentateuch, 

Cooking.  As  meat  did  not  form  an  article 
of  ordinary  diet  among  tfie  Jews,  the  art  of 
:ooking  was  not  carried  to  any  perfection.  Few 
animals  were  slaughtered  except  for  purposes 
of  hospitality  or  festivity.  The  proceedings 
on  such  occasions  appear  to  have  been  as  fol- 
lows :  On  the  arrival  of  a  guest,  the  animal, 
either  a  kid,  lamb,  or  calf,  was  killed  (Gen. 
xviii.  7;  Luke  xv.  23),  its  throat  being  cut  so 
that  the  blood  might  be  poured  out  (Lev.  vii. 
26) ;  it  was  then  flayed  and  was  ready  either 
for  roasting  or  boiling ;  in  the  former  case  the 
animal  was  preserved  entire  (Ex.  xii.  46),  and 
roasted  either  over  a  fire  (Ex.  xii.  8)  of  wood 
(Is.  xliv.  16),  or  perhaps  in  an  oven,  consist- 
ing simply  of  a  hole  dug  in  the  earth,  well 
heated,  and  covered  up.  Boiling,  however, 
was  the  more  usual  method  of  cooking. 

Copper,  Heb.  Nechosheth,  in  the  A.  V.  al- 
ways rendered  "brass,"  except  in  Ezr.  viii.  27, 
and  Jer.  xv.  12.  This  metal  is  usually  found 
as  pyrites  (sulphuret  of  copper  and  iron), 
malachite  (carb.  of  copper),  or  in  the  state  of 
oxide,  and  occasionally  in  a  native  state,  princi- 
pally in  the  New  World.  It  was  almost  ex- 
clusively used  by  the  ancients  for  common 
purposes ;  for  which  its  elastic  and  ductile  na- 
ture rendered  it  practically  available.  We  read 
in  the  Bible  of  copper,  possessed  in  countless 
abundance  (2  Chr.  iv.  18),  and  used  for  every 
kind  of  instrument;  as  chains  (Judg.  xvi.  21), 


THE   STREET  CALLED  STRAIGHT,  DAMASCUS.     FROM  A  PHOTOGRAPH. 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF  T!?E 


CORAL 


CORINTH 


pillars  (i  K.  vii.  15-21),  lavers,  the  great  one 
being  called  "the  copper  sea"  (2  K.  xxv.  13; 
I  Chr.  xviii.  8),  and  the  other  temple  vessels. 
These  were  made  in  the  foundry,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  Hiram,  a  Phoenician  (i  K.  vii.  13), 
although  the  Jews  were  not  ignorant  of  metal- 
lurgy' (Ez.  xxii.  18;  Deut.  iv.  20,  &c.),  and  ap- 
pear to  have  worked  their  own  mines  (Deut. 
viii.  9;  Is.  li.  i).  The  only  place  in  the  A.  V. 
where  "copper"  is  mentioned  is  Ez.  viii.  27 
(cf.  I  Esd.  viii.  57).  These  vessels  may  have 
been  of  orichalcum  like  the  Persian  or  Indian 
vases  found  among  the  treasures  of  Darius. 

Coral  occurs  only  as  the  somewhat  doubtful 
rendering  of  the  Hebrew  ramoth,  in  Job  xxviii. 
18,  and  in  Ez.  xxvii.  16.  But  "coral"  has  de- 
cidedly the  best  claim  of  any  other  substances 
to  represent  ramoth.  With  regard  to  the  esti- 
mation in  which  coral  was  held  by  the  Jews 
and  other  Orientals,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  coral  varies  in  price  with  us.  Pliny  says 
that  the  Indians  valued  coral  as  the  Romans 
valued  pearls. 


The  Coriander. 

Cord,  The  materials  of  which  cord  was 
made  varied  according  to  the  strength  re- 
quired ;  the  strongest  rope  was  probably  made 
of  strips  of  camel  hide,  as  still  used  by  the 
Bedouins.  The  finer  sorts  were  made  of  flax 
(Is.  xix.  9),  and  probably  of  reeds  and  rushes. 
In  the  N.  T.  the  term  is  applied  to  the  whip 
which  our  Saviour  made  (John  ii.  15),  and  to 
the  ropes  of  a  ship  (Acts  xxvii.  32). 

Coriander  is  found  in  Egypt,  Persia,  and 
India,  and  has  a  round  tall  stalk;  it  bears  um- 
belliferous white  or  reddish  flowers,  from 
which  arise  glolnilar,  grayish,  spicy  seed-corns, 
marked  with  fine  striae.  It  is  mentioned  twice 
in  the  Bible  (Ex.  xvi.  31  ;  Num.  xi.  7). 

Corinth.  This  city  is  alike  remarkable  for 
its  distinctive  geographical  position,  its  emi- 


nence in  Greek  and  Roman  history,  and  its 
close  connection  with  the  early  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity. Geographically  its  situation  was  so 
marked,  that  the  name  of  its  Isthmus  has  been 
given  to  every  narrow  neck  of  land'  between 
two  seas.  But,  besides  this,  the  site  of  Corinth 
is  distinguished  by  another  conspicuous  phy- 
sical feature — viz.  the   Acrocorinthus,  a  vast 


Acrocorinthus,  Corintb. 

citadel  of  rock,  which  rises  abruptly  to  the 
height  of  2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the"  sea, 
and  the  summit  of  which  is  so  extensive  that 
it  once  contained  a  whole  town.  The  situation 
of  Corinth,  and  the  possession  of  its  eastern 
and  western  harbors  (Cenchreae  and  Le- 
chaeum),  are  the  secrets  of  its  history.  In 
the  latest  passages  of  Greek  history  Corinth 
held  a  conspicuous  place.  It  is  not  the  true 
Greek  Corinth  with  which  we  have  to  do  in 
the  life  of  St.  Paul,  but  the  Corinth  which  was 
rebuilt  and  established  as  a  Roman  colony. 
The  distinction  between  the  two  must  be  care- 
fully remembered.  The  new  city  was  hardly 
less  distinguished  than  the  old,  and  it  acquired 
a  fresh  importance  as  the  metropolis  of  the 
Roman  province  of  Achaia.  Corinth  was  a 
place  of  great  mental  activity,  as  well  as  of 
commercial  and  manufacturing  enterprise.  Its 
wealth  was  so  celebrated  as  to  be  proverbial ; 
so  were  the  vice  and  profligacy  of  its  inhabi- 
tants.   The  worship  of  Venus  here  was  at- 


Coin  of  Corinth. 

tended  with  shameful  licentiousness.  All  these 
points  are  indirectly  illustrated  by  passages  in 
the  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians.  Corinth  is 
still  an  episcopal  see.  The  city  has  now  shrunk 
to  a  wretched  village,  on  the  old  site,  and  bear- 


79 


CORINTHIANS 


CORINTHIANS 


ing  the  old  name,  which,  however,  is  corrupted 
into  Gortho.  The  Posidonium,  or  sanctuary  of 
Neptune,  the  scene,  of  the  Isthmian  games, 
from  which  St.  Paul  borrows  some  of  his  most 
striking  imagery  in  I  Cor.  and  other  epistles, 
was  a  short  distance  to  the  N.  E.  of  Corinth, 
at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Isthmus,  near  the 
harbor  of  Schoenus  (now  Kalamaki)  on  the 
Saronic  gulf.  The  exact  site  of  the  temple  is 
doubtful ;  but  to  the  south  are  the  remains  of 
the  stadium,  where  the  foot-races  were  run  (i 
Cor.  ix.  24)  ;  to  the  east  are  those  of  the  the- 
atre, which  was  probably  the  scene  of  the  pug- 
ilistic contests  (ib.  26)  :  and  abundant  on  the 
shore  are  the  small  green  pine-trees  which  gave 
the  fading  wreath  (ib.  25)  to  the  victors  in  the 
games. 

Corinthians,  First  Epistle  to  the,  was  writ- 
ten by  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  toward  the  close 
of  his  nearly  three  years'  stay  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  xix.  10,  XX.  31),  which,  we  learn  from  i 
Cor.  xvi.  8,  probably  terminated  with  the 
Pentecost  of  A.  D.  57  or  58.  The  bearers  were 
probably  (according  to  the  common  subscrip- 
tion) Stephanus,  Fortunatus,  and  Achaicus, 
who  had  been  recently  sent  to  the  Apostle, 
and  who,  in  the  conclusion  of  this  epistle  (ch. 
xvi.  17)  are  especially  commended  to  the  hon- 
orable regard  of  the  church  of  Corinth.  This 
varied  and  highly  characteristic  letter  was  ad- 
dressed not  to  any  party,  but  to  the  whole 
body  of  the  large  (Acts  xviii.  8,  10),  Judaeo- 


Corinth. 


Gentile  (Acts  xviii.  4)  church  of  Corinth,  and 
appears  to  have  been  called  forth  by  the  in- 
formation the  Apostle  had  received  of  the  di- 
visions that  were  existing  in  the  Corinthian 
church.  The  Corinthian  church  was  planted 
by  the  Apostle  himself  (i  Cor.  iii.  6),  in  his 
second  missionary  journey  (Acts  xviii.  i,  sq.). 


He  abode  in  the  city  a  year  and  a  half  (ch. 
xviii.  11).  A  short  time  after  the  Apostle  had 
left  the  city  the  eloquent  Jew  of  Alexandria, 
Apollos,  went  to  Corinth  (Acts  xix,  i).  This 
circumstance  of  the  visit  of  Apollos  appears 
to  have  formed  the  commencement  of  a  grad- 
ual division  into  two  parties,  the  followers  of 
St.  Paul,  and  the  followers  of  Apollos  (comp. 
ch.  iv.  6).    These  divisions,  however,  were  to 


Remains  of  Ruined  Temple  at  Corinth. 

be  multiplied ;  for,  as  it  would  seem,  shortly 
after  the  departure  of  Apollos,  Judaizing  teach- 
ers, supplied  probably  with  letters  of  commen- 
dation (2  Cor.  ii.  i)  from  the  church  of  Jerusa- 
lem, appear  to  have  come  to  Corinth  and  to 
have  preached  the  Gospel  in  a  spirit  of  direct 
antagonism  to  St.  Paul  personally.  To  this 
third  party  we  may  perhaps  add  a  fourth,  that, 
under  the  name  of  "the  followers  of  Christ" 
(ch.  i.  12),  sought  at  first  to  separate  them- 
selves from  the  factious  adherence  to  particu- 
lar teachers,  but  eventually  were  driven  by 
antagonism  into  positions  equally  sectarian 
and  inimical  to  the  unity  of  the  church.  At 
this  momentous  period,  before  parties  had  be- 
come consolidated,  and  had  distinctly  with- 
drawn from  communion  with  one  another,  the 
Apostle  writes :  and  in  the  outset  of  the  epis- 
tle (ch.  i.-iv.  21)  we  have  his  noble  and  im- 
passioned protest  against  this  fourfold  rend- 
ing of  the  robe  of  Christ.  2.  The  number  of 
epistles  written  by  St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthian 
church  will  probably  remain  a  subject  of  con- 
troversy to  the  end  of  time.  The  well-known 
words  (ch.  v.  9)  do  certainly  seem  to  point  to 
some  former  epistolary  communication  to  the 
church  of  Corinth.  The  whole  context  seems 
in  favor  of  this  view,  though  the  Greek  com- 
mentators are  of  the  contrary  opinion,  and  no 
notice  has  been  taken  of  the  lost  epistle  by  any 
writers  of  antiquity. 

Corinthians,  Second  Epistle  to  the,  was  writ- 
ten a  few  months  subsequently  to  the  first,  in 


CORMORANT 


CORNER-STONE 


the  same  year, — about  the  autumn  of  A.  D. 
57  or  58,  a  short  time  previous  to  the  Apostle's 
three  months'  stay  in  Achaia  (Acts  xx.  3). 
The  epistle  was  occasioned  by  the  information 
which  the  Apostle  had  received  from  Titus, 
and  also,  as  it  would  certainly  seem  probable, 
from  Timothy,  of  the  reception  of  the  first 
epistle.  This  information,  as  it  would  seem 
from  our  present  epistle,  was  mainly  favor- 
able; the  better  part  of  the  church  were  re- 
turning back  to  their  spiritual  allegiance  to 
their  founder  (ch.  i.  13,  14,  vii.  9,  15,  16),  but 
there  was  still  a  faction  against  the  Apostle 
personally  (ch.  x.  i,  10),  and  more  strenuously 
denied  his  claim  to  Apostleship.  The  contents 
of  this  epistle  are  thus  very  varied,  but  may 
be  divided  into  three  parts:  ist,  the  Apostle's 
account  of  the  character  of  his  spiritual  labors, 
accompanied  with  notices  of  his  affectionate 
feelings  towards  his  converts  (ch.  i.-vii.)  ;  2dly, 
directions  about  the  collections  (ch.  viii.,  ix.)  ; 
3dly,  defence  of  his  own  Apostolical  character 
(ch.  x.-xiii.  10).  The  principal  historical  dif- 
ficulty connected  with  the  epistle  relates  to 


Tbc  Cormorant. 


the  number  of  visits  made  by  the  Apostle  to 
the  church  of  Corinth.  The  words  of  this 
epistle  (ch.  xii.  14,  xiii.  i,  2)  seem  distinctly  to 
imply  that  St.  Paul  had  visited  Corinth  twice 
before  the  time  at  which  he  now  writes.  St. 
Luke,  however,  only  mentions  one  visit  prior 
to  that  time  (Acts  xviii.  i,  sq.)  ;  for  the  visit 
recorded  in  Acts  xx.  2,  3,  is  confessedly  subse- 
quent. We  must  assume  that  the  Apostle 
made  a  visit  to  Corinth  which  St.  Luke  did  not 
record,  probably  during  the  period  of  his  three 
years'  residence  at  Ephesus. 

Cormorant.  The  name  of  an  uncleail  bird 
(Lev.  xi.  17;  Deut.  xiv.  17).  The  word  has 
been  variously  rendered.  The  etymology 
points  to  some  plunging  bird :   the  common 

8 


cormorant  is  unknown  in  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean ;  another  species  is  found  S.  of  the  Red 
Sea,  but  none  on  the  W.  coast  of  Palestine. 

Corn.  The  most  common  kinds  were  wheat, 
barley,  spelt  (A.  V.  Ex.  ix.  32,  and  Is.  xxviii. 
25,  "rie" ;  Ez.  iv.  9,  "fitches"),  and  millet;  oats 
are  mentioned  only  by  rabbinical  writers.  Corn- 
crops  are  still  reckoned  at  twentyfold  what 
was  sown,  and  were  anciently  much  more. 
"Seven  ears  on  one  stalk"  (Gen.  xli.  22)  is  no 
unusual  phenomenon  in  Egypt  at  this  day. 
The  many-eared  stalk  is  also  common  in  the 
wheat  of  Palestine,  and  it  is  of  course  of  the 
bearded  kind.  Wheat  (see  2  Sam.  iv.  6)  was 
stored  in  the  house  for  domestic  purposes.  It 
is  at  present  often  kept  in  a  dry  well,  and 
perhaps  the  "ground  corn"  of  2  Sam.  xvii.  19 
was  meant  to  imply  that  the  well  was  so  used. 
From  Solomon's  time  (2  Chr.  ii.  10,  15),  as 
agricvilture  became  developed  under  a  settled 
government,  Palestine  was  a  corn-exporting 
country,  and  her  grain  was  largely  taken  by 
her  commercial  neighbor  Tyre  (Ez.  xxvii.  17; 
comp.  Am.  viii.  5).  "Plenty  of  corn"  was  part 
of  Jacob's  blessing  (G^n.  xxviii.  28;  comp.  Ps. 
Ixv.  13).  _ 

Corne'lius,  a  Roman  centurion  of  the  Italian 
cohort  stationed  in  Caesarea  (Acts  x.  i,  &c.), 
a  man  full  of  good  works  and  alms-deeds. 
With  his  household  he  was  baptized  by  St. 
Peter,  and  thus  Cornelius  became  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  Gentile  world  to  Christ. 

Corner.  The  "corner"  of  the  field  was  not 
allowed  (Lev.  xix.  9)  to  be  wholly  reaped.  It 
formed  a  right  of  the  poor  to  carry  off  what 
was  so  left,  and  this  was  a  part  of  the  mainte- 
nance from  the  soil  to  which  that  class  were 
entitled.  .  On  the  principles  of  the  Mosaic 
polity  every  Hebrew  family  had  a  hold  on  a 
certain  fixed  estate,  and  could  by  no  ordinary 
and  casual  calamity  be  wholly  beggared. 
Hence  its  indigent  members  had  the  claims  of 
kindred  on  the  "corners,"  &c.,  of  the  field 
which  their  landed  brethren  reaped.  In  the 
later  period  of  the  prophets  their  constant  com- 
plaints concerning  the  defrauding  the  poor  (Is. 
x.  2;  Am.  V.  II,  viii.  6)  seem  to  show  that  such 
laws  had  lost  their  practical  force.  Still  later, 
under  the  Scribes,  minute  legislation  fixed  one 
sixtieth  as  the  portion  of  a  field  which  was  to 
be  left  for  the  legal  "corner."  The  proportion 
being  thus  fixed,  all  the  grain  might  be  reaped, 
and  enough  to  satisfy  the  regulation  subse- 
quently separated  from  the  whole  crop.  This 
"corner"  was,  like  the  gleaning,  tithe-free. 

Corner-stone,  a  quoin  of  corner-stone,  of 
great  importance  in  binding  together  the  sides 
of  a  building.    The  phrase  "corner-stone"  is 
sometimes  used  to  denote  any  principal  per- 
il 


CORNET 


CRANE 


Son,  as  the  princes  of  Egypt  (Is.  xix.  13),  and 
is  thus  appHed  to  our  Lord  (Is.  xxviii.  16; 
Matt.  xxi.  42;  I  Pet.  ii.  6,  7). 

Cornet,  a  loud-sounding  instrument',  made 
of  the  horn  of  a  rani  or  of  a  chamois  (some- 
times of  an  ox),  and  used  by  the  ancient  He- 
brews for  signals,  for  announcing  the  "Jubilee" 
(Lev.  XXV.  9),  for  proclaiming  the  new  year, 
for  the  purposes  of  war  (Jer.  iv.  5,  19;  comp. 
Job.  xxxix.  25),  as  well  as  for  the  sentinels 
placed  at  the  watch-towers  to  give  notice  of 
the  approach  of  an  enemy  (Ez.  xxxiii.  4,  5). 
The  sounding  of  the  cornet  was  the  distin- 
guishing ritual  feature  of  the  festival  appointed 
by  Moses  to  be  held  on  the  first  day  of  the 
seventh  month  under  the  denomination  of  "a 
day  of  blowing  trumpets"  (Num.  xxix.  i),  or 
"memorial  of  blowing  of  trumpets"  (Lev.  xxiii. 
24)..    [Trumpets,  Feasts  of.] 

Cos  or  Co'os  (now  Stanchio  or  Stanko). 
This  small  island  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago 
has  several  interesting  points  of  connection 
with  the  Jews.  It  is  specified  as  one  of  the 
places  which  contained  Jewish  residents  (i 
Mace.  XV.  23).  Julius  Caesar  issued  an  edict 
in  favor  of  the  Jews  of  Cos.  Herod  the  Great 
conferred  many  favors  on  the  island.  St.  Paul, 
on  the  return  from  his  third  missionary  jour- 
ney, passed  the  night  here,  after  sailing  from 
Miletus.  The  chief  town  (of  the  same  name) 
was  on  the  N.  E.  near  a  promontory  called 
Scandarium  ;  and  perhaps  it  is  to  the  town  that 
reference  is  made  in  the  Acts  (xxi.  i). 

Cotton,  Cotton  is  now  both  grown  and 
manufactured  in  various  parts  of  Syria  and 
Palestine ;  but  there  is  no  proof  that,  till  the}^ 
came  in  contact  with  Persia,  the  Hebrews  gen- 
erally knew  of  it  as  a  distinct  fabric  from 
linen.  [Linen.] 

Couch.  [Bed.] 

Council.  I.  The  great  council  of  the  San- 
hedrim, which  sat  at  Jerusalem.  [Sanhedrum.] 

Covenant.  Primarily  "a  cutting,"  with  ref- 
erence to  the  custom  of  cutting  or  dividing 
animals  in  two,  and  passing  between  the  parts 
in  ratifying  a  covenant  (Gen.  xv. ;  Jer.  xxxiv. 
18,  19).  In  its  Biblical  meaning  of  a  compact 
or  agreement  between  two  parties,  the  word  is 
used — I.  Improperly,  of  a  covenant  between 
God  and  man.  Man  not  being  in  any  way  in 
the  position  of  an  independent  covenanting 
party,  the  phrase  is  evidently  used  by  way  of 
accommodation.  Strictly  speaking,  such  a 
covenant  is  quite  unconditional,  and  amounts 
to  a  promise  (Gal.  iii.  15,  f¥.)  or  act  of  mere 
favor  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  28).  Thus  the  assurance 
given  by  God  after  the  Flood,  that  a  like 
judgment  should  not  be  repeated,  and  that  the 
recurrence  of   the  seasons,  and  of  day  and 


night,  should  not  cease,  is  called  a  covenant 
(Gen.  ix. ;  Jer.  xxxiii.  20).  Consistently  with 
this  representation  of  God's  dealings  with  man 
under  the  form  of  a  covenant,  such  covenant 
is  said  to  be  confirmed,  in  conformity  to  hu- 
man custom,  by  an  oath  (Deut.  iv.  31 ;  Ps. 
Ixxxix.  3),  to  be  sanctioned  by  curses  to  fall 
upon  the  uitfaithful  (Deut.  xxix.  21),  and  to  be 
accompanied  by  a  sign,  such  as  the  rainbow 
(Gen.  ix.),  circumcision  (Gen.  xvii.),  or  the 
Sabbath  (Ex.  xxxi.  16,  17).  2.  Properly,  of  a 
covenant  between  man  and  man,  i.  e.,  a  solemn 
compact  or  agreement,  either  between  tribes 
or  nations  (1  Sam.  xi.  i;  Josh.  ix.  6,  15),  or 
between  individuals  (Gen.  xxxi.  44),  by  which 
each  party  bound  himself  to  fulfil  certain  con- 
ditions, and  was  assured  of  receiving  certain 
advantages.  In  making  such  a  covenant  God 
was  solemnly  invoked  as  witness  (Gen.  xxxi. 
50),  and  an  oath  was  sworn  (Gen.  xxi.  31).  A 
sign  or  witness  of  the  covenant  was  sometimes 
framed,  such  as  a  gift  (Gen.  xxi.  30),  or  a  pil- 
lar, or  heap  of  stones  erected  (Gen.  xxxi.  52). 
The  marriage  compact  is  called  "the  covenant 


The  Crane. 

of  God"  (Prov.  ii.  17;  see  Mai.  ii.  14).  The 
word  covenant  came  to  be  applied  to  a  sure 
ordinance,  such  as  that  of  the  shew-bread 
(Lev.  xxiv.  8)  ;  and  is  used  figuratively  in  such 
expressions  as  a  covenant  with  death  (Is. 
xxviii.  18),  or  with  the  wild  beasts  (Hos.  ii. 
18).  . 
Cow.  [Bull.] 

Crane.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
A.  V.  is  incorrect  in  rendering  sus  by  "crane," 
which  bird  is  probably  intended  by  the  Hebrew 
word  'agiir,  translated  "swallow,"  by  the  A.  V. 
[Swallow.]  Mention  is  made  of  the  sus  in 
Hezekiah's  prayer  (Is.  xxxviii.  14),  "Like  a 
sus  or  an  'agiar  so  did  I  twitter;"  and  again  in 


82 


THE  LIBRARY 


CRETE 


CROSS 


Jer.  viii.  7  these  two  words  occur  in  the  same 
order,  from  which  passage  we  learn  that  both 
birds  were  migratory.  According  to  the  testi- 
mony of  most  of  the  ancient  versions,  siis  de- 
notes a  "swallow." 

Crete,  the  modern  Candia.  This  large  island, 
which  closes  in  the  Greek  Archipelago  on  the 
S.,  extends  through  a  distance  of  140  miles  be- 
tween its  extreme  points  of  Cape  Salmone 
(Acts  xxvii.  7")  on  t^c  E.  and  Cape  Criumeto- 


Tiew  of  Crete. 

pon  beyond  Phoenice  or  Phoenix  (ilj.  12)  on 
the  W.  Though  extremely  bold  and  mountain- 
ous, this  island  has  very  fruitful  valleys,  and  in 
early  times  it  was  celebrated  for  its  hundred 
cities.  It  seems  likely  that  a  very  early  ac- 
quaintance existed  between  the  Cretans  and 
the  Jews.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Jews  were 
settled  in  the  island  in  considerable  numbers 
during  the  period  between  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  and  the  final  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  Gortyna  seems  to  have  been  their 
chief  residence  (i  Mace.  xv.  23).  Thus  the 
special  mention  of  Cretans  (Acts  ii.  11)  among 
those  who  were  at  Jerusalem  at  the  great 
Pentecost  is  just  what  we  should  expect.  No 
notice  is  given  in  the  Acts  of  any  more  direct 
evangelization  of  Crete ;  and  no  absolute  proof 


can  be  adduced  that  St.  Paul  was  ever  there 
before  his  voyage  from  Caesarea  to  Puteoli. 
The  circumstances  of  St.  Paul's  recorded  visit 
were  briefly  as  follows:  The  wind  being  con- 
trary when  he  was  off  Cnidus  (Acts  xxvii.  7), 
the  ship  was  forced  to  run  down  to  Cape  Sal- 
mone, and  thence  under  the  lee  of  Crete  to 
Fair  Havens,  which  was  near  a  city  called 


Lasaea  (ver.  8).  Thence,  after  some  delay, 
an  attempt  was  made,  on  the  wind  becoming 
favorable,  to  reach  Phoenice  for  the  purpose 
of  wintering  there  (ver.  12).  The  next  point 
of  connection  between  St.  Paul  and  this  island 
is  found  in  the  Epistle  to  Titus.  It  is  evident 
from  Tit.  i.  5,  that  the  Apostle  himself  was 
here  at  no  long  interval  of  time  before  he 
wrote  the  letter.  In  the  course  of  the  letter 
(Tit.  i.  12)  St.  Paul  adduces  from  Epimenides, 
a  Cretan  sage  and  poet,  a  quotation  in  which 
the  vices  of  his  countrymen  are  described  in 
dark  colors.  The  truth  of  their  statement  is 
abundantly  confirmed  by  other  ancient  writers. 

Cross.  As  the  emblem  of  a  slave's  death 
and  a  murderer's  punishment,  the  cross  was 
naturally  looked  upon  with  the  profoundest 
horror.  But  after  the  celebrated  vision  of  Con- 
stantine,  he  ordered  his  friends  to  make  a  cross 
of  gold  and  gems,  such  as  he  had  seen,  and 
"the  towering  eagles  resigned  the  flags  unto 
the  cross,"  and  "the  tree  of  cursing  and  shame" 
"sat  upon  the  sceptres  and  was  engraved  and 
signed  on  the  foreheads  of  kings"  (Jer.  Taylor, 
Life  of  Christ,  iii.  xv.  i).  The  new  standards 
were  called  by  the  name  Labarum,  and  may 


Three  Forms  of  the  Cross. 


be  seen  on  the  coins  of  Constantine  the  Great 
and  his  nearer  successors.  The  Latin  cross,  on 
which  our  Lord  sufifered,  was  in  the  form  of  the 
letter  T,  and  had  an  upright  above  the  cross- 
bar, on  which  the  "title"  was  placed.  There 
was  a  projection  from  the  central  stem,  on 
which  the  body  of  the  sufferer  rested.  This 
was  to  prevent  the  weight  of  the  body  from 
tearing  away  the  hands.  Whether  there  was 
also  a  support  to  the  feet  (as  we  see  in  pic- 
tures), is  doubtful.  An  inscription  was  gen- 
erally placed  above"  the  criminal's  head,  briefly 
expressing  his  guilt,  and  generally  was  carried 
before  him.  It  was  covered  with  white 
gypsum,  and  the  letters  were  black.  It  is  a 
question  whether  tying  or  binding  to  the  cross 
was  the  more  common  method.  That  our 
Lord  was  nailed,  according  to  prophecy,  is  cer- 
tain (John  XX.  25,  27,  &c. ;  Zech.  xii.  10;  Ps. 
xxii.  16).  It  is,  however,  extremely  probable 
that  both  methods  were  used  at  once.  The 
cross  on  which  our  Saviour  suffered  is  said 
to  have  been  discovered  in  A,  D.  326,  and  to 


CROWN 


CRUCIFIXION 


this  day  the  supposed  title,  or  rather  fragments 
of  it,  are  shown  to  the  people  once  a  year  in 
the  Church  of  Sta.  Croce  in  Gerusalemme  at 
Rome.  It  was  not  till  the  6th  century  that  the 
emblem  of  the  cross  became  the  image  of  the 
crucifix.  As  a  symbol  the  use  of  it  was  fre- 
quent in  the  early  Church.  It  was  not  till 
the  2d  century  that  any  particular  efficacy  was 
attached  to  it.  [Crucifixion.] 

Crown.  This  ornament,  which  is  both  an- 
cient and  universal,  probably  originated  from 
the  fillets  used  to  prevent  the  hair  from  being 
dishevelled  by  the  wind.  Such  fillets  are  still 
common,  and  they  may  be  seen  on  the  sculp- 
tures of  Persepolis,  Nineveh,  and  Egypt ;  they 
gradually  developed  into  turbans,  which  by 
the  addition  of  ornamental  or  precious  mate- 
rials assumed  the  dignity  of  mitres  or- crowns. 
Both  the  ordinary  priests  and  the  high-priest 
wore  them.  Tlae  common  "bonnet"  (Ex. 
xxviii.  37,  xxix,  6,  &c.),  formed  a  part  of  linen 
fillet  or  crown.  The  mitre  of  the  high-priest 
(used  also  of  a  regal  crown,  Ez.  xxi.  26)  was 
much  more  splendid  (Ex.  xxviii,  36;  Lev.  viii. 
9).   It  had  a  second  fillet  of  blue  lace,  and  over 


CROWNS. 

1,  Crown  of  Upper  Egypt ;  2,  Crown  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Egypt  United  ;  3,  Assyrian  Crown  from  Ninevah  Moun- 
tains ;  4,  Laurel  Crown ;  5,  Crown  of  Herod  the  Great ; 
6,  Crown  of  Aretas,  King  of  Arabia. 

it  a  golden  diadem  (Ex.  xxix.  6).  The  gold 
band  was  tied  behind  with  blue  lace  (em- 
broidered with  flowers),  and  being  two  fingers 
broad,  bore  the  inscription  "Holiness  to  the 
Lord"  (comp.  Rev.  xvii.  5).  There  are  many 
words  in  Scripture  denoting  a  crown  besides 
those  mentioned :  the  head-dress  of  bride- 
grooms (Is.  Ixi.  10;  Bar.  v.  2;  Ez.  xxiv.  17), 
and  of  women  (Is.  iii.  20)  ;  a  head-dress  of 
great  splendor  (Is.  xxviii.  5)  ;  a  wreath  of  flow- 
ers (Prov.  i.  9,  iv.  9)  ;  and  a  common  tiara  or 
turban  (Job.  xxix.  14;  Is.  iii.  23).  The  gen- 
eral word  is  'atarah,  and  we  must  attach  to  it 
the  notion  of  a  costly  turban  irradiated  w\th 
pearls  and  gems  of  priceless  value,  which  often 
form  aigrettes  for  feathers,  as  in  the  crowns 


of  modern  Asiatic  sovereigns.  Such  was  prob- 
ably the  crown,  which  with  its  precious  stones 
weighed  (or  rather  "was  worth")  a  talent, 
taken  by  David  from  the  king  of  Ammon  at 
Rabbah,  and  used  as  the  state  crown  of  Judah 
(2  Sam.  xii.  30).  In  Rev.  xii.  3,  xix.  12,  allusion 
is  made  to  "many  crowns"  worn  in  token  of 
extended  dominion.  The  laurel,  pine,  or  pars- 
ley crowns  given  to  victors  in  the- great  games 
of  Greece  are  finely  alluded  to  by  St.  Paul  (i 
Cor.  ix.  25;  2  Tim.  ii.  5,  &c.). 

Crown  of  Thorns,  Matt,  xxvii.  29.  Our  Lord 
was  crowned  with  thorns  in  mockery  by  the 
Roman  soldiers.  The  object  seems  to  have 
been  insult,  and  not  the  infliction  of  pain,  as 
has  generally  been  supposed.  The  Rhamnus 
or  Spina  Christi,  although  abundant  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Jerusalem,  cannot  be  the 
plant  intended,  because  its  thorns  are  so 
strong  and  large  that  it  could  not  have  been 
woven  into  a  wreath.  Had  the  acacia  been 
intended,  as  some  suppose,  the  phrase  would 
have  been  different.  Obviously  some  small 
flexile  thorny  shrub  is  meant;  perhaps  Cap- 
paris  spinoza. 

Crucifixion  was  in  use  among  the  Egyptians 
(Gen.  xl.  19),  the  Carthaginians,  the  Persians 
(Esth.  vii.  10),  the  Assyrians,  Scythians,  In- 
dians, Germans,  and  from  the  earliest  times" 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Whether  this 
mode  of  execution  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Jews  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  Probably  the  Jews 
borrowed  it  from  the  Romans.  It  was  unani- 
mously considered  the  most  horrible  form  of 
death.  Among  the  Romans  also  the  degrada- 
tion was  a  part  of  the  infliction,  and  the  pun- 
ishment if  applied  to  freemen  was  only  used 
in  the  case  of  the  vilest  criminals.  Our  Lord 
was  condemned  to  it  by  the  popular  cry  of 
the  Jews  (Matt,  xxvii.  23)  on  the  charge  of 
sedition  against  Caesar  (Luke  xxiii.  2),  al- 
though the  Sanhedrim  had  previously  con- 
demned him  on  the  totally  distinct  charge  of 
blasphemy.  The  scarlet  robe,  -crown  of  thorns, 
and  other  insults  to  which  our  Lord  was  sub- 
jected were  illegal,  and  arose  from  the  sponta- 
neus  petulance  of  the  brutal  soldiery.  But  the 
punishment  properly  commenced  with  scourg- 
ing, after  the  criminal  had  been  stripped.  It 
was  inflicted  not  with  the  comparatively  mild 
rods,  but  the  more  terrible  scourge  (2  Cor.  xi. 
24,  25),  which  was  not  used  by  the  Jews 
(Deut.  XXV.  3).  Into  these  scourges  the  sol- 
diers often  stuck  nails,  pieces  of  bone,  &c.,  to 
heighten  the  pain,  which  was  often  so  intense 
that  the  sufferer  died  under  it.  In  our  Lord's 
case,  however,  this  infliction  seems  neither  to 
have  been  the  legal  scourging  after  sentence, 
nor  yet  the  examination  by  torture  (Acts  xxii. 


84 


THE  l!B"ARy 
OF  m 


1 


CRUSE 


CUPBEARER 


24),  but  rather  a  scourging  before  the  sen- 
tence, to  excite  pity  and  procure  immunity 
irom  further  punishment  (Luke  xxiii.  22;  John 
xix.  i).  The  criminal  carried  his  own  cross, 
or  at  any  rate  a  part  of  it.  The  place  of  execu- 
tion was  outside  the  city  (i  K.  xxi.  13;  Acts 
vii.  58;  Heb.  xiii.  12),  often  in  some  public  road 
or  other  conspicuous  place.  Arrived  at  the 
place  of  execution,  the  sufferer  was  stripped 
nakecj,  the  dress  being  the  perquisite  of  the 
soldiers  (Matt,  xxvii.  35).  The  cross  was  then 
driven  into  the  ground,  so  that  the  feet  of  the 
condemned  were  a  foot  or  two  above  the  earth, 
and  he  was  lifted  upon  it,  or  else  stretched 
upon  it  on  the  ground,  and  then  lifted  with  it. 
Before  the  nailing  or  binding  took  place,  a 
medicated  cup  was  given  out  of  kindness  to 
confuse  the  senses  and  deaden  the  pangs  of  the 
sufferer  (Prov.  xxxi.  6),  usually  "of  wine  min- 
gled with  myrrh,"  because  myrrh  was  sopo- 
rific. Our  Lord  refused  it,  -that  his  senses 
might  be  clear  (ISIatt.  xxvii.  34;  Mark  xv.  23). 
He  was  crucified  between  two  "thieves"  or 
"malefactors,"  according  to  prophecy  (Is.  liii. 
12)  ;  and  was  watched,  according  to  custom, 
by  a  party  of  four  soldiers  (John  xix.  23)  with 
their  centurion  (^latt.  xxvii.  66),  whose  ex- 
press office  was  to  prevent  the  stealing  of  the 
body.  This  was  necessary  from  the  lingering 
character  of  the  death,  which  sometimes  did 
not  supervene  even  for  three  days,  and  was  at 
last  the  result  of  gradual  benumbing  and 
starvation.  But  for  this  guard,  the  persons 
might  have  been  taken  down  and  recovered, 
as  was  actually  done  in  the  case  of  a  friend  of 
Josephus.  Fracture  of  the  legs  was  especially 
adopted  by  the  Jews  to  hasten  death  (John 
xix.  31).  But  the  unusual  rapidity  of  our 
Lord's  death  was  due  to  the  depth  of  His  pre- 
vious agonies,  or  may  be  sufficiently  accounted 
for  simply  from  peculiarities  of  constitution. 
Pilate  expressly  satisfied  himself  of  the  actual 
death  by  questioning  the  centurion  (Mark  xv. 
44).  In  most  cases  the  body  was  suffered  to 
rot  on  the  cross  by  the  action  of  sun  and  rain, 
or  to  be  devoured  by  birds  and  beasts.  Sepul- 
ture was  generally,  therefore,  forbidden ;  but 
in  consequence  of  Deut.  xxi.  22,  23,  an  express 
national  exception  was  made  in  favor  of  the 
Jews  (Matt,  xxvii.  58).  This  accursed  and 
awful  mode  of  punishment  was  happily  abol- 
ished by  Constantine. 

Cruse,  a  vessel  for  holding  water,  such  as 
was  carried  by  Saul  when  on  his  night  expe- 
dition after  David  (i  Sam.  xxvi.  11,  12,  16), 
and  by  Elijah  (i  K.  xix.  6). 

Crystal,  the  representative  in  the  A.  V.  of 
two  Hebrew  words,  i.  Zeciicith  occurs  only 
in  Job.  xxviii.  17,  where  "glass"  probably  is 


intended.  2.  Kerach  occurs  in  numerous  pass- 
ages in  the  O.  T.  to  denote  "ice,"  "frost,"  &c. ; 
but  once  only  (Ez.  i.  22),  as  is  generally  under- 
stood, to  signify  "crystal."  The  ancients  sup- 
posed rock-crystal  to  be  merely  ice  congealed 
by  intense  cold.  The  similarity  of  appearance 
between  ice  and  crystal  caused,  no  doubt,  the 
identity  of  the  terms  to  express  these  sub- 
stances. The  Greek  word  occurs  in  Rev.  iv.  6, 
xxi.  I.  It  may  mean  either  "ice"  or  "crystal." 
Cubit.  [Measures.] 

Cuckoo.  There  does  not  appear  to  be  any 
authority  for  this  translation  of  the  A.  V.;  the 
Heb.  word  occurs  twice  only  (Lev.  xi.  16; 
Deut.  xiv.  15),  as  the  name  of  some  unclean 
bird,  and  may  probably  indicate  some  of  the 
larger  petrels,  which  abound  in  the  east  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

Cucumbers.  This  word  occurs,  in  Num.  xi. 
5,  as  one  of  the  good  things  of  Egypt  for  which 
the  Israelites  longed.  There  is  no  doubt  as 
to  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew.  Egypt  pro- 
duces excellent  cucumbers.  This  plant  grows 
in  the  fertile  earth  around  Cairo  after  the  in- 
undation of  the  Nile,  and  not  elsewhere  in 
Egypt.  Great  quantities  are  grown  in  Pales- 
tine :  on  visiting  the  Arab  school  in  Jeru- 
salem, says  Mr.  Tristrane,  I  observed  that  the 
dinner  which  the  children  brought  with  them 
to  school  consisted,  without  exception,  of  a 
piece  of  barley-cake  and  a  raw  cucumber, 
which  they  eat  rind  and  all.  The  "lodge  in  a 
garden  of  cucumbers"  (Is.  i.  8)  is  a  rude  tem- 
porary shelter,  erected  in  the  open  grounds 
where  vines,  cucumbers,  gourds,  &c.,  are 
grown,  in  which  some  lonely  man  or  boy  is 
set  to  watch,  either  to  guard  the  plants  from 
robbers,  or  to  scarce  away  the  foxes  and  jack- 
als from  the  vines. 

Cup.  The  cups  of  the  Jews,  whether  of 
metal  or  earthenware,  were  possibly  borrowed, 
in  point  of  shape  and  design,  from  Egypt  and 
from  the  Phoenicians,  who  were  celebrated  in 
that  branch  of  workmanship.  Egyptian  cups 
were  of  various  shapes,  either  with  handles  or 
without  them.  In  Solomon's  time  all  his 
drinking  vessels  were  of  gold,  none  of  silver 
(i  K.  X.  21).  Babylon  is  compared  to  a  golden 
cup  (Jer.  li.  7).  The  great  laver,  or  "sea,"  was 
made  with  a  rim  like  the  rim  of  a  cup  (Cos), 
"with  flowers  of  lilies"  (i  K.  vii.  26),  a  form 
which  the  Persepolitan  cups  resemble.  The 
cups  of  the  N.  T.  were  often  no  doubt  formed 
on  Greek  and  Roman  models.  They  were 
sometimes  of  gold  (Rev.  xvii.  4). 

Cupbearer.  An  officer  of  high  rank  with 
Egyptian,  Persian,  Assyrian,  as  well  as  Jewish 
monarchs  (i  K.  x.  5).  The  chief  cupbearer,  or 
butler,  to  the  king  of  Egypt  was  the  means 


85 


CURTAINS 


CYPRUS 


of  raising  Joseph  to  his  high  position  (Gen. 
xl.  I,  21,  xli.  9).  Rabshakeh  appears  from  his 
name  to  have  filled  a  like  office  in  the  Assy- 
rian court  (2  K.  xviii.  17).  Nehemiah  was 
cupbearer  to  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  king  of 
Persia  (Neh.  i.  11,  ii.  i). 

Curtains.  The  Hebrew  terms  translated  in 
the  A.  V.  by  this  word  mean :  i.  The  ten  "cur- 
tains" of  fine  linen,  and  also  the  eleven  of 
goats'  hair,  which  covered  the  Tabernacle  of 
Moses  (Ex.  xxvi.  1-13;  xxxvi.  8-17).  2.  The 
"hanging"  for  the  doorway  of  the  tabernacle, 
Ex.  xxvi.  36,  &c.,  and  also  for  the  gate  of  the 
court  round  the  tabernacle,  Ex.  xxvii.  16,  &c. 

Cush,  a  Benjamite  mentioned  only  in  the 
title  to  Ps.  vii.  He  was  probably  a  follower 
of  Saul,  the  head  of  his  tribe. 

Cush,  the  name  of  a  son  of  Ham,  apparently 
the  eldest,  and  of  a. territory  or  territories  oc- 
cupied by  his  descendants.  The  Cushites 
appear  to  have  spread  along  tracts  extending 
from  the  higher  Nile  to  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris.  History  affords  many  traces  of  this 
relation  of  Babylonia,  Arabia,  and  Ethiopia. 
Zerah  the  Cushite  (A.  V.  "Ethiopian"),  who 
was  defeated  by  Asa,  was  most  probably  a 
king  of  Egypt,  certainly  the  leader  of  an  Egyp- 
tian army. 

Cutting  off  from  the  People.  [Excommuni- 
cation.] 

Cuttings  [in  the  Flesh].  The  prohibition 
(Lev.  xix.  28)  against  marks  or  cuttings  in 
the  flesh  for  the  dead  must  be  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  parallel  passages  (Lev.  xxi. 
5;  Deut.  xiv.  i),  in  which  shaving  the  head 
with  the  same  view  is  equally  forbidden.  But 
there  is  another  usage  contemplated  more  re- 
motely by  the  prohibition,  viz.,  that  of  print- 
ing marks,  tattooing,  to  indicate  allegiance  to 
a  deity,  in  the  same  manner  as  soldiers  and 
slaves  bore  tattooed  marks  to  indicate  alle- 
giance or  adscription.  This  is  evidently  allud- 
ed to  in  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  (xiii.  16, 
xvii.  5,  xix.  20),  and,  though  in  a  contrary  di- 
rection, by  Ezekiel  (ix.  4),  by  St.  Paul  (Gal. 
vi.  17),  in  the  Revelation  (vii.  3),  and  perhaps 
by  Isaiah  (xliv.  5)  and  Zechariah  (xiii.  6). 

Cymbal,  Cymbals,  a  percussive  musical  in- 
strument. Two  kinds  of  cymbals  are  men- 
tioned in  Ps.  cl.  5,  "loud  cymbals"  or  casta- 
gnettes,  and  "high-sounding  cymbals."  The 
former  consisted  of  four  small  plates  of  brass 
or  of  some  other  hard  metal ;  two  plates  were 
attached  to  each  hand  of  the  performer,  and 
were  struck  together  to  produce  a  great  noise. 
The  latter  consisted  of  two  larger  plates,  one 
held  in  each  hand,  and  struck  together  as  an 
accompaniment  to  other  instruments.  The  use 
of  cymbals  was  not  necessarily  restricted  to 


the  worship  of  the  Temple  or  to  sacred  occa- 
sions :  they  were  employed  for  military  pur- 
poses, and  also  by  Hebrew  women  as  a  musi- 
cal accompaniment  to  their  national  dances. 
Both  kinds  of  cymbals  are  still  common  in  the 
East  in  military  music,  and  Niebuhr  often  re- 
fers to  them  in  his  travels.  The  "bells"  of 
Zech.  xiv.  20  were  probably  concave  pieces  or 
plates  of  brass  which  the  people  of  Palestine 
and  Syria  attached  to  horses  by  way  of  orna- 
ment. 

Cypress  (Heb.  tirzah).  The  Heb.  word  is 
found  only  in  Is.  xliv.  14.  We  are  quite  unable 
to  assign  any  definite  rendering  to  it.  The  true 
cypress  is  a  native  of  the  Taurus.  The  He- 
brew word  points  to  some  tree  with  a  hard 
grain,  and  this  is  all  that  can  be  positively 
said  of  it. 

Cy'prus.  This  island  was  in  early  times  in 
close  commercial  connection  with  Phoenicia ; 
and  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  is  referred  to 
in  such  pasages  of  the  O.  T.  as  Ez.  xxvii.  6. 
[Chittim.]  Possibly  Jews  may  have  settled 
in  Cyprus  before  the  time  of  Alexander.  Soon 
after  his  time  they  were  numerous  in  the 
island,  as  is  distinctly  implied  in  i  Mace.  xv. 
23.  The  first  notice  of  it  in  the  N.  T.  is  in 
Acts  iv.  36,  where  it  is  mentioned  as  the  native 
place  of  Barnabas.    In  Acts  xi.  19,  20,  it  ap- 


Cypru!?. 

pears  prominently  in  connection  with  the  ear- 
liest spreading  of  Christianity,  and  is  again 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  missionary 
journeys  of  St.  Paul  (Acts  xiii.  4-13,  xv.  39, 
xxi.  3),  and  with  his  voyage  to  Rome  (xxvii. 
4).  The  island  became  a  Roman  province 
(B.  C.  58)  under  circumstances  discreditable  to 
Rome,  At  first  its  administration  was  joined 
with  that  of  Cilicia,  but  after  the  battle  of 
Actium  it  was  separately  governed.  In  the 
first  division  it  was  made  an  imperial  prov- 


86 


CYRENE 


DAMASCUS 


ince ;  but  the  emperor  afterwards  gave  it  up 
to  the  Senate.  The  proconsul  appears  to  have 
resided  at  Paphos,  on  the  west  of  the  island. 

Cyre'ne,  the  principal  city  of  that  part  of 
northern  Africa  which  was  anciently  called 
Cyrenaica.  This  district  was  separated  from 
the  territory  of  Carthage  on  the  one  hand,  and 
that  of  Egypt  on  the  other,  and  corresponding 
with  the  modern  Tripoli.  Though  on  the  Afri- 
can coast,  it  was  a  Greek  city ;  and  the  Jews 
were  settled  there  in  large  numbers.  The 
Greek  colonization  of  this  part  of  Africa  under 
Battus  began  as  early  as  B.  C.  631.  After  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  it  became  a  de- 
pendency of  Egypt.  Jewish  dwellers  in  Cyre- 
naica were  in  Jerusalem  at  Pentecost  (Acts  ii. 
10).  They  even  gave  their  name  to  one  of 
the  synagogues  in  Jerusalem  (ib.  vi.  9).  Chris- 
tian converts  from  Cyrene  were  among  those 
who  contributed  actively  to  the  formation  of 
the  first  Gentile  church  at  Antioch  (xi.  20). 
Lucius  of  Cyrene  (xiii.  i)  is  traditionally  said 
to  have  been  the  first  bishop  of  his  native  dis- 
trict. 


Coin  of  Cyrene. 

Cy'rus  (the  Sun),  founder  of  the  Persian 
empire  (see  Dan.  vi.  28,  X.  i,  13;  2  Chr.  xxxvi. 
22,  23),  was,  according  to  the  common  legend, 
the  son  of  Mandane,  the  daughter  of  Astyages, 
the  last  king  of  Media,  and  Cambyses,  a  Per- 
sian of  the  royal  family  of  the  Achaemenidae. 
\Mien  he  grew  up  to  manhood  his  courage  and 
genius  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  Persians. 
The  tyranny  of  Astyages  had  at  that  time 
alienated  a  large  faction  of  the  Medes,  and 
Cyrus  headed  a  revolt  which  ended  in  the  de- 
feat and  capture  of  the  Median  king,  B.  C.  559, 
near  Pasargadae.  After  consolidating  the  em- 
pire which  he  thus  gained,  Cyrus  entered  on 
that  career  of  conquest  which  has  made  him 
the  hero  of  the  east.  In  B.  C.  546  ( ?)  he  de- 
feated Croesus,  and  the  kingdom  of  Lydia  was 
the  prize  of  his  success.  I3abylon  fell  before 
his  army,  and  the  ancient  dominions  of  As- 
syria were  added  to  his  empire  (B.  C.  538). 
Afterwards  he  attacked  the  Massagetae,  and 
according  to  Herodotus  fell  in  a  battle  again.st 
them  B.  C.  529. 

D 

Da'gon,  apparently  the  masculine  (i  Sam.  v. 
3,  4)  correlative  of  Atargatis,  was  the  national 


god  of  the  Philistines.  The  most  famous  tem-. 
pies  of  Dagon  were  at  Gaza  (Judg.  xvi.  21-30) 
and  Ashdod  (i  Sam.  v.  5,  6;  i  Chr.  x.  10).  The 
latter  temple  was  destroyed  by  Jonathan  in 
the  Maccabaean  wars  (i  Mace.  x.  83,  84,  xi.  4). 
Traces  of  the  worship  of  Dagon  likewise  ap- 
pear in  the  names  Caphar-Dagon  (near  Jam- 


The  Fish  God. 

nia),  and  Beth-Dagon  in  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  41) 
and  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  27).  Dagon  was  repre- 
sented with  the  face  and  hands  of  a  man  and 
the  tail  of  a  fish  (i  Sam.  v.  5).  The  fish-like 
form  was  a  natural  emblem  of  fruitfulness,  and 
as  such  was  likely  to  be  adopted  by  seafaring 
tribes  in  the  representation  of  their  gods. 

Dalma'tia,  a  mountainous  district  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  "the  Adriatic  Sea,  extending 
from  the  river  Naro  in  the  S.  to  the  Savus  in 
the  N.  St.  Paul  sent  Titus  there  (2  Tim.  iv. 
10),  and  he  himself  had  preached  the  Gospel 
in  its  immediate  neighborhood  (Rom.  xv.  19). 

Damas'cus,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
most  important  of  the  cities  of  Syria.  It  is 
situated  in  a  plain  of  vast  size  and  of  extreme 
fertility,  which  lies  east  of  the  great  chain  of 
Anti-Libanus,  on  the  edge  of  the  desert.  This 
fertile  plain,  which  is  nearly  circular,  and 
about  30  miles  in  diameter,  is  due  to  the  river 


The  Eiist  Gate  of  Damascus. 


Barada,  which  is  probably  the  "Abana"  of 
Scripture.  Two  other  streams,  the  Wady  Hel- 
bon  upon  the  north,  and  the  Awaj  upon  the 
south,  which  flows  direct  from  Hermon,  in- 
crease the  fertility  of  the  Damascene  plain,  and 


87 


DAMASCUS 


DAN 


contend  for  the  honor  of  representing  the 
"Pharpar"  of  Scripture.  According  to  Jose- 
phiis,  Damascus  was  founded  by  Uz,  the  son 
of  Aram,  and  grandson  of  Shem.  It  is  first 
mentioned  in  Scripture  in  connection  with 
Abraham  (Gen.  xiv.  15),  whose  steward  was  a 
native  of  the  place  (xv.  2).    Nothing  more  is 


The  Great  Mosque  at  Damascus. 

known  of  Damascus  until  the  time  of  David, 
when  "the  Symans  of  Damascus  came  to  suc- 
cor Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah,"  with  whom 
David  was  at  war  (2  Sam.  viii.  5;  l  Chr.  xviii. 
5).  At  one  time  David  became  completely 
master  of  the  whole  territory,  which  he  garri- 
soned with  Israelites  (2  Sam.  viii.  6).  Damas- 
cus has  always  been  a  great  centre  for  trade. 
It  would  appear  from  Ez.  xxvii.  that  Damascus 
took  manufactured  goods  from  the  Phoeni- 
cians, and  supplied  them  in  exchange  with 


Wall  of  Damascus. 


wool  and  wine.  But  the  passage  trade  of  Da- 
mascus has  probably  been  at  all  times  more 
important  than  its  direct  commerce.  Certain 
localities  in  Damascus  are  shown  as  the  site 
of  those  Scriptural  events  which  especially  in- 
terest us  in  its  history. 


Dan  (A  Judge).  The  fifth  son  of  Jacob,  and 
the  first  of  Bilhah,  Rachel's  maid  (Gen.  xxx. 
6).  The  origin  of  the  name  is  given  in  the 
exclamation  of  Rachel — "God  hath  judged  me 
.  .  .  and  given  me  a  son ;  therefore  she  called 
his  name  Dan,"  i.  e.  "judge."  The  records  of 
Dan  are  unusually  meagre.  Only  one  son  is 
attributed  to  him  (Gen.  xlvi.  23)  ;  but  his  tribe 
was,  with  the  exception  of  Judah,  the  most 
numerous  of  all.  In  the  division  of  the  Prom- 
ised Land,  Dan  was  the  last  of  the  tribes  to 
receive  his  portion,  and  that  portion  was  the 
smallest  of  the  twelve  (Josh.  xix.  48).  But 
notwithstanding  its  smallness  it  had  eminent 
natural  advantages.  On  the  north  and  east  it 
was  completely  embraced  by  its  two  brother- 
tribes,  Ephraim  and  Benjamin,  while  on  the 


The  Street  called  Straight.  (Damascus.) 

south-east  and  south  it  joined  Judah,  and  was 
thus  surrounded  by  the  three  most  powerful 
states  of  the  whole  confederacy.  It  was  one 
of  the  most  fertile  in  the  whole  of  Palestine. 
But  this  rich  district,  the  corn-field  and  the 
garden  of  the  whole  south  of  Palestine,  was 
too  valuable  to  be  given  up  without  a  struggle 
by  its  original  possessors.  The  Amorites  ac- 
cordingly "force^d  the  children  of  Dan  into  the 
mountain"  (Judg.  i.  34),  and  they  had  another 
portion  granted  them  (Judg.  18).  In  the 
"security"  and  "quiet"  (Judg.  xviii.  7,  10)  of 
their  rich  northern  possession  the  Danites  en- 
joyed the  leisure  and  repose  which  had  been 
denied  them  in  their  original  seat.   In  the  time 


DANITES 


DANIEL 


of  David,  Dan  still  kept  its  place  among  the 
tribes  (l  Chr.  xii.  35).  Asher  is  omitted,  but 
the  "prince  of  the  tribe  of  Dan"  is  mentioned 
in  the  list  of  I  Chr.  xxvii.  22.  But  from  this 
time  forward  the  name  as  applied  to  the  tribe 
vanishes ;  it  is  kept  alive  only  by  the  northern 
city.  In  the  genealogies  of  i  Chr.  ii.-xii.,  Dan 
is  omitted  entirely.  Lastly,  Dan  is  omitted 
from  the  list  of  those  who  were  sealed  by  the 
Angel  in  the  vision  of  St.  John  (Rev.  vii.  5-7). 
2.  The  well-known  city,  so  familiar  as  the 
most  northern  landmark  of  Palestine,  in  the 
common  expression  "from  Dan  even  to  Beer- 
sheba."  The  name  of  the  place  was  originally 
Laish  or  Leshem  (Josh.  xix.  47).  After  the 
establishment  of  the  Danites  at  Dan  it  became 
the  acknowledged  extremity  of  the  country. 
The  Tell  el-Kadi,  a  mound  from  the  foot  of 
which  gushes  out  one  of  the  largest  fountains 
in  the  world,  the  main  source  of  the  Jordan, 
is  very  probably  the  site  of  the  town  and  cita- 
del of  Dan.  3.  Apparently  the  name  of  a  city, 
associated  with  Javan  as  one  of  the  places 
in  Southern  Arabia  from  which  the  Phoeni- 
cians obtained  wrought  iron,  cassia,  and  cala- 
mus (Ex.  xxvii.  19). 

Dan'ites,  The.  The  descendants  of  Dan, 
and  members  of  his  tribe  (Judg.  xiii.  2,  xviii.  i, 
II ;  I  Chr.  xii.  35). 

Dance.  The  dance  is  spoken  of  in  Holy 
Scripture  universally  as  symbolical  of  some 
rejoicing,  and  is  often  coupled,  for  the  sake  of 
contrast,  with  mourning,  as  in  Eccl.  iii.  4 
(comp.  Ps.  xxx.  11;  Matt.  xi.  17).  In  the  ear- 
lier period  it  is  found  combined  with  some 
song  or  refrain  (Ex.  xv.  20,  xxxii.  18,  19;  I 
Sam.  xxi.  11)  ;  and  with  the  tambourine  (A.  V. 
"timbrel"),  more  especially  in  those  impulsive 
outbursts  of  popular  feeling  which  cannot  find 
sufficient  vent  in  voice  or  in  gesture  singly. 
Dancing  formed  a  part  of  the  religious  cere- 
monies of  the  Egyptians,  and  was  also  com- 
mon in  private  entertainments.  The  "feast 
unto  the  Lord,"  which  Moses  proposed  to  Pha- 
raoh to  hold,  was  really  a  dance.  Women, 
however,  among  the  Hebrevvs  made  the  dance 
their  especial  means  of  expressing  their  feel- 
ings, and  so  welcomed  their  husbands  or 
friends  on  their  return  from  battle.  The  "eat- 
ing and  drinking  and  dancing"  of  the  Amal- 
ekites  is  recorded,  as  is  the  people's  "rising 
up  to  play,"  with  a  tacit  censure.  The  He- 
brews, however,  save  in  such  moments  of 
temptation,  seem  to  have  left  dancing  to  the 
women.  In  the  earlier  period  of  the  Judges 
the  dances  of  the  virgins  in  Shiloh  (Judg.  xxi. 
19-23)  were  certainly  part  of  a  religious  fes- 
tivity. Dancing  also  had  its  place  among 
merely  festive  amusements,  apart  from  any 

'  89 


religious  character  (Jer.  xxxi.  4,  13;  Lam.  v. 
15;  Mark  vi.  22;  Luke  xv.  25). 

Dance.  A  musical  instrument  of  percus- 
sion, supposed  to  have  been  used  by  the  He- 
brews at  an  early  period  of  their  history. 

Dan'iel  (Judgment  of  God),  i.  The  second 
son  of  David  by  Abigail  the  Carmelitess  (i 
Chr.  iii.  i).  In  2  Sam.  iii.  3,  he  is  called  Chileab. 
2.  The  fourth  of  "the  greater  prophets."  Noth- 
ing is  known  of  his  parentage  or  family.  He 
appears,  however,  to  have  been  of  royal  or 
noble  descent  (Dan.  i.  3),  and  to  have  pos- 
sessed considerable  personal  endowments 
(Dan.  i.  4).  He  was  taken  to  Babylon  in  "the 
third  year  of  Jehoiakim"  (B.  C.  604),  and 
trained  for  the  king's  service  with  his  three 
companions.  Like  Joseph  in  earlier  times,  he 
gained  the  favor  of  his  guardian,  and  was  di- 
vinely supported  in  his  resolve  to  abstain  from 
the  "king's  meat"  for  fear  of  defilement  (Dan. 

i.  8-16).  At  the  close  of  his  three  years'  disci- 
pline (Dan.  i.  5,  18),  Daniel  had  an  opportu- 
nity of  exercising  his  peculiar  gift  (Dan.  i.  17) 
of  interpreting  dreams,  on  the  occasion  of  Ne- 
buchadnezzar's decree  against  the  Magi  (Dan. 

ii.  14,  f¥.).  In  consequence  of  his  success  he 
was  made  "ruler  of  the  whole  province  of 
Babylon,"  and  "chief  of  the  governors  over  all 
the  wise  men  of  Babylon"  (ii.  48).  He  after- 
wards interpreted  the  second  dream  of  Ne- 
buchadnezzar (iv.  8-27),  and  the  handwriting 
on  the  wall  which  disturbed  the  feast  of  Bel- 
shazzar  (v.  10-28).  At  the  accession  of  Darius 
he  was  made  first  of  the  "three  presidents"  of 
the  empire  (Dan.  vi.  2),  and  was  delivered 
from  the  lions'  den,  into  which  he  had  been 
cast  for  his  faithfulness  to  the  rites  of  his 
faith  (vi.  10-23;  cf.  Bel  and  Dr.  29-42).  At  the 
accession  of  Cyrus  he  still  retained  his  pros- 
perity (vi.  28;  cf.  i.  21 ;  Bel  and  Dr.  2) ;  though 
he  does  not  appear  to  have  remained  at  Baby- 
lon (cf.  Dan.  i.  21),  and  in  "the  third  year  of 
Cyrus"  (B.  C.  534)  he  saw  his  last  recorded 
vision  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  (x.  I,  4).  In 
the  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  mention  is  made  of 
Daniel  as  a  pattern  of  righteousness  (xiv.  14, 
20)  and  wisdqm  (xxviii.  3).  The  narrative  in 
Dan.  i.  II  implies  that  Daniel  was  conspicu- 
ously distinguished  for  purity  and  knowledge 
at  a  very  early  age.  3.  A  descendant  of  Itha- 
mar,  who  returned  with  Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  2). 
4.  A  priest  who  sealed  the  covenant  drawn 
up  by  Nehemiah  B.  C.  445  (Neh.  x.  6).  He  is 
perhaps  the  same  as  No.  3. 

Dan'iel,  The  Book  of,  is  the  earliest  example 
of  apocalyptic  literature,  and  in  this  aspect 
it  stands  at  the  head  of  a  series  of  writings 
in  which  the  deepest  thoughts  of  the  Jewish 


DANIEL 


DARIUS 


people  found  expression  after  the  close  of  the 
prophetic  era.  Daniel  is  composed  partly  in 
the  vernacular  Aramaic  (Chaldee),  and  partly 
in  the  sacred  Hebrew.  The  introduction  (i.-ii. 
4  a)  is  written  in  Hebrew.  The  personal  in- 
troduction of  Daniel  as  the  writer  of  the  text 
(viii.  l)  is  marked  by  the  resumption  of  the 
Hebrew,  which  continues  to  the  close  of  the 
book  (viii.-xii.).  The  book  may  be  divided 
into  three  parts.  The  first  chapter  forms  an 
introduction.  The  next  six  chapters  (ii.-vii.) 
give  a  general  view  of  the  progressive  history 
of  the  powers  of  the  world,  and  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  divine  government  as  seen  in 
events  of  the  life  of  Daniel.  The  remainder 
of  the  book  (viii.-xii.)  traces  in  minuter  de- 
tail the  fortunes  of  the  people  of  God,  as  typi- 
cal of  the  fortunes  of  the  Church  in  all  ages. 
The  unity  of  the  book  in  its  present  form,  not- 
withstanding the  difiference  of  language,  is 
generally  acknowledged.  Still  there  is  a  re- 
markable difiference  in  its  internal  character. 
In  the  first  seven  chapters  Daniel  is  spoken 
of  historically  (i.  6-21,  ii.  14-49,  iv.  8-27,  v. 
13-29,  vi.  2-28,  vii.  I,  2)  :  in  the  last  five  he 
appears  personally- as  the  writer  (vii.  15-28, 
viii.  i-ix.  22,  X.  1-9,  xii.  5).  The  cause  of  the 
dif¥erence  of  person  is  commonly  supposed  to 
lie  in  the  nature  of  the  case.  It  is,  however, 
more  probable  that  the  peculiarity  arose  from 
the  manner  in  which  the  book  assumed  its 
final  shape.  The  book  exercised  a  great  influ- 
ence upon  the  Christian  Church.  Apart  from 
the  general  type  of  Apocalyptic  composition 
which  the  Apostolic  writers  derived  from  Dan- 
iel (2  Thess.  ii. ;  Rev.  passim :  cf.  Matt.  xxvi. 
64,  xxi.  44?),  the  New  Testament  incidentally 
acknowledges  each  of  the  characteristic  ele- 
ments of  the  book,  its  miracles  (Hebr.  xi.  33, 
34),  its  predictions  (Matt.  xxiv.  15),  and  its 
doctrine  of  angels  (Luke  i.  19,  26).  At  a  still 
earlier  time  the  same  influence  may  be  traced 
in  the  Apocrypha.  The  authenticity  of  the 
book  has  been  attacked  in  modern  times,  and 
its  composition  ascribed  to  the  times  of  the 
Maccabees :  but  in  doctrine  the  book  is  closely 
connected  with  the  writings  of  the  Exile,  and 
forms  a  last  step  in  the  development  of  the 
ideas  of  Messiah  (vii.  13,  &c.),  of  the  resur- 
rection (xii.  2,  3),  of  the  ministry  of  angels 
(viii.  16,  xii.  I,  &c.),  of  personal  devotion  (vi. 
ID,  II,  i.  8),  which  formed  the  basis  of  later 
speculations,  but  received  no  essential  addi- 
tion in  the  interval  before  the  coming  of  our 
Lord.  Generally  it  may  be  said  that  while 
the  book  presents  in  many  respects  a  startling 
and  exceptional  character,  yet  it  is  far  more 
difficult  to  explain  its  composition  in  the  Mac- 
cabaean  period  than  to  connect  the  peculiari- 


ties which  it  exhibits  with  the  exigencies  of 
the  Return. 

Daniel,  Apocryphal  Additions  to.  The  Greek 
translations  of  Daniel,  like  that  of  Esther,  con- 
tains several  pieces  which  are  not  found  in 
the  original  text.  The  most  important  of  these 
additions  are  contained  in  the  Apocrypha  of 
the  English  Bible  under  the  titles  of  The  Song 
of  the  Three  Holy  Children,  The  History  of 
Susannah,  and  The  History  of  .  .  .  Bel  and 
the  Dragon.  The  first  of  these  pieces  is  incor- 
porated into  the  narrative  of  Daniel.  Three 
confessors  were  thrown  into  the  furnace  (Dan. 
iii.  23),  Azarias  is  represented -praying  to  God 
for  deliverance  (Song  of  Three  Children,  3- 
22)  ;  and  in  answer  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
shields  them  from  the  fire  which  consumes 
their  enemies  (23-27),  whereupon  "the  three, 
as  out  of  one  mouth,"  raise  a  triumphant  song 
(29-68),  of  which  a  chief  part  (35-66)  has 
been  used  as  a  hymn  in  the  Christian  Church 
since  the  4th  century.  The  two  other  pieces 
appear  more  distinctly  as  appendices,  and  ofifer 
no  semblance  of  forming  part  of  the  original 
text.  The  History  of  Susannah  (or  The  Judg- 
ment of  Daniel)  is  generally  found  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  book,  though  it  also  occurs  after 
the  I2th  chapter.  The  History  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  book.  The 
character  of  these  additions  indicates  the  hand 
of  an  Alexandrine  writer;  and  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  the  translator  of  Daniel  wrought  up  tra- 
ditions which  were  already  current,  and  ap- 
pended them  to  his  work. 

Dari'us,  the  name  of  several  kings  of  Media 
and  Persia,  i.  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan.  xi.  i, 
vi.  i),  "the  son  of  Ahasuerus"  (ix.  i),  who 
succeeded  to  the  Babylonian  kingdom  on  the 
death  of  Belshazzar,  being  then  sixty-two 
years  old  (Dan.  v.  31;  xi.  i).  Only  one  year 
of  his  reign  is  mentioned  (Dan.  ix.  i,  xi.  i); 
but  that  was  of  great  importance  for  the  Jews. 
Daniel  was  advanced  by  the  king  to  the  high- 
est dignity  (Dan.  vi.  I,  if.),  probably  in  con- 
sequence of  his  former  services  (cf.  Dan.  v. 
17)  ;  and  after  his  miraculous  deliverance 
Darius  issued  a  decree  enjoining  throughout 
his  dominions  "reverence  for  the  God  of  Dan- 
iel" (Dan.  vi.  25,  ff.).  The  extreme  obscurity 
of  the  Babylonian  annals  has  given  occasion 
to  different  hypotheses  as  to  the  name  under 
which  Darius  the  Mede  is  known  in  history; 
but  he  is  probably  the  same  as  "Astyages,"  the 
last  king  of  the  Medes.  2.  Darius,  the  son 
of  Hystaspes,  the  founder  of  the  Perso-Arian 
dynasty.  Upon  the  usurpation  of  the  Magian 
Smerdis,  he  conspired  with  six  other  Persian 
chiefs  to  overthrow  the  impostor,  and  on  the 
success  of  the  plot  was  placed  upon  the  throne, 


90 


DARKNESS 


DAVID 


B.  C.  521.  His  designs  of  foreign  conquest 
were  interrupted  by  a  revolt  of  the  Babylo- 
nians. After  the  subjugation  of  Babylon, 
Darius  turned  his  arms  against  Scythia,  Libya, 
and  India.  The  defeat  of  Marathon  (B.  C. 
490)  only  roused  him  to  prepare  vigorously 
for  that  decisive  struggle  with  the  West  which 
was  now  inevitable.  His  plans  were  again 
thwarted  by  rebellion.  With  regard  to  the 
Jews,  Darius  Hystaspes  pursued  the  same  pol- 
icy as  Cyrus,  and  restored  to  them  the  privi- 
leges which  they  had  lost  (Ezr.  v.  i,  &c. ;  vi.  i, 
&c.).  3.  Darius  the  Persian  (Xeh.  xii.  22) 
may  be  identified  with  Darius  II.  Xothus 
(Ochus),  king  of  Persia  B.  C.  424-3  to  405'-4, 
if  the  whole  passage  in  question  was  written 
by  Xchemiah.  If,  however,  the  register  was 
continued  to  a  later  time,  as  is  not  improba- 
ble, the  occurrence  of  the  name  Jaddua  (vv. 
II,  22)  points  to  Darius  III.  Codomannus, 
the  antagonist  of  Alexander,  and  last  king  of 
Persia,  B.  C.  336-330  (i  Mace.  i.  1). 

Darkness  is  spoken  of  as  encompassing  the 
actual  presence  of  God,  as  that  out  of  which 
he  speaks,  the  envelope,  as  it  were,  of  Divine 
glory  (Ex.  xx.  21  ;  i  K.  viii.  12).  The  plague 
of  Darkness  in  Eg\'pt  has  been  ascribed  by 
various  commentators  to  non  -  miraculous 
agency,  but  no  sufficient  account  of  its  intense 
degree,  long  duration,  and  limited  area,  as  pro- 
ceeding from  any  physical  cause,  has  been 
given.  The  darkness  "over  all  the  land"  (Matt, 
xxvii.  45)  attending  the  crucifixion  has  been 
similarly  attributed  to  an  eclipse.  Phlegon  of 
Tralles  indeed  mentions  an  eclipse  of  intense 
darkness,  which  began  at  noon,  and  was  com- 
bined, he  says,  in  Bithynia,  with  an  earth- 
quake, which  in  the  uncertain  state  of  our 
chronology  more  or  less  nearly  synchronizes 
with  the  event.  Darkness  is  also,  as  in  the 
expression  "land  of  darkness,"  used  for  the 
state-  of  the  dead  (Job  x.  21,  22)  ;  and  fre- 
f|uently  figuratively,  for  ignorance  and  unbe- 
lief, as  the  privation  of  spiritual  light  (John  i. 
5,  iii.  19). 

Dates,  2  Chr.  xxxi.  5,  marg.  [Palm  Tree.] 
Daughter,  i.  The  word  is  used  in  Scripture 
not  only  for  daughter,  but  for  granddaughter 
or  other  female  descendant,  much  in  the  same 
way  and  like  extent  with  "son"  (Gen.  xxiv.  48, 
xxxi.  43).  2.  The  female  inhabitants  of  a 
place,  a  country,  or  the  females  of  a  particular 
race  are  called  daughters  (Gen.  vi.  2,  xxvii. 
46,  xxviii.  6,  xxxvi.  2;  Num.  xxv.  i;  Deut. 
xxiii.  17;  Is.  iii.  16;  Jer.  xlvi.  it,  xlix.  2,  3,  4; 
Luke  xxiii.  28).  3.  The  same  notion  of  descent 
explains  the  phrase  "daughters  of  music,"  i.  e. 
singing  birds  (Eccl.  xii.  4),  and  the  use  of  the 
word  for  branches  of  a  tree  (Gen.  xlix.  22),  the 


pupil  of  the  eye  (Lam.  ii.  18;  Ps.  xvii.  8),  ana 
the  expression  "daughter  of  90  years,"  to  de- 
note the  age  of  Sarah  (Gen.  xvii.  17).  '4.  It 
is  also  used  of  cities  in  general  (Is.  x.  32,  xxiii. 
12;  Jer.  vi.  2,  26;  Zech.  ix.  9).  5.  But  more 
specifically  of  dependent  towns  or  hamlets, 
while  to  the  principal  city  the  correlative 
"mother"  is  applied  (Num.  xxi.  25;  Josh.  xvii. 
II,  16;  Judg.  i.  27;  I  Chr.  vii.  28;  2  Sam. 
XX.  19). 

David  (well-beloved),  the  son  of  Jesse.  His 
life  may  be  divided  into  three  portions  : — I.  His 
youth  before  his  introduction  to  the  court  of 
Saul.  II.  His  relations  with  Saul.  III.  His 
reign. — I.  The  early  life  of  David  contains  in 
many  important  respects  the  antecedents  of  his 
future  career,  i.  David  was  the  youngest  son, 
probably  the  youngest  child,  of  a  family  of 
ten,  and  was  born  in  Bethlehem,  B.  C.  1085. 
His  mother's  name  is  unknown.  His  father, 
Jesse,  was  of  a  great  age  when  David  was  still 
young  (i  Sam.  xvii.  12).    The  first  time  that 


The  Tomb  of  David. 

David  appears  in  history  at  once  admits  us 
to  the  whole  family  circle.  There  was  a  prac- 
tice once  a  year  at  Bethlehem,  proliably  at  the 
first  new  moon  of  the  year,  of  holding  a  sacri- 
ficial feast,  at  which  Jesse,  as  the  chief  pro- 
prietor of  the  place,  would  preside  (i  Sam.  xx. 
6),  with  the  elders  of  the  town.  At  this  or 
such  like  feast  (xvi.  i)  suddenly  appeared  the 
great  prophet  Samuel,  driving  a  heifer  before 
him,  and  having  in  his  hand  a  horn  of  the 
consecrated  oil  of  the  Tabernacle.  The  heifer 
was  killed.  The  party  were  waiting  to  begin 
the  feast.  Samuel  stood  with  his  horn  to  pour 
forth  the  oil,  as  if  for  an  invitation  to  begin 
(comp.  ix.  22).  He  was  restrained  by  divine 
intimation  as  son  after  son  passed  by.  Eliab, 
the  eldest,  by  "his  height"  and  "his  counte- 
nance," seemed  the  natural  counterpart  of 
Saul,  whose   rival,  unknown    to    them,  the 


91 


DAVID 


DAVID 


prophet  came  to  select.  But  the  day  was  gone 
when  kings  were  chosen  because  they  were 
head  and  shoulders  taller  than  the  rest.  "Sam- 
uel said  unto  Jesse,  Are  these  all  thy  chil- 
dren? And  he  said,  There  remaineth  yet  the 
youngest,  and  behold  he  keepeth  the  sheep." 
This  is  our  first  and  most  characteristic  intro- 
duction to  the  future  king.  The  boy  was 
brought  in.  We  are  enabled  to  fix  his  appear- 
ance at  once  in  our  minds.  He  was  of  short 
stature,  with  red  or  auburn  hair,  such  as  is  not 
unfrequently  seen  in  his  countrymen  of  the 
East  at  the  present  day.  In  later  life  he  wore 
a  beard.  His  bright  eyes  are  especially  men- 
tioned (xvi.  12),  and  generally  he  was  remark- 
able for  the  grace  of  his  figure  and  counte- 
nance ("fair  of  eyes,"  "comely,"  "goodly,"  xvi. 
12,  18,  xvii.  42),  well  made,  and  of  immense 
strength  and  agility.  His  swiftness  and  activ- 
ity made  him  (like  his  nephew  Asahel)  like  a 
wild  gazelle,  his  feet  like  hart's  feet,  and  his 
arms  strong  enough  to  break  a  bow  of  steel 
(Ps.  xviii.  33,  34).  His  next  introduction  to 
the  history  is  when  the  body-guard  of  Saul 
were  discussing  with  their  master  where  the 
best  minstrel  could  be  found  to  chase  away 
his  madness  by  music,  one  of  the  young  men 
in  the  guard  suggested  David.  In  the  success- 
ful effort  of  David's  harp  we  have  the  first 
glimpse  into  that  genius  for  music  and  poetry 
which  was  afterv/ards  consecrated  in  the 
Psalms.  2.  One  incident  alone  in  his  solitary 
shepherd  life  has  come  down  to  us — his  con- 
flict with  the  lion  and  the  bear  in  defense  of 
his  father's  flocks  (i  Sam.  xvii.  34,  35).  But 
it  did  not  stand  alone.  He  was  already  known 
to  Saul's  guards  for  his  martial  exploits,  proba- 
bly against  the  Philistines  (xvi.  18),  and,  when 
he  suddenly  appeared  in  the  camp,  his  elder 
brother  immediately  guessed  that  he  had  left 
the  sheep  in  his  ardor  to  see  the  battle  (xvii. 
28).  A  Philistine  of  gigantic  stature,  and 
clothed  in  complete  a;rmor,  insults  the  com- 
paratively defenceless  Israelites,  amongst 
whom  the  king  alone  appears  to  be  well  armed 
(xvii.  38;  comp.  xiii.  20).  No  one  can  be 
found  to  take  up  the  challenge.  At  this  junc- 
ture David  appears  in  the  camp.  Then  he 
hears  the  challenge,  now  made  for  the  fortieth 
time — sees  the  dismay  of  his  countrymen — 
hears  the  reward  proposed  by  the  king — is  in- 
troduced to  Saul  and  undertakes  the  combat. 
His  victory  over  the  gigantic  Philistine  is  ren- 
dered more  conspicuous  by  his  own  diminu- 
tive stature,  and  by  the  simple  weapons  with 
which  it  was  accomplished — not  the  armor  of 
Saul,  which  he  naturally  found  too  large,  but 
the  shepherd's  sling,  which  he  always  carried 
with  him,  and  the  five  polished  pebbles  which 


he  picked  up  as  he  went  from  the  watercourse 
of  the  valley,  and  put  in  his  shepherd's  wallet. 
Two  trophies  long  remained  of  the  battle — 
one,  the  huge  sword  of  the  Philistine,  which 
was  hung  up  behind  the  ephod  in  the  Taber- 
nacle at  Nob  (i  Sam.  xxi.  9)  ;  the  other,  the 
head,  which  he  bore  away  himself,  and  which 
was  either  laid  up  at  Nob,  or  subsequently 
at  Jerusalem. — II.  Relations  with  Saul.  We 
now  enter  on  a  new  aspect  of  David's  life. 
The  victory  over  Goliath  had  been  a  turning 
point  of  his  career.  Saul  inquired  his  parent- 
age, and  took  him  finally  to  his  court.  Jona- 
than was  inspired  by  the  romantic  friendship 
which  bound  the  two  youths  together  to  the 
end  of  their  lives.  The  triumphant  songs  of 
the  Israelitish  women,  and  the  fame  which 
David  thus  acquired,  laid  the  foundation  of 
that  unhappy  jealousy  of  Saul  towards  him, 
which  poisoned  his  whole  future  relations  to 
David.  His  position  in  Saul's  court  appears 
to  have  been  first  armor-bearer  (xvi.  21,  xviii. 
2),  then  captain  over  a  thousand — the  sub- 
.division  of  a  tribe  (xviii.  13),  and  finally,  on 
his  marriage  with  Michal,  the  king's  second 
daughter,  was  raised  to  the  high  office  of  cap- 
tain of  the  king's  body-guard,  second  only,  if 
not  equal,  to  Abner,  the  captain  of  the  host, 
and  Jonathan,  the  heir  apparent.  David  was 
now  chiefly  known  for  his  successful  exploits 
against  the  Philistines,  by  one  of  which  he 
won  his  wife,  and  drove  back  the  Philistine 
power  with  a  blow  from  which  it  only  rallied 
at  the  disastrous  close  of  Saul's  reign.  But 
the  successive  snares  laid  by  Saul  to  entrap 
him,  and  the  open  violence  into  which  the 
king's  madness  twice  broke  out,  at  last  con- 
vinced him  that  his  life  was  no  longer  safe. 
He  had  two  faithful  allies,  however,  in  the 
court — the  son  of  Saul,  his  friend  Jonathan— 
the  daughter  of  Saul,  his  wife  Michal.  Warned 
by  the  one,  and  assisted  by  the  other,  he  es- 
caped by  night,  and  was  from  thenceforward 
a  fugitive.  He  first  fled  to  Naioth  (or  the  pas- 
tures) of  Ramah,  to  Samuel.  This  is  the  first 
recorded  occasion  of  his  meeting  with  Samuel 
since  the  original  interview  during  his  boy- 
hood at  Bethlehem.  His  stay  at  the  court 
of  Achish  was  short.  Discovered  possibly  by 
"the  sword  of  Goliath,"  his  presence  revived 
the  national  enmity  of  the  Philistines  against 
their  former  conqueror,  and  he  only  "escaped 
by  feigning  madness  (l  Sam.  xvi.  13).  His 
first  retreat  was  the  cave  of  Adullam,  probably 
the  large  cavern,  not  far  from  Bethlehem,  now 
called  Khureitun.  From  its  vicinity  to  Bethle- 
hem, he  was  joined  there  by  his  whole  family, 
now  feeling  themselves  insecure  from  Saul's 
iury  (xxii.  i).   His  next  move  was  to  a  strong- 


92 


THE  lIS^fcRt 

Cr-  THE 


DAVID 


DAVID 


hold,  either  the  mountain,  afterwards  called 
Herodium,  close  to  Adullam,  or  the  fastness 
called  by  Josephus  jMasada,  the  Grecized  form 
of  the  Hebrew  word  !Matzed  (i  Sam.  xxii.  4, 
5;  I  Chr.  xii.  16),  in  the  neighborhood  of  En- 
gedi.  He  was  joined  here  by  two  separate 
bands.  One,  a  little  body  of  eleven  fierce 
Gadite  mountaineers,  who  swam  the  Jordan  in 
flood-time  to  reach  him  (i  Chr.  xii.  8).  An- 
other was  a  detachment  of  men  from  Judah 
and  Benjamin  under  his  nephew  Amasai,  who 
henceforth  attached  himself  to  David's  for- 
tunes (i  Chr.  xii.  16-18).  (a)  At  the  warning 
of  Gad,  he  fled  to  the  forest  of  Hareth,  and 
then  again  fell  in  with  the  Philistines,  and 
again,  apparently  advised  by  Gad  (xxiii.  4), 
made  a  descent  on  their  foraging  parties,  and 
relieved  Keilah,  in  which  he  took  up  his  abode. 
By  this  time  the  400  who  had  joined  him  at 
Adullam  (xxii.  2)  had  swelled  to  600  (xxiii. 
13).  (b)  The  situation  of  David  was  now 
changed  by  the  appearance  of  Saul  himself  on 
the  scene.  Apparently  the  danger  was  too 
great  for  the  little  army  to  keep  together.  They 
escaped  from  Keilah,  and  dispersed,  "whither- 
soever they  could  go,"  among  the  fastnesses 
of  Judah.  Saul  literally  hunts  him  like  a  part- 
ridge, the  treacherous  Ziphites  beating  the 
bushes  before  him,  and  3000  men  stationed  to 
catch  even  the  print  of  his  footsteps  on  the 
hills  (i  Sam.  xxiii.  14,  22,  xxiv.  1 1,  xxvi.  2,  20). 
His  marriage  with  Ahinoam  from  Jezreel,  also 
in  the  same  neighborhood  (Josh.  xv.  56), 
seems  to  have  taken  place  a  short  time  before 
(i  Sam.  XXV.  43,  xxvii.  3;  2  Sam.  iii.  2). 
Wearied  with  his  wandering  life,  he  at  last 
crosses  the  Philistine  frontier,  not,  as  before, 
in  the  capacity  of  a  fugitive,  but  the  chief  of 
a  powerful  band — his  600  men  now  grown  into 
an  organized  force,  with  their  wives  and  fami- 
lies around  them  (xxvii.  3,  4).  After  the  man- 
ner of  Eastern  potentates,  Achish  gave  him, 
for  his  support,  a  city — Ziklag,  on  the  fron- 
tier of  Philistia  (xxvii.  6).  There  we  meet 
with  the  first  note  of  time  in  David's  life.  He 
was  settled  there  for  a  year  and  four  months 
(xxvii.  7),  and  a  body  of  Benjamite  archers 
and  slingers,  twenty-two  of  whom  are  spe- 
cially named,  joined  him  from  the  very  tribe 
of  his  rival  (1  Chr.  xii.  1-7).  Finally  comes 
the  fatal  news  of  the  battle  at  Gilboa.  The 
reception  of  the  tidings  of  the  death  of  Saul 
and  of  Jonathan,  the  solemn  mourning,  the 
vent  of  his  indignation  against  the  bearer  of 
the  message,  the  pathetic  lamentation  that  fol- 
lowed, will  close  the  second  period  of  David's 
life  (2  Sam.  i.  1-27).  III. — David's  reign,  (i.) 
As  king  of  Judah  at  Hebron,  75^  years  (2  Sam. 
ii.  i-v.  5).  Here  David  was  first  formally  anoint- 


ed king  (2  Sam.  ii.  4).  To  Judah  his  dominion 
was  nominally  confined.  Gradually  his  power 
increased,  and  during  the  two  years  which  fol- 
lowed the  elevation  of  Ishbosheth  a  series  of 
skirmishes  took  place  between  the  two  king- 
doms. Then  rapidly  followed,  though  without 
David's  consent,  the  successive  murders  of 
Abner  and  of  Ishbosheth  (2  Sam.  iii.  30,  iv.  5). 
The  throne,  so  long  waiting  for  him,  was  now 
vacant,  and  the  united  voice  of  the  whole  peo- 
ple at  once  called  him  to  occupy  it.  A  solemn 
league  was  made  between  him  and  his  people 
(2  Sam.  v.  3).  For  the  third  time  David  was 
anointed  king,  and  a  festival  of  three  days 
celebrated  the  joyful  event  (i  Chr.  xii.  39). 
His  little  band  had  now  swelled  into  "a  great 
host,  like  the  host  of  God"  (i  Chr.  xii.  22). 
The  command  of  it,  which  had  formerly  rested 
on  David  alone,  he  now  devolved  on  his 
nephew  Joab  (2  Sam.  ii.  28).  (II.)  Reign 
over  all  Israel,  33  years  (2  Sam.  v.  5  to  i  K. 
ii.  11).  David  immediately  after  becoming 
king  seized  Jerusalem.  The  royal  residence 
was  instantly  fixed  there — fortifications  were 
added  by  the  king,  and  it  was  known  by  the 
special  name  of  the  "city  of  David."  The  ark 
was  now  removed  from  its  obscurity  at  Kir- 
jath-jearim  with  marked  solemnity.  The  erec- 
tion of  the  new  capital  at  Jerusalem  introduces 
us  to  a  new  era  in  David's  life  and  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  monarchy.  He  became  a  king  on 
the  scale  of  the  great  Oriental  sovereigns  of 
Egypt  and  Persia,  with  a  regular  administra- 
tion and  organization  of  court  and  camp ;  and 
he  also  founded  an  imperial  dominion  which 
for  the  first  time  realized  the  prophetic  de- 
scription of  the  bounds  of  the  chosen  people 
(Gen.  XV.  18-21).  Within  ten  years  from  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem,  he  had  reduced  to  a  state 
of  permanent  subjection  the  Philistines  on  the 
west  (2  Sam.  viii.  i)  ;  the  Moabites  on  the 
east  (2  Sam.  viii.  2),  by  the  exploits  of  Be- 
naiah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20)  ;  the  Syrians  on  the 
north-east  as  far  as  the  Euphrates  (2  Sam. 
viii.  3)  ;  the  Edomites  (2  Sam.  viii.  14),  on 
the  south ;  and  finally  the  Ammonites,  who 
had  broken  their  ancient  alliance,  and  made 
one  grand  resistance  to  the  advance  of  his 
empire  (2  Sam.  x.  1-19,  xii.  26-31).  Three 
great  calamities  may  be  selected  as  marking 
the  beginning,  middle,  and  close  of  David's 
otherwise  prosperous  reign ;  which  appears  to 
be  intimated  in  the  question  of  Gad  (2  Sam. 
xxiv.  13),  "a  three  years'  famine,  a  three 
months'  flight,  or  a  three  days'  pestilence." 
(a)  Of  these,  the  first  (the  three  years'  fam- 
ine) introduces  us  to  the  last  notices  of  Da- 
vid's relations  with  the  house  of  Saul  (b)  The 
second  group  of  incidents  contains  the  tragedy 


93 


DAVID 


DAY 


of  David's  life,  which  grew  in  all  its  parts 
out  of  the  polygamy,  with  its  evil  conse- 
quences, into  which  he  had  plunged  on  becom- 
ing king.  Underneath  the  splendor  of  his  last 
glorious  campaign  against  the  Ammonites, 
was  a  dark  story,  known  probably  at  that 
time  only  to  a  very  few ;  the  double  crime  of 
adultery  with  Bathsheba,  and  of  the  virtual 
murder  of  Uriah.  But  the  clouds  from  this 
time  gathered  over  David's  fortunes, and  hence- 
forward "the  sword  never  departed  from  his 
house"  (2  Sam.  xii.  10).  The  outrage  on  his 
daughter  Tamar;  the  murder  of  his  eldest  son 
Amnon ;  and  then  the  revolt  of  his  best-be- 
loved Absalom,  brought  on  the  crisis  which 
once  more  sent  him  forth  a  wanderer,  as  in  the 
days  when  he  fled  from  Saul.  The  final  battle 
of  Absalom's  rebellion  was  fought  in  the  "for- 
est of  Ephraim,"  which  terminated  in  the  acci- 
dent leading  to  the  death  of  Absalom,  and 
David  again  reigned  in  undisturbed  peace  at 
Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  xx.  1-22).  (c)  The  closing 
period  of  David's  life,  with  the  exception  of 
one  great  calamity,  may  be  considered  as  a 
gradual  preparation  for  the  reign  of  his  suc- 
cessor. This  calamity  was  the  three  days' 
pestilence  which  visited  Jerusalem  at  the 
warning  of  the  prophet  Gad.  The  occasion 
which  led  to  this  warning  was  the  census  of 
the  people  taken  by  Joab  at  the  king's  orders 
(2  Sam.  xxix.  1-9;  i  Chr.  xxi.  1-7,  xxvii.  23, 
24).  Joab's  repugnance  to  the  measure  was 
such  that  he  refused  altogether  to  number 
Levi  and  Benjamin  (i  Chr.  xxi.  6).  The  plague 
and  its  cessation  were  commemorated  down  to 
the  latest  times  of  the  Jewish  nation.  Outside 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  Araunah  or  Ornan,  a 
wealthy  Jebusite  —  perhaps  even  the  ancient 
king  of  Jebus  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  23) — possessed  a 
threshing-floor;  there  he  and  his  sons  were  en- 
gaged in  threshing  the  corn  gathered  in  from 
the  harvest  (i  Chr.  xxi.  20).  At  this  spot  an 
awful  vision  appeared,  such  as  is  described  in 
the  later  days  of  Jerusalem,  of  the  Angel  of 
the  Lord  stretching  out  a  drawn  sword  be- 
tween earth  and  sky  over  the  devoted  city. 
The  scene  of  such  an  apparition  at  such  a  mo- 
ment was  at  once  marked  out  for  a  sanctuary. 
David  demanded,  and  Araunah  willingly 
granted,  the  site :  the  altar  was  erected  on  the 
rock  of  the  threshing-floor ;  the  place  was 
called  by  the  name  of  "Moriah"  (2  Chr.  iii.  i)  ; 
and  for  the  first  time  a  holy  place,  sanctified 
by  a  vision  of  the  Divine  presence,  was  recog- 
nized in  Jerusalem.  It  was  this  spot  which 
afterwards  became  the  altar  of  the  Temple, 
and  therefore  the  centre  of  the  national  wor- 
ship, with  but  slight  interruption  for  more 
than  1000  years,  and  it  is  even  contended  that 


the  same  spot  is  the  rock,  still  regarded  with 
almost  idolatrous  veneration,  in  the  centre  of 
the  Mussulman  "Dome  of  the  Rock."  A  formi- 
dable conspiracy  to  interrupt  the  succession 
broke  out  in  the  last  days  of  David's  reign,  but 
the  plot  was  stifled,  and  Solomon's  inaugura- 
tion took  place  under  his  father's  auspices  (i 
K.  i.  1-53).  By  this  time  David's  infirmities 
had  grown  upon  him.  His  last  song  is  pre- 
served— a  striking  union  of  the  ideal  of  a  just 
ruler  which  he  had  placed  before  him,  and  of 
the  difficulties  which  he  had  felt  in  realizing 
it  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  1-7).  His  last  words,  as  re- 
corded, to  his  successor,  are  general  exhorta- 
tions to  his  duty,  combined  with  warnings 
against  Joab  and  Shimei,  and  charges  to  re- 
member the  children  of  Barzillai  (i  K.  ii.  1-9). 
He  died,  according  to  Josephus,  at  the  age  of 
70,  and  "was  buried  in  the  city  of  David." 
After  the  return  from  the  captivity,  "the  sepul- 
chres of  David"  were  still  pointed  out  "be- 
tween Siloah  and  the  house  of  the  mighty 
men,"  or  "the  guardhouse"  (Neh.  iii.  16).  His 
tomb,  which  became  the  general  sepulchre  of 
the  kings  of  Judah,  was  pointed  out  in  the 
latest  times  of  the  Jewish  people.  The  edifice 
shown  as  such  from  the  Crusades  to  the  pres- 
ent day  is  on  the  southern  hill  of  modern  Jeru- 
salem, commonly  called  Mount  Zion,  under 
the  so-called  "Coenaculum ;"  but  it  cannot  be 
identified  with  the  tomb  of  David,  which  was 
emphatically  within  the  walls. 

David,  City  of.  [Jerusalem.] 

Day.  The  variable  length  of  the  natural 
day  at  different  seasons  led  in  the  very  earliest 
times  to  the  adoption  of  the  civil  day  (or  one 
revolution  of  the  sun)  as  a  standard  of  time. 
The  commencement  of  the  civil  day  varies  in 
different  nations :  the  Babylonians  reckoned 
it  from  sunrise  to  sunrise ;  the  Umbrians  from 
noon  to  noon  ;  the  Romans  from  midnight  to 
midnight ;  the  Athenians  and  others  from  sun- 
set to  sunset.  The  Hebrews  naturally  adopted 
the  latter  reckoning  (Lev.  xxiii.  32,  "from  even 
to  even  shall  ye  celebrate  your  sabbath")  from 
Gen.  i.  5,  "the  evening  and  the  morning  were 
the  first  day."  The  Jews  are  supposed,  like 
the  modern  Arabs,  to  have  adopted  from  an 
early  period  minute  specifications  of  the  parts 
of  the  natural  day.  Roughly  indeed  they  were 
content  to  divide  it  into  "morning,  evening 
and  noonday"  (Ps.  Iv.  17)  ;  but  when  they 
wished  for  greater  accuracy  they  pointed  to  six 
unequal  parts,  each  of  which  was  again  sub- 
divided. These  are  held  to  have  been:  i. 
"The  dawn."  2.  "Sunrise."  3.  "Heat  of  the 
day,"  about  9  o'clock.  4.  "The  two  noons" 
(Gen.  xliii.  16;  Deut.  xxviii.  29).  5.  "The  cool 
(lit.  wind)  of  the  day,"  before  sunset  (Gen. 


94 


DEACON 


DEBORAH 


iii.  8)  ;  so  called  by  the  Persians  to  this  day. 
6.  "Evening."  The  phrase  "between  the  two 
evenings"  (Ex.  xvi.  12,  xxx.  8),  being  the  time 
marked  for  slaying  the  paschal  Iamb  and  offer- 
ing the  evening  sacrifice  (Ex.  xii.  6,  xxix.  39), 
led  to  a  dispute  between  the  Karaites  and  Sa- 
maritans on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Pharisees 
on  the  other.  The  former  took  it  to  mean 
betwefn  sunset  and  full  darkness  (Deut.  xvi. 
6)  ;  the  Rabbinists  explained  it  as  the  time  be- 
tween the  beginning  and  end  of  sunset.  Before 
the  captivity  the  Jews  divided  the  night  into 
three  watches  (Ps.  Ixii.  6,  xc.  4),  viz.  the  first 
watch,  lasting  till  midnight  (Lam.  ii.  19,  A.  V. 
"the  beginning  of  the  watches")  ;  the  "Middle 
watch,"  lasting  till  cockcrow  (Judg.  vii.  19)  ; 
and  the  morning  watch,  lasting  till  sunrise 
(Ex.  xiv.  24).  These  divisions  were  probably 
connected  with  the  Levitical  duties  in'  the 
Temple  service.  The  Jews,  however,  say  (in 
spite  of  their  own  definition),  "a  watch  is  the 
third  part  of  the  night,"  that  they  always  had 
four  night-watches  '(comp.  Neh.  ix.  3),  but 
that  the  fourth  was  counted  as  a  part  of  the 
morning.  In  the  N.  T.  we  have  allusions  to 
four  watches,  a  division  borrowed  from  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  These  were,  i.  from  twi- 
light till  9  o'clock  (Mark  xi.  11 ;  John  xx.  19)  ; 
2.  midnight,  from  9  till  12  o'clock  (]\Iark  xiii. 
35)  ;  3.  till  3  in  the  morning  (Mark  xiii.  35;  3 
Mace.  v.  23)  ;  4.  till  daybreak  (John  xviii.  28). 
The  word  held  to  mean  "hour"  is  first  found 
in  Dan.  iii.  6,  15,  v.  5.  Perhaps  the  Jews,  like 
the  Greeks,  learnt  from  the  Babylonians  the 
division  of  the  day  into  12  parts.  In  our 
Lord's  time  the  division  was  common  (John 
xi.  9). 

Deacon.  The  office  described  by  this  title 
appears  in  the  N.  T.  as  correlative  of  Bishop. 
[Bishop.]  The  two  are  mentioned  together 
in  Phil.  i.  I  ;  I  Tim.  iii.  2,  8.  Like  most  words 
of  similar  import,  it  appears  to  have  been  first 
used  in  its  generic  sense,  implying  subordinate 
activity  (i  Cor.  iii.  5;  2  Cor.  vi.  4),  and  after- 
wards to  have  gained  a  more  defined  connota- 
tion, as  applied  to  a  distinct  body  of  men  in 
the  Christian  society.  The  narrative  of  Acts 
vi.  is  commonly  referred  to  as  giving  an  ac- 
count of  the  institution  of  this  office.  The 
Apostles,  in  order  to  meet  the  complaints  of 
the  Hellenistic  Jews,  that  their  widows  were 
neglected  in  the  daily  ministration,  call  on  the 
body  of  believers  to  choose  seven  men  "full  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  wisdom,"  whom  they 
"may  appoint  over  this  business."  As  the 
constitution  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  had  its 
elders  or  pastors,  so  also  it  had  its  subordinate 
officers  (Luke  iv.  20),  whose  work  it  was  to 
give  the  reader  the  rolls  containing  the  les- 


sons for  the  day,  to  clean  the  synagogue,  to 
open  and  close  it  at  the  right  times.  The 
moral  qualifications  described  in  i  Tim.  iii.,  as 
necessary  for  the  office  of  a  deacon,  are  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  those  of  the  bishop.  The 
deacons,  however,  were  not  required  to  be 
"given  to  hospitality,"  nor  to  be  "apt  to  teach." 
It  was  enough  for  them  to  "hold  the  mystery 
of  the  faith  in  a  pure  conscience."  They  were 
not  to  gain  their  living  by  disreputable  occu- 
pations. On  offering  themselves  for  their 
work  they  were  to  be  subject  to  a  strict  scru- 
tiny (i  Tim.  iii.  10),  and  if  this  ended  satis- 
factorily were  to  enter  on  it.  From  the  anal- 
ogy of  the  synagogue,  and  from  the  scanty 
notices  of  the  N.  T.,  we  may  think  of  the  dea- 
cons or  "young  men"  in  the  Church  of  Jeru- 
salem as  preparing  the  rooms  in  which  the 
disciples  met,  taking  part  in  the  distribution 
of  alms  out  of  the  common  fund,  at  first  with 
no  direct  supervision,  then  under  that  of  the 
Seven,  and  afterwards  under  the  elders,  main- 
taining order  at  the  daily  meetings  of  the  dis- 
ciples to  break  bread,  baptizing  new  converts, 
distributing  the  bread  and  the  wine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  which  the  Apostle  or  his  rep- 
resentative had  blessed.  It  does  not  appear  to 
have  belonged  to  the  office  of  a  deacon  to 
teach  publicly  in  the  Church. 

Deaconess.  The  word  is  found  in  Rom.  xvi. 
I  (A.  V.  "servant"),  associated  with  a  female 
name,  and  this  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
there  existed  in  the  Apostolic  age,  as  there 
undoubtedly  did  a  little  later,  an  order  of 
women  bearing  that  title,  and  exercising  in 
relation  to  their  own  sex  functions  which  were 
analogous  to  those  of  the  deacons.  On  this 
hypothesis  it  has  been  inferred  that  the  women 
mentioned  in  Rom.  xvi.  6,  12,  belonged  to  such 
an  order.  The  rules  given  as  to  the  conduct 
of  women  in  i  Tim.  iii.  11,  Tit.  ii.  3,  have  in 
like  manner  been  referred  to  them,  and  they 
have  been  identified  even  with  the  "widows" 
of  I  Tim.  v.  3-10. 

Dead  Sea.  This  name  nowhere  occurs  in 
the  Bible,  and  appears  not  to  have  existed 
until  the  2d  century  after  Christ.  In  the  O.  T. 
the  lake  is  called  "the  Salt  Sea,"  and  "the  Sea 
of  the  Plain,"  and  under  the  former  of  these 
names  it  is  described. 

Deb'orah  (a  bee),  i.  The  nurse  of  Rebekah 
(Gen.  XXXV.  i).  Deborah  accompanied  Re- 
bekah from  the  house  of  Bethuel  (Gen.  xxiv. 
59),  and  is  only  mentioned  by  name  on  the 
occasion  of  her  burial,  under  the  oak-tree  of 
Bethel,  which  was  called  in  her  honor  Allon- 
Bachuth.  2.  A  prophetess  who  judged  Israel 
(Judg.  iv.,  v.).  She  lived  under  the  palm-tree 
of  Deborah,  between  Ramah  and  Bethel  in 


95 


DEBTOR 


DEMONIACS 


Mount  Ephraim  (Judg.  iv.  5),  which,  as  palm- 
trees  were  rare  in ,  Palestine,  "is  mentioned  as 
a  well-known  and  solitary  landmark,  and  was 
probably  the  same  spot  as  that  called  (Judg. 
XX.  33)  Baal-Tamar,  or  the  sanctuary  of  the 
palm"  (Stanley,  S.  and  P.  146).  She  was  prob- 
ably a  woman  of  Ephraim,  although,  from  the 
expression  in  Judg.  v.  13,  some  suppose  her 
to  have  belonged  to  Issachar.  Lapidoth  was 
probably  her  husband,  and  not  Barak,  as  some 
say.  She  was  not  so  much  a  judge  as  one 
gifted  with  prophetic  command  (Judg.  iv.  6, 
14,  V.  7),  and  by  virtue  of  her  inspiration  "a 
mother  in  Israel."  Jabin's  tyranny  was  pe- 
culiarly felt  in  the  northern  tribes,  who  were 
near  his  capital  and  under  her  jurisdiction,  viz. 
Zebulon,  Naphtali,  and  Issachar:  hence,  when 
she  summoned  Barak  to  the  deliverance,  it 
was  on  them  that  the  brunt  of  the  battle  fell. 
Under  her  direction  Barak  encamped  on  Ihe 
board  summit  of  Tabor.  Deborah's  prophecy 
was  fulfilled  (Judg.  iv.  9),  and  the  enemy's 
general  perished  among  the  "oaks  of  the  wan- 
derers (Zaanaim),"  in  the  tent  of  the  Bedouin 
Kenite's  wife  (Judg.  iv.  21)  in  the  northern 
mountains.  Deborah's  title  of  "prophetess"  in- 
cludes the  notion  of  inspired  poetry,  as  in  Ex. 
XV.  20 ;  and  iai  this  sense  the  glorious  trium- 
phal ode  (Judg.  V.)  well  vindicates  her  claim 
to  the  office. 

Debtor.  [Loan.] 

Dedication,  Feast  of  the,  the  festival  insti- 
tuted to  commemorate  the  purging  of  the 
Temple  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  altar  after 
Judas  Maccabaeus  had  driven  out  the  Syrians, 
B.  C.  164.  It  is  named  only  once  in  the  Canon- 
ical Scriptures,  John  x.  22.  Its  institution  is 
recorded  i  Mace.  iv.  52-59.  It  commenced  on 
the  25th  of  Chisleu,  the  anniversary  of  the  pol- 
lution of  the  Temple  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
B.  C.  167.  Like  the  great  Mosaic  feasts,  it 
lasted  eight  days,  but  it  did  not  require  attend- 
ance at  Jerusalem.  It  was  an  occasion  of  much 
festivity.  The  writer  of  2  Mace,  tells  us  that 
it  was  celebrated  in  nearly  the  same  manner 
as  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  with  the  carrying 
of  branches  of  trees,  and  with  much  singing 
(x.  6,  7).  Josephus  states  that  the  festival  was 
called  "Lights."  In  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem 
the  "Hallel"  was  sung  every  day  of  the  feast. 

Deer.  [Fallow-Deer.] 

Degrees,  Songs  of,  a  title  given  to  fifteen 
Psalms,  from  cxx.  to  cxxxiv.  inclusive.  Four 
of  them  are  attributed  to  David,  one  is  ascribed 
to  the  pen  of  Solomon,  and  the  other  ten  give 
no  indication  of  their  author.  With  respect  to 
the  term  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "degrees,"  a 
great  diversity  of  opinion  prevails,  but  the 
most  probable  opinion  is  that  they  were  pil- 


grim songs,  sung  by  the  people  as  they  went 
up  to  Jerusalem. 

Del'ilah,  a  woman  who  dwelt  in  the  valley 
of  Sorek,  beloved  by  Samson  (Judg.  xvi.  4-18). 
There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  she  was  a 
Philistine  courtesan  [Samson.] 

Deluge  [Noah.] 

Demon.  Its  usage  in  classical  Greek  is  vari- 
ous. In  Homer,  where  the  gods  are  but  super- 
natural men,  it  is  used  interchangeably  with 
"god ;"  afterwards  in  Hesiod,  when  the  idea  of 
the  gods  had  become  more  exalted  and  less  fa- 
miliar, the  "demons"  are  spoken  of  as  inter- 
mediate beings,  the  messengers  of  the  gods  to 
men.  In  the  Gospels  generally,  in'  James  ii. 
19,  and  in  Rev.  xvi.  14,  the  demons  are  spoken 
of  as  spiritual  beings,  at  enmity  with  God,  and 
having  power  to  afflict  man,  not  only  with  dis- 
ease, but,  as  is  marked  by  the  frequent  epithet 
"unclean,"  with  spiritual  pollution  also.  They 
"believe"  the  power  of  God  "and  tremble" 
(James  ii.  19)  ;  they  recognize  the  Lord  as  the 
Son  of  God  (Matt.  viii.  29;  Luke  iv.  41),  and 
acknowledge  the  power  of  His  name,  used  in 
exorcism,  in  the  place  of  the  name  of  Jehovah, 
by  His  appointed  messengers  (Acts  xix.  15)  ; 
and  look  forward  in  terror  to  the  judgment  to 
come  (Matt.  viii.  29).  The  description  is  pre- 
cisely that  of  a  nature  akin  to  the  angelic  in 
knowledge  and  powers,  but  with  the  emphatic 
addition  of  the  idea  of  positive  and  active  wick- 
edness. 

Demoniacs.  This  word  is  frequently  used 
in  the  N.  T.,  and  applied  to  persons  suffering 
under  the  possession  of  a  demon  or  evil  spirit, 
such  possession  generally  showing  itself  visibly 
in  bodily  disease  or  mental  derangement.  It 
has  been  maintained  by  many  persons  that  our 
Lord  and  the  Evangelists,  in  referring  to 
demoniacal  possession,  spoke  only  in  accom- 
modation to  the  general  belief  of  the  Jews, 
without  any  assertion  as  to  its  truth  or  its 
falsity.  It  is  concluded  that,  since  the  symp- 
toms of  the  affliction  were  frequently  those  of 
bodily  disease  (as  dumbness.  Matt.  ix.  32; 
blindness,  Matt.  xii.  22 ;  epilepsy,  Mark  ix.  17- 
27),  or  those  seen  in  cases  of  ordinary  insanity 
(as  in  Matt.  viii.  28;  Mark  v.  1-5),  and  since 
also  the  phrase  "to  have  a  devil  is  constantly 
used  in  connection  with,  and  as  apparently 
equivalent  to,  "to  be  mad"  (see  John  vii.  20, 
viii.  48,  x.  20,  and  perhaps  Matt.  xi.  18 ;  Luke 
vii.  33),  the  demoniacs  were  merely  persons 
suffering  under  unusual  diseases  of  body  and 
mind.  But  demoniacs  are  frequently  distin- 
guished from  those  afflicted  with  bodily  sick- 
ness (see  Mark  i.  32,  xvi.  17,  18;  Luke  vi.  17, 
18),  even,  it  would  seem,  from  the  epileptic 
(Matt.  iv.  24)  ;  the  same  outward  signs  are 


96 


i 


DENARIUS 


DEUTERONOMY 


sometimes  referred  to  possession,  sometimes 
merely  to  disease  (comp.  INIatt.  iv.  24,  with 
xvii.  15;  Matt.  xii.  22,  with  Mark  vii.  32,  &c.)  ; 
the  demons  are  represented  as  speaking  in  their 
own  persons  with  superhuman  knowledge,  and 
acknowledging  our  Lord  to  be,  not  as  the  Jews 
generally  called  him,  son  of  David,  but  Son  of 
God  (Matt.  viii.  29;  Mark  i.  24,  v.  7;  Luke  iv. 
41,  &c.).  All  these  things  speak  of  a  personal 
power  of  evil.  Nor  does  our  Lord  speak  of 
demons  as  personal  spirits  of  evil  to  the  mul- 
titude alone,  but  in  His  secret  conversations 
w'ith  His  disciples,'  declaring  the  means  and 
conditions  by  which  power  over  them  could 
be  exercised  (Matt.  xvii.  21).  Twice  also  He 
distinctly  connects  demoniacal  possession  with 
the  power  of  the  evil  one ;  once  in  Luke  x. 
18,  to  the  seventy  disciples,  where  He  speaks 
of  His  power  and  theirs  over  demoniacs  as  a 
"fall  of  Satan,"  and  again  in  Matt.  xii.  25-30, 
when  He  was  accused  of  casting  out  demons 
through  Beelzebub,  and,  instead  of  giving  any 
hint  that  the  possessed  were  not  really  under 
any  direct  and  personal  power  of  evil.  He  uses 
an  argument,  as  to  the  division  of  Satan 
against  himself,  which,  if  possession  be  unreal, 
becomes  inconclusive  and  almost  insincere. 
Lastly,  the  single  fact  recorded  of  the  entrance 
of  the  demons  at  Gadara  (Mark  v.  10-14)  into 
the  herd  of  swine,  and  the  effect  which  that 
entrance  caused,  is  sufficient  to  overthrow  the 
notion  that  our  Lord  and  the  Evangelists  do 
not  assert  or  imply  any  objective  reality  of 
possession.  We  are  led,  therefore,  to  the  ordi- 
nary and  literal  interpretation  of  these  pas- 
sagei',  that  there  are  evil  spirits,  subjects  of 
the  Evil  One,  who,  in  the  days  of  the  Lord 
Himself  and  His  Apostles  especially,  were  per- 
mitted by  God  to  exercise  a  direct  influence 
over  the  souls  and  bodies  of  certain  men.  This 
influence  is  clearly  distinguished  from  the 
ordinary  power  of  corruption  and  temptation, 
wielded  by  Satan  through  the  permission  of 
God.  The  distinguishing  feature  of  possession 
is  the  complete  or  incomplete  loss  of  the  suf- 
ferer's reason  or  power  of  will ;  his  actions,  his 
words,  and  almost  his  thoughts  are  mastered 
by  the  evil  spirit  (Mark  i.  24,  v.  7;  Acts  xix. 
15),  till  his  personality  seems  to  be  destroyed, 
or,  if  not  destroyed,  so  overborne  as  to  produce 
the  consciousness  of  a  twofold  will  within 
him,  like  that  sometimes  felt  in  a  dream. 

Dena'rius,  A.  V.  "penny  (Matt,  xviii.  28,  xx. 
2,  9,  13,  xxii.  19;  Mark  vi.  57,  xii.  15,  xiv.  5; 
Luke  vii.  41,  x.  35,  xx.  24;  John  vi.  7,  xii.  5; 
Rev.  vi.  6)^  a  Roman  silver  coin,  in  the  time  of 
our  Saviour  and  the  Apostles.  It  took  its 
name  frorn  its  being  first  equal  to  ten  "asses," 
a  number  afterwards  increased  to  sixteen.  It 


was  the  principal  silver  coin  of  the  Roman 
commonwealth.  From  the  parable  of  the  labor- 
ers in  the  vineyard  it  would  seem  that  a  dena- 
rius was  then  the  ordinary  pay  for  a  day's 
labor  (Matt.  xxi.  2,  4,  7,  9,  10,  13). 

Desert,  a  word  which  is  sparingly  employed 
in  the  A.  V.  to  translate  four  Hebrew  terms, 
of  which  three  are  essentially  dil¥crent  in  sig- 
nification. A  "desert,"  in  the  sense  which  is 
ordinarily  attached  tb  the  word,  is  a  vast, 
burning,  sandy  plain,  alike  destitute  of  trees 
and  of  water.  Here,  it  is  simply  necessary  to 
show  that  the  words  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by 
"desert,"  when  used,  in  the  historical  books, 
denoted  definite  localities ;  and  that  those 
localities  do  not  answer  to  the  common  con- 
ception of  a  "desert."  i.  Arabah.  This  word 
means  that  every  depressed  and  enclosed  re- 
gion— the  deepest  and  the  hottest  chasm  in 
the  world — the  sunken  valley  north  and  south 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  but  more  particularly  the  for- 
mer. [Arabah.]  Arabah  in  the  sense  of  the 
Jordan  Valley  is  translated  by  the  word  "des- 
ert" only  in  Ez.  xlvii.  8.  In  a  more  general 
sense  of  waste,  deserted  country — a  meaning 
easily  suggested  by  the  idea  of  excessive  heat 
contained  in  the  root — "Desert,"  as  the  render- 
ing of  Arabah,  occurs  in  the  prophets  and 
poetical  books;  as  Is.  xxxv.  i,  6,  xl.  3,  xii.  19, 
li.  3 ;  Jer.  ii.  6,  v.  6,  xvii.  6,  1.  12 ;  but  this  gen- 
eral sense  is  never  found  in-  the  historical 
books.  2.  Midbar.  This  word,  which  our 
translators  have  most  frequntly  rendered  by 
"desert,"  is  accurately  the  "pasture  ground." 
It  is  most  frequently  used  for  those  tracts  of 
waste  land  which  lie  beyond  the  cultivated 
ground  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
towns  and  villages  of  Palestine,  and  which  are 
a  very  familiar  feature  to  the  traveller  in  that 
country.  In  the  poetical  books  "desert"  is 
found  as  the  translation  of  Midbar  in  Deut. 
xxxii.  10;  Job  xxiv.  5;  Is.  xxi.  i;  Jer.  xxv.  24. 

3.  Charbah  appears  to  have  the  forct  of  dry- 
ness, and  thence  of  desolation,  it  does  not 
occur  in  any  historical  passages.  It  is  ren- 
dered "desert"  in  Ps.  cii.  6;  Is.  xlviii.  21  ;  Ezek. 
xiii.  4.  The  term  commonly  employed  for  it 
in  the  A.  V.  is  "waste  places"  or  "desolation." 

4.  Jeshimon,  with  the  definite  article,  appar- 
ently denotes  the  waste  tracts  on  both  sides 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  In  all  these  cases  it  is  treated 
as  a  proper  name  in  the  A.  V.  Without  the 
article  it  occurs  in  a  few  passages  of  poetry ; 
in  the  following  of  which  it  is  rendered  "des- 
ert."   Ps.  Ixxxviii.  40,  cvi.  14;  Is.  xliii.  19,  20. 

Deuteronomy — which  means  "the  repetition 
of  the  law" — consists  chiefly  of  three  dis- 
courses delivered  by  Moses  shortly  before  his 
death.    Subjoined  to  these  discourses  are  the 


97 


DEVIL 


DIAL 


Song  of  Moses,  the  Blessing  of  Moses,  and  the 
story  of  his  death.  I.  The  first  discourse  (i. 
i-iv.  40).  After  a  brief  historical  introduction 
the  speaker  recapitulates  the  chief  events  of 
the  last  40  years  in  the  wilderness,  and  espe- 
cially those  events  which  had  the  most  imme- 
diate bearing  on  the  entry  of  the  people  into 
the  promised  land.  To  this  discourse  is  ap- 
pended a  brief  notice  of  the  severing  of  the 
three  cities  of  refuge  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Jordan  (iv.  41-43).  II.  The  second  discourse 
is  introduced  like  the  first  by  an  explanation 
of  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  de- 
livered (iv.  44-49).  It  extends  from  chap.  v. 
i-xxvi.  19,  and  contains  a  recapitulation,  with 
some  modifications  and  additions  of  the  Law 
already  given  on  Mount  Sinai.  III.  In  the 
third  discourse  (xxvii.  i-xxx.  20),  the  Elders 
of  Israel  are  associated  with  Moses.  The  peo- 
ple are  commanded  to  set  up  stones  upon 
Mount  Ebal,  and  on  them  to  write  "all  the 
words  of  this  law."  Then  follow  the  several 
curses  to  be  pronounced  by  the  Levites  on 
Ebal  (xxvii.  14-26),  and  the  blessings  on 
Gerizim  (xxviii.  1-14).  IV.  The  delivery  of 
the  Law  as  written  by  Moses  (for  its  still  fur- 
ther preservation)  to  the  custody  of  the  Lev- 
ites, and  a  charge  to  the  people  to  hear  it  read 
once  every  seven  years  (xxxi.)  :  the  Song  of 
Moses  spoken  in  the  ears  of  the  people  (xxxi. 
30-xxxii.  44)  :  and  the  blessings  of  the  twelve 
tribes  (xxxiii.).  V.  The  Book  closes  (xxxiv.) 
with  an  account  of  the  death  of  Moses,  which 
is  first  announced  to  him  in  xxxii.  48-52.  It 
has  been  maintained  by  many  modern  critics 
that  Deuteronomy  is  of  later  origin  than  the 
other  four  books  of  the  Pentateuch ;  but  the 
book  bears  witness  to  its  own  authorship 
(xxxi.  19),  and  is  expressly  cited  in  the  N.  T. 
as  the  work  of  Moses  (Matt.  xix.  7,  8;  Mark  x. 
3;  Acts  iii.  22,  vii.  37).  The  last  chapter,  con- 
taining an  account  of  the  death  of  Moses,  was 
of  course  added  by  a  later  hand,  and  perhaps 
formed  originally  the  beginning  of  the  book 
of  Joshua.  [Pentateuch.] 

Devil.  The  name  describes  Satan  as  slan- 
dering God  to  man,  and  man  to  God.  The 
former  work  is,  of  course,  a  part- of  his  great 
work  of  temptation  to  evil ;  and  is  not  only 
exemplified  but  illustrated  as  to  its  general 
nature  and  tendency  by  the  narrative  of-  Gen. 
iii.  The  ef¥ect  is  to  stir  up  the  spirit  of  free- 
dom in  a  man  to  seek  a  fancied  independence ; 
and  it  is  but  a  slight  step  further  to  impute 
falsehood  or  cruelty  to  God.  The  other  work, 
the  slandering  or  accusing  man  before  God, 
is,  as  it  must  necessarily  be,  unintelligible  to 
us.  The  essence  of  this  accusation  is  the  im- 
putation of  selfish  motives  (Job  i.  9,  10),  and 


its  refutation  is  placed  in  the  self-sacrifice  of 
those  "who  loved  not  their  own  lives  unto 
death."    [Satan;  Demon.] 

Dew.  This  in  the  summer  is  so  copious  in 
Palesane  that  it  supplies  to  some  extent  the 
absence  of  rain  (Ecclus.  xviii.  16,  xliii.  22),  and 
becomes  important  to  the  agriculturist.  As 
a  proof  of  this  copiousness  the  well-known 
sign  of  Gideon  (Judg.  vi.  37,  39,  40)  may  be 
adduced.  Thus  it  is  coupled  in  the  divine 
blessing  with  rain,  or  mentioned  as  a  prime 
source  of  fertility  (Gen.  xxvii.  28;  Deut.  xxxiii. 
13;  Zech.  viii.  12),  and  its -withdrawal  is  at- 
tributed to  a  curse  (2  Sam.  i.  21 ;  i  K.  xvii.  i ; 
Hag.  i.  10). 

Diadem.  What  the  "diadem"  of  the  Jews 
was  we  know  not.  That  of  other  nations  of 
antiquity  was  a  fillgj:  of  silk,  two  inches  broad, 
bound  round  the  head  and  tied  behind,  the  in- 
vention of  which  is  attributed  to  Liber.  Its 
color  was  generally  white ;  sometimes,  how- 
ever, it  was  of  blue,  like  that  of  Darius ;  and 
it  was  sown  with  pearls  or  other  gems  (Zech. 
ix.  16),  and  enriched  with  gold  (Rev.  ix.  7). 
It  was  peculiarly  the  mark  of  Oriental  sover- 


Ancient  Dials. 

eigns  (i  Mace.  xiii.  32).  A  crown  was  used 
by  the  kings  of  Israel,  even  in  battle  (2  Sam. 
i.  10)  ;  but  in  all  probability  this  was  not  the 
State  crown  (2  Sam.  xii.  30),  although  used 
in  the  coronation  of  Joash  (2  K.  xi.  12).  In 
Esth.  i.  II,  ii.  17,  we  have  cether  for  the  tur- 
ban worn  by  the  Persian  king,  queen,  or  other 
eminent  persons  to  whom  it  was  conceded  as  a 
special  favor  (viii.  15).  The  diadem  of  the 
king  differed  from  that  of  others  in  having  an 
erect  triangular  peak.  The  words  in  Ez.  xxiii. 
mean  long  and  flowing  turbans  of  gorgeous 
colors. 

Dial.  The  word  ma'aloth  is  the  same  as 
that  rendered  "steps"  in  A.  V.  (Ex.  xx.  26; 
I  K.  x.  19),  and  "degrees"  in  A.  V.  (2  K.  xx. 
9,  10,  II ;  Is.  xxxviii.  8),  where,  to  give  a  con- 
sistent rendering,  we  should  read  with  the 
margin  the  "degrees"  rather  than  the  "dial" 
of  Ahaz.  In  the  absence  of  any  materials  for 
determining  the  shape  and  structure  of  the 
solar  instrument,  which  certainly  appears  in- 
tended, the  best  course  is  to  follow  the  most 
strictly  natural  meaning  of  the  words,  and  to 


98 


DIAMOND 


DISH 


consider  that  the  ma'aoth  were  really  stairs, 
and  that  the  shadow  (perhaps  of  some  column 
or  obelisk  on  the  top)  fell  on  a  greater  or 
smaller  number  of  them  according  as  the  sun 
was  low  or  high.  The  terrace  of  a  palace 
might  easily  be  thus  ornamented. 
•  Diamond  (Heb.  yahalom),  a  precious  stone, 
the  third  in  the  second  row  on  the  breastplate 
of  the  high-priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  i8,  xxxix.  ii), 
and  mentioned  by  Ezekiel  xxviii.  13)  among 
the  precious  stones  of  the  king  of  Tyre.  Some 
suppose  yahalom  to  be  the  ''emerald."  Re- 
specting Shamir,  which  is  translated  "dia- 
mond" in  Jer.  xvii.  i,  see  under  Adamant. 

Dian'a.  This  Latin  word,  properly  denoting 
a  Roman  divinity,  is  the  representative  of  the 
Greek  Artemis,  the  tutelary  goddess  of  the 
Ephesians,  who  plays  so  important  a  part  in 
the  narrative  of  Acts  xix.  The  Ephesian  Diana 
was,  however,  regarded  as  invested  with  very 
different  attributes,  and  is  rather  to  be  identi- 
fied with  Astarte  and  other  female  divinities  of 
the  East.  The  head  wore  a  mural  crown, 
each  hand  held  a  bar  of  metal,  and  the  lower 
part  ended  in  a  rude  block  covered  with  fig- 


Diana  of  the  I'Jphesians. 

ures  of  animals  and  mystic  inscriptions.  This 
idol  was  regarded  as  an  object  of  peculiar 
sanctity,  and  was  believed  to  have  fallen  down 
from  heaven  (Acts  xix.  35).  The  cry  of  the  mob 
(Acts  xix.  28),  "Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephe- 
sians!" and  the  strong  expression  in  ver.  27, 
"whom  all  Asia  and  the  world  worshippeth," 
may  be  abundantly  illustrated  from  a  variety 


of  sources.  The  term  "great"  was  evidently 
a  title  of  honor  recognized  as  belonging  to 
the  Ephesian  goddess.  We  find  it  in  inscrip- 
tions. 

Di'nah,  the  daughter  of  Jacob  by  Leah 
(Gen.  XXX.  21).  She  accompanied  her  father 
from  Mesopotamia  to  Canaan,  and,  having 
ventured  among  the  inhabitants,  was  violated 
by  Shechem  the  son  of  Hamor,  the  chieftain 


Temple  of  Diana  of  the  Ephesians. 

of  the  territory  in  which  her  father  had  set- 
tled (Gen.  xxxix.).  Shechem  proposed  to 
make  the  usual  reparation  by  paying  a  sum  to 
the  father  and  marrying  her  (Gen.  xxxiv.  12). 
But  in  this  case  the  suitor  was  an  alien,  and 
the  crown  of  the  ofifence  consisted  in  its  hav- 
ing been  committed  by  an  alien  against  the 
favored  people  of  God ;  he  had  "wrought  folly 
in  Israel"  (xxxiv.  7).  The  proposals  of 
Hamor,  who  acted  as  his  deputy,  were  framed 
on  the  recognition  of  the  hitherto  complete 
separation  of  the  two  peoples ;  he  proposed 
the  fusion  of  the  two  by  the  establishment  of 
the  rights  of  intermarriage  and  commerce. 
The  sons  of  Jacob,  bent  upon  revenge,  availed 
thems'elves  of  the  eagerness,  which  Shechem 
showed,  to  effect  their  purpose ;  they  de- 
manded, as  a  condition  of  the  proposed  union, 
the  circumcision  of  the  Shechemites.  They 
therefore  assented ;  and  on  the  third  day, 
when  the  pain  and  fever  resulting  from  the 
operation  were  at  the  highest,  Simeon  and 
Levi,  own  brothers  to  Dinah,  attacked  them 
unexpectedly,  slew  all  the  males,  and  plun- 
dered their  city. 

Dionys'ius  the  Areopagite  (Acts  xvii.  34), 
an  eminent  Athenian,  converted  to  Christian- 
ity by  the  preaching  of  St.  Paul.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  first  bishop  of  Athens.  The  writ- 
ings which  were  once  attributed  to  him  are 
now  confessed  to  be  the  production  of  some 
neo-Platonists  of  the  6th  century. 

Disciple.  [Schools.] 

Diseases.  [Medicine.] 

Dish.  [Basin  ;  Charger.]  In  ancient  Egypt, 
and  also  in  Judaea,  guests  at  the  table  handled 
their  food  with  the  fingers.  The  same  is  the 
case  in  modern  Egypt.  Each  person  breaks 
ofif  a  small  piece  of  bread,  dips  it  in  the  dish, 
and  then  conveys  it  to  his  mouth,  together 
with  a  small  portion  of  the  meat  or  other  con- 


99 


DISPERSION 

tents  of  the  dish.  To  pick  out  a  delicate  mor- 
sel and  hand  it  to  a  friend  is  esteemed  a  com- 
pliment, and  to  refuse  such  an  offering  is  con- 
trary to  good  manners.  Judas  dipping  his 
hand  in  the  same  dish  with  our  Lord  was 
showing  especial  friendliness  and  intimacy. 

Dispersion,  The  Jews  of  the,  or  simply  The 
Dispersion,  was  the  general  title  applied  to 
those  Jews  who  remained  settled  in  foreign 
countries  after  the  return  from  the  Babylonian 
exile,  and  during  the  period  of  the  second 
Temple.    At  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era  the  Dispersion  was  divided  into  three  great 
sections,    the    Babylonian,    the    Syrian,  the 
Egyptian.     From  Babylon  the  Jews  spread 
throughout  Persia,  Media,  and  Parthia.  Large 
settlements  of  Jews  were  established  in  Cy- 
prus, in  the  islands  of  the  Aegaean,  and  on 
the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor.    The  Jews 
of  the  Syrian  provinces  gradually  formed  a 
closer  connection  with  their  new  homes,  and 
together  with  the  Greek  language  adopted 
in  many  respects  Greek  ideas.   This  Helleniz- 
ing  tendency,  however,  found  its  most  free  de- 
velopment at  Alexandria.    The  Jewish  settle- 
ments established  there  by  Alexander  and 
Ptolemy  I.  became  the  source  of  the  African 
dispersion,  which  spread  over  the  north  coast 
of  Africa,  and  perhaps  inland  to  Abyssinia. 
At  Cyrene  and  Berenice  (Tripoli)  the  Jewish 
inhabitants  formed  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  population.    The  Jewish  settlements  in 
Rome  were  consequent  upon  the  occupation  of 
Jerusalem  by  Pompey,  B.  C.  63.   The  captives 
and  emigrants  whom  he  brought  with  him  were 
located  in  the  trans-Tiberine  quarter.    In  the 
reign  of  Claudius  the  Jews  become  objects  of 
suspicion  from  their  immense  numbers;  and 
the  internal  disputes  led  to  their  banishment 
from  the  city  (Acts  xviii.  2).   This  expulsion, 
if  general,  can  only  have  been  temporary,  for 
in  a  few  years  the  Jews  at  Rome  were  numer- 
ous (Acts  xxviii.  17,  f¥.).   The  influence  of  the 
Dispersion  on  the  rapid  promulgation  of  Chris- 
tianity can  scarcely  be  overrated.   The  course 
of  the  apostolic  preaching  followed  in  a  reg- 
ular progress  the  line  of  Jewish  settlemenbs. 
The  mixed  assembly  from  which  the  first  con- 
verts were  gathered  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
represented  each  Division  of  the  Dispersion 
Acts  ii.  9-1 1 ;  (i)  Parthians  .  .  .  Mesopotamia; 
(2)  Judaea  (i.  e.  Syria)  .  .  .  Pamphylia ;  (3) 
Egypt  .  .  .  Greece;  (4)  Romans  .  .  .  ),  and 
these  converts  naturally  prepared  the  way  for 
the  apostles  in  the  interval  which  preceded  the 
beginning  of  the  separate  apostolic  missions. 
St.  James  and  St.  Peter  wrote  to  the  Jews  of 
the  Dispersion  (Jam.  i.  i ;  i  Pet.  i.- 1). 
Divination  has  been  universal  in  all  ages, 


DIVORCE 

and  all  nations  alike  civilized  and  savage.  Nu- 
merous forms  of  divination  are  mentioned, 
such  as  divination  by  rods  (Hos,  iv,  12;  divina- 
tion by  arrows  (Ez.  xxi.  21)  ;  divination  by 
cups  (Gen.  vliv.  5)  ;  consultation  of  Teraphim 
(Zech.  x.  2;  Ez.  xxi.  21;  i  Sam.  xv.  23) 
[Terapaim]  ;  divination  by  the  liver  (Ez.  xxi. 
21);  divination  by  dreams  (Deut.  xiii.  2,  3; 
Judg.  vii.  13 ;  Jer.  xxiii.  32)  ;  consultation  of 
oracles  (Is.  xli.  21-24,  vliv,  7).  Moses  forbade 
every  species  of  divination  because  a  prying 
into  the  future  clouds  the  mind  with  supersti- 
tion, and  because  it  would  have  been  an  in- 
centive to  idolatry:  indeed  the  frequent  de- 
nunciations of  the  sin  in  the  prophets  tend  to 
prove  that  these  forbidden  arts  presented  pe- 
culiar temptations  to  apostate  Israel,  But  God 
supplied  his  people  with  substitutes  for  div- 
ination, which  would  have  rendered  it  super- 
fluous, and  left  them  in  no  doubt  as  to  his  will 
in  circumstances  of  danger,  had  they  contin- 
ued faithful.  It  was  only  when  they  were  un- 
faithful that  the  revelation  was  withdrawn  (i 
Sam.  xxviii.  6;  2  Sam.  ii.  i,  v.  23,  &c.).  Super- 
stition not  unfrequently  goes  hand  in  hand 
with  scepticism,  and  hence,  amid  the  general 
infidelity  prevalent  through  the  Roman  empire 
at  our  Lord's  coming,  imposture  was  rampant ; 
as  a  glance  at  the  pages  of  Tacitus  will  suffice 
to  prove.  Hence  the  lucrative  trades  of  such 
men  as  Simon  Magus  (Acts  viii.  9),  Bar-jesus 
(Acts  viii.  6,  8),  the  slave  with  the  spirit  of 
Python  (Acts  xvi.  16),  the  vagabond  Jews, 
exorcists  (Luke  xi.  19;  Acts  xix.  13),  and  oth- 
ers (2  Tim.  iii.  13;  Rev.  xix.  20,  &c.),  as  well 
as  the  notorious  dealers  in  magical  books  at 
Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  19). 

Divorce.  The  law.  regulating  this  subject  is 
found  Deut.  xxiv.  1-4,  and  the  cases  in  which 
the  right  of  a  husband  to  divorce  his  wife  was 
lost,  are  stated  ib.  xxii.  19,  29.  .The  ground  of 
divorce  is  a  point  on  which  the  Jewish  doctors 
of  the  period  of  the  N.  T.  widely  differed;  the 
school  of  Shammai  seeming  to  limit  it  to  a 
moral  delinquency  in  the  woman,  whilst  that 
of  Hillel  extended  it  to  trifling  causes,  e.  g.,  if 
the  wife  burnt  the  food  she  was  cooking  for 
her  husband.  The  Pharisees  wished  perhaps 
to  embroil  our  Saviour  with  these  rival  schools 
by  their  question  (Matt.  xix.  3)  ;  by  His  an- 
swer to  which,  as  well  as  by  His  previous 
maxim  (v.  31),  he  declares  that  but  for  their 
hardened  state  of  heart,  such  questions  would 
have  no  place.  Yet  from  the  distinction  made, 
"but  I  say  unto  you,"  v.  31,  32,  it  seems  to 
follow,  that  he  regarded  all  the  lesser  causes 
than  "fornication"  as  standing  on  too  weak 
ground,  and  declined  the  question  of  how  to 
interpret  the  words  of  Moses. 


100 


THE  I"' ftRt 

fir  TH^ 


DOG 


DRAGON 


Dog,  an  animal  frequently  mentioned  in 
Scripture.  It  was  used  by  the  Hebrews  as  a 
watch  for  their  houses  (Is.  Ivi.  lo),  and  for 
guarding  their  flocks  (Job  xxx.  i).  Then  also, 
as  now,  troops  of  hungry  and  semi-wild  dogs 
used  to  wander  about  the  fields  and  streets  of 
the  cities,  devouring  dead  bodies  and  other 
offal  (l  K.  xiv.  II,  xvi.  4,  xxi.  19,  23,  xxii.  38; 
2  K.  ix.  10,  36;  Jer.  xv.  3;  Ps.  lix.  6,  14),  and 
thus  became  such  objects  of  dislike  that  fierce 
and  cruel  enemies  are  poetically  styled  dogs  in 


Syrian  Dog. 

Ps.  xxii.  16,  20.  Moreover  the  dog  being  an 
unclean  animal  (Is.  Ixvi.  3),  the  terms  dog, 
dead  dog,  dog's  head,  were  used  as  terms  of 
reproach,  or  of  humility  in  speaking  of  one's 
self  (i  Sam.  xxiv.  14;  2  Sam.  iii.  8,  ix.  8,  xvi. 
9;  2  K.  viii.  13).  Stanley  micntions  that  he 
saw  on  the  very  site  of  Jezreel  the  descend- 
ants of  the  dogs  that  devoured  Jezebel,  prowl- 
ing on  the  mounds  without  the  walls  for  offal 
and  carrion  thrown  out  to  them  to  consume. 
Doors.  [Gates.] 


Dove. 

Dove.  The  first  mention  of  this  bird  occurs 
in  Gen.  viii.  The  dove's  rapidity  of  flight  is 
alluded  to  in  Ps.  Iv.  6;  the  beauty  of  its 
plumage  in  Ps.  Ixviii.  13;  its  dwelling  in  the 
rocks  and  valleys  in  Jer.  xlviii  28,  and  Ez.  vii. 
16;  its  mournful  voice  in  Is.  xxxviii.  14,  lix. 
II ;  Nah.  ii.  7;  its  harmlessness  in  Matt.  x.  16; 
its  simplicity  in  Hos.  vii.  1 1,  and  its  amative- 
ness  in  Cant.  i.  15,  ii.  14.   Doves  are  kept  in  a 


domesticated  state  in  many  parts  of  the  East. 
In  Persia  pigeon-houses  are  erected  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  dwellings,  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  the  dung  as  manure.  There  is  prob- 
ably an  allusion  to  such  a  custom  in  Is.  Ix.  8. 

Dove's  Dung.  Various  explanations  have 
been  given  of  the  passage  in  2  K.  vi.  25,  which 
describes  the  famine  of  Samaria  to  have  been 
so  excessive,  that  "an  ass's  head  was  sold  for 
fourscore  pieces  of  silver,  and  the  fourth  part 
of  a  cab  of  dove's  dung  for  five  pieces  of  sil- 
ver," Bochart  has  labored  to  show  that  it 
denotes  a  species  of  vicer,  "chick-pea,"  which 
he  says  the  Arabs  call  us.nan,  and  sometimes 
improperly  "dove's  or  sparrow's  dung."  It 
can  scarcely  be  believed  that  even  in  the  worst 
horrors  of  a  siege  a  substance  so  vile  as  is 
implied  by  the  literal  rendering  should  have 
been  used  for  food. 


star  of  Bethlehem. 
(Dove's  Dung.) 

Dowry.  [Marriage.] 

Drachm  (2  Mace.  iv.  19,  x.  20,  xii.  43 ;  Luke 
XV.  8,  9),  a  Greek  silver  coin,  varying  in  weight 
on  account  of  the  use  of  different  talents.  In 
Luke  (A.  V.  "piece  of  silver")  denarii  seem  to 
be  intended.    [Money;  Silver,  Piece  of.] 

Dragon.  The  translators  of  the  A.  V.,  ap- 
parently following  the  Vulgate,  have  rendered 
by  the  same  word  "dragon"  the  two  Hebrew 
words  Tan  and  Tannin,  which  appear  to  be 
quite  distinct  in  meaning.  I.  The  former  is 
used,  always  in  the  plural,  in  Job  xxx.  29 ;  Is. 
xxxiv.  13,  xliii.  20;  in  Is.  xiii.  22;  in  Jer.  x.  22, 
xlix.  33;  in  Ps.  xliv.  19;  and  in  Jer.  ix.  11,  xiv. 
6,  li.  37 ;  Mic.  i.  8.  It  is  always  applied  t6 
some  creatures  inhabiting  the  desert,  and  we 
should  conclude  from  this  that  it  refers  rather 
to  some  wild  beast  than  to  a  serpent.  The 
Syriac  renders  it  by  a  word  which,  according 
to  Pococke,  means  a  "jackal."  II.  The  word 
tannin  seems  to  refer  to  any  great  monster, 
whether  of  the  land  or  the  sea,  being  indeed 


lOI 


DRAM 


DREAMS 


more  usually  applied  to  some  kind  of  serpent 
or  reptile,  but  not  exclusively  restricted  to  that 
sense.  When  we  examine  special  passages  we 
find  the  word  used  in  Gen.  i.  21,  of  the  great 
sea-monsters,  the  representatives  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  deep.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Ex. 
vii.  9,  10,  12,  Deut.  xxxii.  33,  Ps.  xci.  13,  it 
refers  to  land-serpents  of  a  powerful  and 
deadly  kind.  In  the  N.  T.  it  is  only  found  in 
the  Apocalypse  (Rev.  xii.  3,  4,  7,  9,  16,  17, 
&c.),  as  applied  metaphorically  to  "the  old  ser- 
pent, called  the  Devil,  and  Satan,"  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  "dragon"  being  dictated  by  the 
symbolical  meaning  of  the  image  rather  than 
by  any  reference  to  any  actually  existing  crea- 
ture. The  reason  of  this  scriptural  symbol  is 
to  be  sought  not  only  in  the  union  of  gigantic 
power  with  craft  and  malignity,  of  which  the 
serpent  is  the  natural  emblem,  but  in  the  rec- 
ord of  the  serpent's  agency  in  the  temptation 
(Gen.  iii.). 
Dram.  [Daric] 

Dreams.  The  Scripture  declares,  that  the 
influence  of  the  Spirit  of  God  upon  the  soul 
extends  to  its  sleeping  as  well  as  its  waking 
thoughts.  But,  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciple enunciated  by  St.  Paul  in-  i  Cor.  xiv.  15, 
dreams  in  which  the  understanding  is  asleep, 
are  placed  below  the  visions  of  prophecy,  in 
which  the  understanding  plays  its  part.  It  is 
true  that  the  book  of  Job,  standing  as  it  does 
on  the  basis  of  "natural  religion,"  dwells  on 
dreams  and  "visions  in  deep  sleep,"  as  the 
chosen  method  of  God's  revelation  of  Himself 
to  man  (see  Job.  iv.  13,  vii.  14,  xxxiii.  15).  But 
in  Num.  xii.  6;  Deut.  xiii.  i,  3,  5;  Jer.  xxvii.  9; 
Joel  ii.  28,  &c.,  dreamers  of  dreams,  whether 
true  or  false,  are  placed  below  "prophets,"  and 
even  below  "diviners ;"  and  similarly  in  the 
climax  of  I  Sam.  xxviii.  6,  we  read  that  "Je- 
hovah answered  Saul  not,  neither  by  dreams, 
nor  by  Urim  [by  symbol],  nor  by  prophets." 
Under  the  Christian  dispensation,  while  we 
read  frequently  of  trances  and  visions,  dreams 
are  never  referred  to  as  vehicles  of  divine  rev- 
elation. In  exact  accordance  with  this  prin- 
ciple are  the  actual  records  of  the  dreams  sent 
by  God.  The  greater  number  of  such  dreams 
were  granted,  for  prediction  or  for  warning,  to 
those  who  were  aliens  to  the  Jewish  covenant. 
And,  where  dreams  are  recorded  as  means  of 
God's  revelation  to  His  chosen  servants,  they 
are  almost  always  referred  to  the  periods  of 
their  earliest  and  most  imperfect  knowledge  of 
Him. 

Dress.  This  subject  includes  the  following 
particulars:  i.  Materials.  2.  Color  and  dec- 
oration. 3.  Name,  form,  and  mode  of  wear- 
ing the  various  articles.   4.  Special  usages  re- 


lating thereto,  i.  The  earliest  and  simplest 
robe  was  made  out  of  the  leaves  of  a  tree,  por- 
tions of  which"  were  sewn  together,  so  as  to 
form  an  apron  (Gen.  iii.  7).  After  the  fall,  the 
skins  of  animals  supplied  a  more  durable  ma- 
terial (Gen.  iii.  21).  The  "mantle"  worn  by 
Elijah  appears  to  have  been  the  skin  of  a  sheep 
or  some  other  animal  with  the  wool  left  on. 
Pelisses  of  sheepskin  still  form  an  ordinary 
article  of  dress  in  the  East.  The  art  of  weav- 
ing hair  was  known  to  the  Hebrews  at  an  early 
period  (Ex.  xxvi.  7;  xxxv.  6);  the  sackcloth 
used  by  mourners  was  of  this  material.  John 
the  Baptist's  robe  was  of  camel's  hair  (Matt, 
iii.  4).  Wool,  we  may  presume,  was  intro- 
duced at  a  very  early  period,  the  flocks  of  the 


Fringed  Garment. 

pastoral  families  being  kept  partly  for  their 
wool  (Gen.  xxxviii.  12)  :  it  was  at  all  times 
largely  employed,  particularly  for  the  outer 
garments  (Lev.  xiii.  47;  Deut.  xxii.  11;  &c.). 
It  is  probable  that  the  acquaintance  of  the  He- 
brews with  linen,  and  perhaps  cotton,  dates 
from  the  period  of  the  captivity  in  Egypt, 
when  they  were  instructed  in  the  manufacture 
(i  Chr.  iv.  21).  Silk  was  not  introduced 
imtil  a  very  late  period.  (Rev.  xviii.  12). 
2.  Color  and  decoration. — The  prevailing  color 
of  the  Hebrew  dress  was  the  natural  white 
of  the  materials  employed.  It  is  uncertain 
when  the  art  of  dyeing  became  known  to 
the  Hebrews;  the  dress  worn  by  Joseph 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  3,  23)  is  variously  taken  to  be 
either  a  "coat  of  divers  colors,"  or  a  tunic 
furnished  with  sleeves  and  reaching  down  to 
the  ankles.  The  latter  is  probably  the  correct 
sense.  The  notice  of  scarlet  thread  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  28)  implies  some  acquaintance  with 


102 


DREAMS 


DREAMS 


dyeing.  The  Egyptians  had  carried  the  art  of 
weaving  and  embroidery  to  a  high  state  of  per- 
fection, and  from  them  the  Hebrews  learned 
various  methods  of  producing  decorated  stuffs. 
The  elements  of  ornamentation  were — (i) 
weaving  with  threads  previously  dyed  (Ex. 
XXXV.  25)  ;  (2)  the  introduction  of  gold  thread 
or  wire  (Ex.  xxvii.  6,  ff.)  ;  (3)  the  addition  of 
figures.  Robes  decorated  with  gold  (Ps.  xlv. 
13),  and  at  a  later  period  with  silver  thread 
(cf.  Acts  xii.  21),  were  worn  by  royal  person- 
ages ;  other  kinds  of  embroidered  robes  were 
worn  by  the  wealthy  both  of  Tyre  (Ez.  xvi. 
13)  and  Palestine  (Judg.  v.  30;  Ps.  xlv.  14). 
(3)  The  names,  forms,  and  mode  of  wearing  the 
robes.  The  general  characteristics  of  Oriental 
dress  have  indeed  preserved  a  remarkable  uni- 
formity in  all  ages:  the  modern  Arab  dresses 
much  as  the  ancient  Hebrew  did.  The  costume 
of  the  men  and  women  was  very  similar;  there 
was  sufficient  difference,  however,  to  mark  the 
sex,  and  it  was  strictly  forbidden  to  a  woman 
to  wear  the  appendages,  such  as  the  staff,  sig- 
net-ring, and  other  ornam.ents,  or,  according 
to  Josephus,  the  weapons,  of  a  man ;  as  well 
as  ' to  a  man  to  wear  the  outer  robe  of  a 
woman  (Deut.  xxii.  5).  We  shall  first  describe 
the  robes  which  were  common  to  the  two 
sexes,  and  then  those  which  were  peculiar  to 
women,  (i.)  The  cethoneth  was  the  most  es- 
sential article  of  dress.  It  was  a  closely-fitting 
garment,  resembling  in  form  and  use  our  shirt, 
though  unfortunately  translated  coat  in  the  A. 
\'.  The  material  of  which  it  was  made  was 
either  wool,  cotton,  or  linen.  The  primitive 
cethoneth  was  without  sleeves  and  reached 
only  to  the  knee.  Another  kind  reached  to  the 
wrists  and  ankles.  It  was  in  either  case  kept 
close  to  the  body  by  a  girdle,  and  the  fold 
formed  by  the  overlapping  of  the  robe  served 
as  an  inner  pocket.  A  person  wearing  the 
cethoneth  alone  was  described  as  naked,  A.  V. 
(2.)  The  sadin  appears  to  have  been  a  wrap- 
per of  fine  linen,  which  might  be  used  in  vari- 
ous ways,  but  especially  as  a  nightshirt  (Mark 
xiv.  51).  (3.)  The  meil  was  an  upper  or  sec- 
ond tunic,  the  difference  being  that  it  was 
longer  than  the  first.  As  an  article  of  ordi- 
nary dress  it  was  born  by  kings  (i  Sam.  xxiv. 
4),  prophets  (i  Sam.  xxviii.  14),  nobles  (Job 
i.  20),  and  youths  (i  Sam.  ii.  19).  It  may, 
however,  be  doubted  whether  the  term  is  used 
in  its  specific  sense  in  these  passages,  and  not 
rather  for  any  robe  that  chanced  to  be  worn 
over  the  cethoneth.  Where  two  tunics  are 
mentioned  (Luke  iii.  11)  as  being  worn  at  the 
same  time,  the  second  would  be  a  meil ;  trav- 
ellers generally  wore  two,  but  the  practice  was 
forbidden  to  the  disciples  (Matt,  x.  10;  Luke 


ix.  3).  The  dress  of  the  middle  and  upper 
classes  in  modern  Egypt  illustrated  the 
customs  of  the  Plebrews.  (4.)  The  ordinary 
outer  garment  consisted  of  a  quadrangular 
piece  of  woollen  cloth,  probably  resembling  in 
shape  a  Scotch  plaid.  The  size  and  texture 
would  vary  with  the  means  of  the  wearer.  The 
Hebrew  terms  referring  to  it  are — simlah, 
sometimes  put  for  clothes  generally  (Gen. 
XXXV.  2,  xxxvii.  34;  Ex.  iii.  22,  xxii.  9;  IDeut. 

x.  18;  Is.  iii.  7,  iv.  i)  ;  beged,  which  is  more 
usual  in  speaking  of  robes  of  a  handsome  and 
substantial  character  (Gen.  xxvii.  15,  xli.  42; 
Ex.  xxviii.  2 ;  I  K.  xxii,  10;  2  Chr.  xviii.  9;  Is, 
Ixiii,  i)  ;  cesuth,  appropriate  to  passages  where 
covering  or  protection  is  the  prominent  idea 
(Ex.  xxii.  26;  Job  xxvi.  6,  xxxi.  19)  ;  and  lastly 
lebiish,  usual  in  poetry,  but  specially  applied 
to  a  warrior's  cloak  (2  Sam.  xx.  8),  priests' 
vestments  (2  K.  x.  32),  and  royal  apparel 
(Esth.  vi.  II,  viii.  15).  Another  term,  mad, 
is  specifically  applied  to  a  long  cloak  (Judg. 
ii.  16;  2  Sam.  xx.  8),  and  to  the  priest's  coat 
(Lev,  vi.  10).  The  beged  might  be  worn  in 
various  ways,  either  wrapped  round  the  body, 
or  worn  over  the  shoulders,  like  a  shawl,  with 
the  ends  or  "skirts"  hanging  down  in  front, 
or  it  might  be  thrown  over  the  head,  so  as  to 
conceal  the  face  (2  Sam.  xv.  30;  Esth.  vi.  12), 
The  ends  were  skirted  with  a  fringe  and  bound 
with  a  dark  purple  ribbon  (Num.  xv.  38)  :  it 
was  confined  at  the  waist  by  a  girdle,,  and  the 
fold,  formed  by  the  overlapping  of  the  robe, 
served  as  a  pocket.  The  dress  of  the  women 
differed  from  that  of  the  men  in  regard  to  the 
outer  garment,  the  cethoneth  being  worn 
equally  by  both  sexes  (Cant.  v.  3).  The  names 
of  their  distinctive  robes  were  as  follows:  (i) 
mitpachath  (veil,  wimple,  A.  V.),  a  kind  of 
shawl  (Ruth  iii.  15;  Is.  iii.  22)  ;  (2)  ma'ataphan 
(mantle,  A.  V.),  another  kind  of  shawl  (Is.  iii. 

22)  ;  (3)  tsaiph  (veil,  A.  V.),  probably  a  light 
summer  dress  of  handsome  appearance  and  of 
ample  dimensions;  (4)  radid  (veil,  A.  V.),  a 
similar  robe  (Is.  iii.  23;  Cant.  v.  7);  (5) 
pethigi  (stomacher,  A.  V.),  a  term  of  doubtful 
origin,  but  probably  significant  of  a  gay  holi- 
day dress  (Is.  iii.  24)  ;  (6)  gilyonim  (Is.  iii. 

23)  ,  also  a  doubtful  word,  probably  means,  as 
in  the  A.  V.,  glasses.  The  garments  of  fe- 
males were  terminated  by  an  ample  border  of 
fringe  (skirts,  A.  V.),  which  concealed  the  feet 
(Is.  xlvii.  2;  Jer.  xiii.  22).  The  travelling 
cloak  referred  to  by  St.  Paul  (2  Tim.  iv.  13)  is 
generally  identified  with  the  Roman  paenula, 
of  which  it  may  be  a  corruption.  It  is,  how- 
ever, otherwise  explained  as  a  travelling-case 
for  carrying  clothes  or  books.  4.  Special 
usages  relating  to  dress. — The  length  of  the 


103 


DRINK 


EAGLE 


dress  rendered  it  inconvenient  for  active  exer- 
cise ;  hence  the  outer  garments  were  either  left 
in  the  hovjse  by  a  person  working  close  by 
(Matt.  xxiv.  i8)  or  were  thrown  off  when  the 
occasion  arose  (Mark  x.  50;  John  xiii.  4;  Acts 
vii.  58),  or,  if  this  was  not  possible,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  person  travelling,  they  were  girded 
up  (i  K.  xviii.  46;  2  K.  iv.  29;  ix.  i ;  i  Pet.  i. 
13)  ;  on  entering  a  house  the  upper  garment 
was  probably  laid  aside,  and  resumed  on  going 
out  (Acts  xii.  8).  In  a  sitting  posture,  the 
garments  concealed  the  feet ;  this  was  held  to 
be  an  act  of  reverence  (Is.  vi.  2).  The  number 
of  suits  possessed  by  the  Hebrew  was  consid- 
erable :  a  single  suit  consisted  of  an  under  and 
upper  garment.  The  presentation  of  a  :  >be  in 
many  instances  amounted  to  installatict  or  in- 
vestiture (Gen.  xli.  42;  Esth.  viii.  15;  I  .  xxii. 
21)  ;  on  the  other  hand,  taking  it  away 
amounted  to  dismissal  from  office  (2  M  cc.  iv. 
38).  The  production  of  the  best  robe  was  a 
mark  of  special  honor  in  a  household  (Luke 
XV.  22).  The  number  of  robes  thus  received 
or  kept  in  store  for  presents  was  very  large, 
and  formed  one  of  the  main  elements  of  wealth 
in  the  East  (Job  xxii.  16;  Matt.  vi.  19;  James 
V.  2),  so  that  to  have  clothing=to  be  wealthy 
and  powerful  (Is.  iii.  6,  7).  On  grand  occa- 
sions the  entertainer  offered  becoming  robes 
to  his  guests.  The  business  of  making  clothes 
devolved  upon  women  in  a  family  (Prov.  xxxi. 
22 ;  Acts  ix.  39)  ;  little  art  was  required  in 
what  we  may  term  the  tailoring  department ; 
the  garments  came  forth  from  the  most  part 
ready  made  from  the  loom,  so  that  the  weaver 
supplanted  the  tailor. 

Drink,  Strong.  The  Hebrew  term  shecar, 
in  its  etymological  sense,  applies  to  any  bev- 
erage that  had  intoxicating  qualities.  We 
may  infer  from  Cant.  viii.  2  that  the  Hebrews 
were  in  the  habit  of  expressing  the  juice  of 
other  fruits  besides  the  grape  for  the  purpose 
of  making  wine ;  the  pomegranate,  which  is 
there  noticed,  was  probably  one  out  of  many 
fruits  so  used.  With  regard  to  the  application 
of  the  term  in  later  times  we  have  the  explicit 
statement  of  Jerome,  as  well  as  other  sources 
of  information,  from  which  we  may  state  that 
the  following  beverages  were  known  to  the 
Jews:  I.  Beer,  which  was  largely  consumed 
in  Egypt  under  the  name  of  bythus,  anc  was 
thence  introduced  into  Palestine.  It  was  1  lade 
of  barley;  certain  herbs,  such  as  lupinf  and 
skirret,  were  used  as  substitutes  for  hop;  ,  2. 
Cider,  which  is  noticed  in  the  Mishna  as  a  pie- 
wine.  3.  Honey-wine,  of  v/hich  there  were 
two  sorts,  one  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  wine, 
honey,  and  pepper;  the  other  a  decoction  of 
the  juice  of  the  grape,  termed  debash  (honey) 


by  the  Hebrews,  and  dibs  by  the  modern  Syri- 
ans. 4.  Date-wine,  which  was  also  manufac- 
tured in  Egypt.  It  was  made  by  mashing  the 
fruit  in  water  in  certain  proportions.  5.  Vari- 
ous other  fruits  and  vegetables  are  enumerated 
by  Pliny  as  supplying  materials  for  factitious 
or  home-made  wine,  such  as  figs,  millet,  the 
carob  fruit,  &c.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
Hebrews  applied  raisins  to  this  purpose  in  the 
simple  manner  followed  by  the  Arabians,  viz., 
by  putting  them  in  jars  of  water  and  burying 
them  in  the  ground  until  fermentation  takes 
place. 

Dromedary.  [Camel.] 

Dulcimer,  a  musical  instrument,  mentioned 
in  Dan.  iii.  5,  15,  probably  the  bagpipe.  The 
same  instrument  is  still  in  use  among  peasants 
in  the  N.  W.  of  Asia  and  in  Southern  Europe, 
where  it  is  known  by  the  similar  name  Sam- 
pogna  or  Zampogna. 

Dung.  The  uses  of  dung  were  twofold,  as 
manure,  and  as  fuel.  The  manure  consisted 
either  of  straw  steeped  in  liquid  manure  (Is. 
XXV.  10),  or  the  sweepings  (Is.  v.  25)  of  the 
streets  and  roads,  which  were  carefully  re- 
moved from  about  the  houses  and  collected  in 
heaps  outside  the  walls  of  the  towns  at  fixed 
spots  (hence  the  dung-gate  aL  Jerusalem  Neh. 
ii.  13),  and  thence  removed  in  due  course  to 
the  fields.  The  mode  of  applying  manure  to 
trees  was  by  digging  holes  about  their  roots 
and  inserting  it  (Luke'xiii.  8),  as  still  practised 
in  Southern  Italy.  In  the  case  of  sacrifices  the 
dung  was  burnt  outside  the  camp  (Ex.  xxix. 
14;  Lev.  iv.  II,  viii.  17;  Num.  xix.  5):  hence 
the  extreme  opprobrium  of  the  threat  in  Mai. 
ii.  3.  Particular  directions  were  laid  down  in 
the  law  to  enforce  cleanliness  with  regard  to 
human  ordure  (Deut.  xxiii.  12,  ff.)  :  it  was  the 
grossest  insult  to  turn  a  man's  house  into  a 
receptacle  for  it  (2  K.  x.  27;  Ezr.  vi.  ii;  Dan. 
ii.  5,  iii.  29,  "dunghill,"  A.  V.)  ;  public  estab- 
lishments of  that  nature  are  still  found  in  the 
large  towns  of  the  East. — The  difficulty  of 
procuring  fuel  in  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Egypt,  has 
made  dung  in  all  ages  valuable  as  a  substitute : 
it  was  probably  used  for  heating  ovens  and  for 
baking  cakes  (Ez.  iv.  12,  15),  and  equable  heat 
which  it  produced  adapting  it  peculiarly  for 
the  latter  operation.  Cow's  and  camel's  dung 
is  still  used  for  a  similar  purpose  by  the 
Bedouins. 

Dungeon.  [Prison.] 

Dust.  [Mourning.] 

E. 

Eagle.  The  Hebrew  word,  which  occurs 
frequently  in  the  O.  T.,  may  denote  a  partic- 
ular species  of  the  Falconidae,  as  in  Lev.  xi. 


104 


0?  r.vf 

'TV  fir  n. 


Earrings 


EARTHQUAKE 


13;  Deut.  xiv.  12,  where  the  nesher  is  distin- 
guished from  the  ossifrage  (osprey,  and  other 
raptatorial  birds ;  but  the  term  is  used  also  to 
express  the  griffon  vulture  in  two  or  three  pas- 
sages. At  least  four  distinct  kinds  of  eagles 
have  been  observed  in  Palestine,  viz.,  the 
golden  eagle,  the  spotted  eagle,  the  commonest 
species  in  the  rocky  districts,  the  imperial 
eagle,  and  the  very  common,  which  preys  on 
the  numerous  reptilia  of  Palestine.  The  Heb. 
nesher  may  stand  for  any  of  these  different 
species,  though  perhaps  more  particular  refer- 
ence to  the  golden  and  imperial  eagles  and 
the  griffon  vulture  may  be  intended.  The  fig- 
ure of  an  eagle  is  now  and  has  been  long  a 
favorite  military  ensign.  The  Persians  so 
employed  it ;  a  fact  which  illustrates  the  pass- 
age in  Is.  xlvi.  II.  The  same  bird  was  similar- 
ly employed  by  the  Assyrians  and  the  Ro- 
mans. 

Earrings.  The  material  of  which  earrings 
were  made  was  generall}-  gold  (Ex.  xxxii.  2), 
and  their  form  circular.  They  were  worn  by 
women  and  by  youth  of  both  sexes  (Ex.  1.  c). 
It  had  been  inferred  from  the  passage  quoted, 
and  from  Judg.  viii.  24,  that  they  were  not 
worn  by  men :  these  passages  are,  however,  by 


Egyptian  Earrings. 


no  means  conclusive.  The  earring  appears 
to  have  been  regarded  with  superstitious  rev- 
erence as  an  amulet.  On  this  account  they 
were  surrendered  along  with  the  idols  by 
Jacob's  household  (Gen.  xxxv.  4).  Chardin 
describes  earrings,  with  talismanic  figures  and 
characters  on  them,  as  still  existing  in  the 
East.  Jewels  were  sometimes  attached  to  the 
rings.  The  size  of  the  earrings  still  worn  in 
eastern  countries  far  exceeds  what  is  usual 
among  ourselves;  hence  they  formed  a  hand- 
some present  (Job.  xlii.  11),  or  offering  to  the 
service  of  God  (Num.  xxxi.  50). 

Earth,  The  term  is  used  in  two  widely  dif- 
ferent senses:  (i)  for  the  material  of  which 
the  earth's  surface  is  composed;  (2)  as  the 
name  of  the  planet  on  which  man  dwells.  The 
Hebrew  language  discriminates  between  these 
two  by  the  use  of  separate  terms,  Adamah  for 
the  former,  Erets  for  the  latter.  I.  Adamah 
is  the  earth  in  the  sense  of  soil  or  ground,  par- 

10 


ticularly  as  being-  susceptible  of  cultivation. 
The  earth  supplied  the  elementary  substance 
of  which  man's  body  was  formed,  and  the 
terms  adam  and  adamah  are  brought  into  jux- 
taposition, implying  an  etymological  connec- 
tion (Gen.  ii.  7).  II.  Erets  is  applied  in  a  more 
or  less  extended  sense:  i.  to  the  whole  world 
(Gen.  i.  i)  ;  2.  to  land  as  opposed  to  sea  (Gen. 
i.  10)  ;  3.  to  a  country  (Gen.  xxi.  32)  ;  4.  to  a 
plot,  of  ground  (Gen.  xxiii.  15)  ;  and  5.  to  the 
ground  on  which  a  man  stands  (Gen.  xxxiii. 
3).  The  two  former  senses  alone  concern  us, 
the  first  involving  an  inquiry  into  the  opinions 
of  the  Hebrews  on  Cosmogony,  the  second  on 
Geography.  I.  Cosmogony,  i.  The  earth  was 
regarded  not  only  as  the  central  point  of  the 
universe,  but  as  the  universe  itself,  every  other 
body — the  heavens,  sun,  moon,  and  stars — 
being  subsidiary  to,  and,  as  it  were,  the  com- 
plement of  the  earth.  2.  The  earth  was  re- 
garded in  a  twofold  aspect ;  in  relation  to  God, 
as  the  manifestation  of  His  infinite  attributes ; 
in  relation  to  man,  as  the  scene  of  his  abode. 

1.  The  Plebrew  cosmogony  is  based  upon  the 
leading  principle  that  the  universe  exists,  not 
independently  of  God,  nor  yet  co-existent  with 
God,  nor  yet  in  opposition  to  Him,  as  a  hostile 
element,  but  dependently  upon  Him,  subse- 
quently to  Him,  and  in  subjection  to  Him. 

2.  Creation  was  regarded  as  a  progressive 
work — a  gradual  development  from  the  inferior 
to  the  superior  orders  of  things.  II.  Geog- 
raphy. There  seem  to  be  traces  of  the  same 
ideas  as  prevailed  among  the  Greeks,  that  the 
world  was  a  disk  (Is.  xl.  22),  bordered  by  the 
ocean,  with  Jerusalem  as  its  centre,  like  Del- 
phi, as  the  navel,  or,  according  to  another 
view,  the  highest  point  of  the  world.  As  to 
the  size  of  the  earth,  the  Hebrews  had  but  a 
very  indefinite  notion. 

Earthenware.  [Pottery.] 

Earthquake.  Earthquakes,  more  or  less  vio- 
lent, are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Palestine, 
as  might  be  expected  from  the  numerous 
traces  of  volcanic  agency  visible  in  the  features 
of  that  country.  The  recorded  instances,  how- 
ever, are  but  few;  the  most  remarkable  oc- 
curred in  the  reign  of  Uzziah  (Am.  i.  i ;  Zech. 
xiv.  5),  which  Josephus  connected  with  the 
sacrilege  and  consequent  punishment  of  that 
monarch  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  16,  If.).  From  Zech. 
xiv.  4,  we  are  led  to  infer  that  a  great  convul- 
sion took  place  at  this  time  in  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  the  mountain  being  split  so  as  to  leave 
a  valley  between  its  summits.  Josephus  re- 
cords something  of  the  sort,  but  his  account  is 
by  no  means  clear.  We  cannot  but  think  that 
the  two  accounts  have  the  same  foundation, 
and  that  the  Mount  of  Olives  Was  really  af- 

5 


EAST 


ECLIPSE  OF  THE  SUN 


lected  by  the  earthquake.  An  earthquake  oc- 
curred at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's  crucifix- 
ion (Matt,  xxvii.  51-54),  which  may  be  deemed 
miraculous  rather  from  the  conjunction  of  cir- 
cumstances than  from  the  nature  of  the  phe- 
nomenon itself.  Earthquakes  are  not  unfre- 
quently  accompanied  by  fissures  of  the  earth's 
surface ;  instances  of  this  are  recorded  in  con- 
nection with  the  destruction  of  Korah  and  his 
company  (Num.  xvi.  32),  and  at  the  time  of 
our  Lord's  death  (Matt,  xxxvii.  51)  ;  the  for- 
mer may  be  paralleled  by  a  similar  occurrence 
at  Oppido  in  Calabria  A.  D.  1783,  where  the 
earth  opened  to  the  extent  of  500,  and  a  depth 
of  more  than  200  feet. 

East.  The  Hebrew  terms,  descriptive  of  the 
east,  dififer  in  idea,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  in 
application;  (i)  kedem  properly  means  that 
which  is  before  or  in  front  of  a  person,  and 
was  applied  to  the  east  from  the  custom  of 
turning  in  that  direction  when  describing  the 
points  of  the  compass,  before,  behind,  the 
right,  and  the  left,  representing  respectively 
E.,  W.,  S.,  and  N.  (Job  xxiii.  8,  9)  ;  (2)  miz- 
rach  means  the  place  of  the  sun's  rising.  Bear- 
ing in  mind  this  etymological  distinction,  it  is 
natural  that  kedem  should  be  used  when  the 
four  quarters  of  the  world  are  described  (as  in 
Gen.  xiii.  14,  xxviii.  14  ;  Job  xxiii,  8,  9 ;  Ez.  xlvii. 
18,  f¥.),  and  mizrach  when  the  east  is  only  dis- 
tinguished from  the  west  (Josh.  xi.  3 ;  Ps.  1.  I, 
ciii.  12,  cxiii.  3;  Zech.  viii.  7),  or  from  some 
other  one  quarter  (Dan.  viii.  9,  xi.  44;  Am. 
viii.  12)  ;  exceptions  to  this  usage  occur  in  Ps. 
cvii,  3,  and  Is.  xliii.  5  ;  each,  however,  admit- 
ting of  explanation.  Again,  kedem  is  used  in 
a  strictly  geographical  sense  to  describe  a  spot 
or  country  immediately  before  another  in  an 
easterly  direction ;  hence  it  occurs  in  such  pas- 
sages as  Gen.  ii.  8,  iii.  24,  xi.  2,  xiii.  11,  xxv.  6; 
and  hence  the  subsequent  application  of  the 
term,  as  a  proper  name  (Gen.  xxv.  6,  eastward, 
unto  the  land  of  Kedem),  to  the  lands  lying 
immediately  eastward  of  Palestine,  viz.,  Ara- 
bia, Mesopotamia,  and  Babylonia ;  on  the  other 
hand  mizrach  is  used  of  the  far  east  with  a 
less  definite  signification  (Is.  xli.  2,  25,  xliii.  5, 
xlvi.  11). 

Easter.  The  occurrence  of  this  word  in  the 
A.  V.  of  Acts  xii.  4,  is  chiefly  noticeable  as  an 
example  of  the  want  of  consistency  in  the 
translators.  In  the  earlier  English  versions 
Easter  had  been  frequently  used  as  the  trans- 
lation of  pascha.  At  the  last  revision  Passover 
was  substituted  in  all  passages  but  this. 
[Passover.] 

Eb'en-e'zer  ("the  stone  of  help"),  a  stone 
set  up  by  Samuel  after  a  signal  defeat  of  the 
Philistines,  as  a  memorial  of  the  "help"  re- 


ceived on  the  occasion  from  Jehovah  (i  Sam. 
vii.  12).  Its  position  is  carefully  defined  as  be- 
tween Mizpeh  and  Shen. 

Ebony  occurs  only  in  Ez.  xxvii.  15,  as  one 
of  the  valuable  commodities  imported  into 
Tyre  by  the  men  of  Dedan.  The  best  kind 
of  ebony  is  yielded  by  a  tree  which  grows  in 
Ceylon  and  Southern  India. 

Ecclesias'tes.  The  title  of  this  book  is  in 
Hebrew  Koheleth,  a  feminine  noun,  signifying 
one  who  speaks  publicly  in  an  assembly,  and 
hence  rendered  in  the  Septuagint  by  Ecclesi- 
astes,  which  is  adopted  in  the  English  version. 
Koheleth  is  the  name  by  which  Solomon 
speaks  of  himself  throughout  the  book.  "The 
words  of  the  preacher  (Heb.  Koheleth)  the 
son  of  David,  king  of  Jerusalem"  (i.  i).  The 
apparent  anamoly  of  the  feminine  termination 
indicates  that  the  abstract  noun  has  been 
transferred  from  the  office  to  the  person  hold- 
ing it.  The  Book  is  that  which  it  professes 
to  be, — the  confession  of  a  man  of  wide  expe- 
rience looking  back  upon  his  past  life  and  look- 
ing out  upon  the  disorders  and  calamities 
which  surround  him.  The  writer  is  a  man 
who  has  sinned  in  giving  way  to  selfishness 
and  sensuality,  who  has  paid  the  penalty  of 
that  sin  in  satiety  and  weariness  of  life,  but 
who  has  through  all  this  been  under  the  dis- 
cipline of  a  divine  education,  and  has  learnt 
from  it  the  lesson  which  God  meant  to  teach 
him.  It  is  tolerably  clear  that  the  recurring 
burden  of  "Vanity  of  vanities"  and  the  teach- 
ing which  recommends  a  life  of  calm  enjoy- 
ment, mark,  whenever  they  occur,  a  kind  of 
halting-place  in  the  succession  of  thoughts. 

Ecclesias'ticus,  one  of  the  books  of  the 
Apocrypha,  is  the  title  given  in  the  Latin  Ver- 
sion to  the  book  which  is  called  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  Son  of 
Sirach.  The  word  designates  the  character  of 
the  writing,  as  publicly  used  in  the  service  of 
the  Church.  The  writer  describes  himself  as 
Jesus  (i.  e.  Jeshua)  the  son  of  Sirach,  of  Jeru- 
salem (i.  27),  but  we  know  nothing  of  the 
author.  The  language  in  which  the  book  was 
originally  composed  was  Hebrew,  i.  e.  perhaps 
the  Aramean  dialect;  and  the  Greek  transla- 
tion incorporated  in  the  LXX.  was  made  by 
the  grandson  of  the  author  in  Egypt  "in  the 
reign  of  Euergetes,"  perhaps  Ptolemy  VII. 
Physcon,  who  also  bore  the  surname  of  Euer- 
getes (B.  C.  170-117). 

Eclipse  of  the  Sun.  No  historical  notice  of 
an  eclipse  occurs  in  the  Bible,  but  there  are 
passages  in  the  prophets  which  contain  mani- 
fest allusion  to  this  phenomenon  (Am.  viii.  9; 
Mic.  iii.  6;  Zech.  xi«v.  6;  Joel  ii.  10,  31,  iii.  15). 
Some   of   these    notices    probably   refer  to 


106 


EDEN 

eclipses  that  occurred  about  the  time  of  the 
respective  compositions :  thus  the  date  of  Amos 
coincides  with  a  total  eclipse,  which  occurred 
Feb.  9,  B.  C.  784,  and  was  visible  at  Jerusalem 
shortly  after  noon ;  that  of  Micah  wit4i  the 
eclipse  of  June  5,  B.  C.  716.  A  passing  notice 
in  Jer.  xv.  9  coincides  in  date  with  the  eclipse 
of  Sept.  30,  B.  C.  610,  so  well  known  from 
Herodotus's  account  (i.  74,  103).  The  dark- 
ness that  overspread  the  world  at  the  cruci- 
fixion cannot  with  reason  be  attributed  to  an 
eclipse,  as  the  moon  w^as  at  the  full  at  the  time 
of  the  Passover. 

E'den  (pleasure),  i.  The  first  residence  of 
man,  called  in  the  Septuagint  Paradise.  The 
latter  is  a  word  of  Persian  origin,  and  de- 
scribes an  extensive  tract  of  pleasure  land, 
somewhat  like  an  English  park ;  and  the  use  of 
it  suggests  a  wider  view  of  man's  first  abode 
than  a  garden.  The  description  of  Eden  is  as 
follows: — "And  the  Lord  God  planted  a 
garden  in  Eden  eastward.  .  .  .  And  a  river 
goeth  forth  from  Eden  to  water  the  garden; 
and  from  thence  it  is  divided  and  becomes  four 
heads  (or  arms).  The  name  of  the  first  is 
Pison :  that  is  it  which  compasseth  the  whole 
land  of  Havilah,  where  is  the  gold.  And  the 
gold  of  that  land  is  good :  there  is  the  bdellium 
and  the  onyx  stone.  And  the  name  of  the  sec- 
ond river  is  Gihon;  that  is  it  which  compasseth 
the  whole  land  of  Cush.  And  the  name  of  the 
third  river  is  Hiddekel ;  that  is  it  which  flow- 
eth  before  Assyria.  And  the  fourth  river,  that 
is  Euphrates"  (Gen;  ii.  8-14).  In  the  eastern 
portion  then  of  the  region  of  Eden  was  the 
garden  planted.  The  Hiddekel  is  the  Tigris ; 
but  with  regard  to  the  Pison  and  Gihon,  a 
great  variety  of  opinion  exists.  Many  ancient 
writers,  as  Josephus,  identified  the  Pison  with 
the  Ganges,  and  the  Gihon  with  the  Nile. 
Others,  guided  by  the  position  of  the  two 
known  rivers,  identify  the  two  unknown  ones 
with  the  Phasis  and  Araxes,  which  also  have 
their  sources  in  the  highlands  of  Armenia. 
Others,  again,  have  transferred  the  site  to  the 
sources  of  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  and  place  it 
in  Bactria ;  others,  again,  in  the  valley  of  Cash- 
mere. Such  speculations  may  be  multiplied  ad 
infinitum,  and  have  sometimes  assumed  the 
wildest  character.  2,  One  of  the  marts  which 
supplied  the  luxury  of  Tyre  with  richly  em- 
broidered stufifs.  It  is  associated  with  Haran, 
Sheba,  and  Asshur.  In  2  K.  xix.  12,  and  Is. 
xxxvii.  12,  "the  sons  of  Eden"  are  mentioned 
with  Gozan,  Haran,  and  Rezeph,  as  victims  of 
the  Assyrian  greed  of  conquest.  In  the  absence 

I of  positive  evidence,  probability  seems  to  point 
to  the  N.  W.  of  Mesopotamia  as  the  locality  of 
Eden.  3.  Beth-Eden,  "house  of  pleasure ;" 
I 


EDEN 

probably  the  name  of  a  country  residence  of 
the  kings  of  Damascus  (Am.  i.  5). 

E'dom,  Idume'a,  or  Idumae'a.  The  name 
Edom  was  given  to  Esau,  the  first-born  son  of 
Isaac,  and  twin  brother  of  Jacob,  when  he  sold 
his  birthright  to  the  latter  for  a  meal  of  lentil 
pottage.  The  country  which  the  Lord  subse- 
quently gave  to  Esau  was  hence  called  the 
"field  of  Edom"  (Gen.  xxxii.  3),  or  "land  of 
Edom"  (Gen.  xxxvi.  16;  Num.  xxxiii.  37),  and 
his  descendants  were  called  the  Edomites. 
Edom  was  previously  called  Mount  Seir  (Gen. 
xxxii.  3,  xxxvi.  8),  from  Seir  the  progenitor  of 
the  Horites  (Gen.  xiv.  6,  xxxvi.  20-22).  It  em- 
braced the  narrow  mountainous  tract  (about 
100  miles  long  by  20  broad)  extending  along 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Arabah  from  the  north- 
ern end  of  the  gulf  of  Elath  to  near  the  south- 


ilom. 


ern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was  separated 
from  Moab  on  the  N.  by  the  "brook  Zered" 
(Deut.  ii.  13,  14,  18),  probably  the  modern 
Wady-el-Ahsy.  The  ancient  capital  of  Edom 
was  Bozrah  (Buseireh)  near  the  northern 
border  (Gen.  xxxvi.  33;  Is.  xxxiv.  6,  Ixiii.  i; 
Jer.  xlix.  13,  22).  But  Sela  (Petra)  appears  to 
have  been  the  principal  stronghold  in  the  days 
of  Amaziah  (B.  C.)  838;  (2  K.  xiv.  7)  :  Elath 
and  Eziongeber  were  the  sea-ports  (2  Sam. 
viii.  14;  I  K.  ix.  26).  Esau's  bitter  hatred  to 
his  brother  Jacob  for  fraudulently  obtaining 
his  blessing  appears  to  have  been  inherited  by 
his  latest  posterity.  The  Edomites  per- 
emptorily refused  to  permit  the  Israelites  to 
pass  through  their  land  (Num.  xx.  18-21).  For 
a  period  of  400  years  we  hear  no  more  of  the 
Edomites.  They  were  then  attacked  and  de- 
feated by  Saul  (i  Sam.  xiv.  47).  Some  forty 
years  later  David  overthrew  their  army  in  the 
"Valley  of  Salt,"  and  his  general,  Joab,  follow- 
ing up  the  victory,  destroyed  nearly  the  whole 
male  population  (i  K.  xi.  15,  16),  and  placed' 
Jewish  garrisons  in  all  the  strongholds  of 
Edom  (2  Sam.  viii.  13,  14).  In  the  reign  of 
107 


EDEN 


EGYPT 


Jehosliaphat  (B.  C.  914)  the  Eclomites  at- 
tempted to  invade  Israel  in  conjunction  with 
Amnion  and  Moab,  but  were  miraculously  de- 
stroyed in  the  valley  of  Berachah  (2  Chr.  xx. 
22).  A  few  years  later  they  revolted  against 
Jehoram,  elected  a  king,  and  for  half  a  century 
retained  their  independence  (2  Chr.  xxi.  8). 
They  were  then  attacked  by  Amaziah,  and 
Sela  their  great  stronghold  was  captured  (2  K. 
xiv.  7;  2  Chr.  xxv.  11,  12).  Yet  the  Israelites 
were  never  able  again  completely  to  subdue 
them  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  17).  When  Nebuchad- 
nezzar besieged  Jerusalem  the  Edomites 
joined  him,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
plunder  of  the  city  and  slaughter  of  the  Jews. 
Their  cruelty  at  that  time  seems  to  be  specially 
referred  to  in  the  137th  Psalm.  It  was  on  ac- 
count of  these  acts  of  cruelty  committed  upon 
the  Jews  in  the  day  of  their  calamity  that  the 
Edomites  were  so  fearfully  denounced  by  the 
later  prophets  (Is.  xxxiv.  5-8,  Ixiii.  1-4;  Jer. 
xlix.  17;  Lam.  iv.  21;  Ez.  xxv.  13,  14;  Am.  i. 
II,  12;  Obad.  10,  sq.).  On  the  conquest  of 
Judah,  the  Edomites  were  permitted  to  settle 
in  southern  Palestine.  For  more  than  four 
centuries  they  continued  to  prosper.  But  dur» 
ing  the  warlike  rule  of  the  Maccabees  they 
were  again  completely  subdued,  and  even 
forced  to  conform  to  Jewish  laws  and  rites, 
and  submit  to  the  government  of  Jewish  pre- 
fects. The  Edomites  were  now  incorporated 
with  the  Jewish  nation.    From  this  time  the 


Tombs  at  Petra  in  Edom. 

Edomites,  as  a  separate  people,  disappear 
from  the  page  of  history. — Little  is  known  of 
their  religion ;  but  that  little  shows  them  to 
have  been  idolaters  (2  Chr.  xxv.  14,  15,  20). 
Their  habits  were  singular.  The  Horites,  their 
predecessors  in  Mount  Seir,  were,  as  their 
name  implies,  troglodytes,  or  dwellers  in 
caves;  and  the  Edomites  seem  to  have  adopted 
their   dwellings   as   well   as   their  country. 


Everywhere  we  meet  with  caves  and  grottos 
hewn  in  the  soft  sandstone  strata. 
E'domites.  [Edom.] 

Egypt  (land  of  the  copts)  a  country  oc- 
cupying the  northeastern  angle  of  Africa.  Its 
limits  appear  always  to  have  been  very  nearly 
the  same.  In  Ezekiel  (xxix.  10,  xxx.  6)  the 
whole  country  is  spoken  of  as  extending  from 
Migdol  to  Syene,  which  indicates  the  same 
limits  to  the  east  and  the  south  as  at  present. 


The  Spliinx,  Egypt. 

Names. — The  common  name  of  Egypt  in  the 
Bible  is  "Mizraim,"  or  more  fully  "the  land 
of  Mizraim."  The  Arabic  name  of  Egypt, 
Mizr,  signifies  "red  mud."  Egypt  is  also 
called  in  the  Bible  "the  land  of  Ham"  (Ps.  cv. 
23,  27;  comp.  Ixxviii.  51),'  a  name  most  proba- 
bly referring  to  Ham  the  son  of  Noah ;  and 
"Rahab,"  the  proud  or  insolent;  both  these  ap- 
pear to  be  poetical  appellations.  The  common 
ancient  Egyptian  name  of  the  country  is  writ- 
ten in  hieroglyphics  KEM,  which  was  perhaps 
pronounced  Chem.  The  general  appearance 
of  the  country  cannot  have  greatly  changed 
since  the  days  of  Moses.  The  Delta  was 
always  a  vast  level  plain,  although  of  old  more 
perfectly  watered  than  now  by  the  branches 
of  the  Nile  and  numerous  canals,  while  the 
narrow  valley  of  Upper  Egypt  must  have  suf- 
fered still  less  alteration.  Anciently,  however, 
the  rushes  must  have  been  abundant;  whereas 
now  they  have  almost  disappeared,  except  in 
the  lakes.  The  whole  country  is  remarkable 
for  its  extreme  fertility,  which  especially 
strikes  the  beholder  when  the  rich  green  of  the 
fields  is  contrasted  with  the  utterly  bare  yel- 
low mountains  or  the  sand-strewn  rocky  desert 
on  either  side.  The  climate  is  equable  and 
healthy.  Rain  is  not  very  unfrequent  on  the 
northern  coast,  but  inland  very  rare.  Cultiva- 
tion nowhere  depends  upon  it.    This  absence 


108 


THE  m^^^ 

HUM*' 


EGYPT 


EGYPT 


of  rain  is  mentioned  in  Deut.  (xi.  lO,  ii)  as 
rendering  artificial  irrigation  necessary,  unlike 
the  case  of  Palestine,  and  in  Zech.  (xiv.  i8)  as 
peculiar  to  the  country.  Egypt  has  been  vis- 
ited in  all  ages  by  severe  pestilences.  Famines 
are  frequent,  and  one  in  the  middle  ages  seems 
to  have  been  even  more  severe  than  that  of 
Joseph.  The  inundation  of  the  Nile  fertilizes 
and  sustains  the  country,  and  makes  the  river 
its  chief  blessing.  The  Nile  was  on  this  ac- 
count anciently  worshipped.  The  rise  begins 
in  Egypt  about  the  summer  solstice,  and  the 
inundation  commences  about  two  months 
later.  The  greatest  height  is  attained  about  or 
somewhat  after  the  autumnal  equinox.  The 
inundation  lasts  about  three  months.  The 
ancient  prosperity  of  Egypt  is  attested  by  the 
Eible  as  well  as  by  the  numerous  monuments 
of  the  country.  As  early  as  the  age  of  the 
Great  Pyramid  it  must  have  been  densely 
populated.  The  contrast  of  the  present  state 
of  Egypt  to  its  former  prosperity  is  more  to  be 
ascribed  to  political  than  to  physical  causes. 
Egypt  is  naturally  an  agricultural  country.  As 
far  back  as  the  days  of  Abraham,  we  find  that 
when  the  produce  failed  in  Palestine,  Egypt 
was  the  natural  resource.  In  the  time  of  Joseph 
it  was  evidently  the  granary,  at  least  during 


Front  oi  i'tmple  at  Aboo  Simbel,  Nubia. 

famines,  of  the  nations  around.  The  inunda- 
tion, as  taking  the  place  of  rain,  has  always 
rendered  the  system  of  agriculture  peculiar ; 
and  the  artificial  irrigation  during  the  time  of 
low  Nile  is  necessarily  on  the  same  principle. 
Vines  were  extensively  cultivated.  Of  other 
fruit-trees,  the  date-palm  was  the  most  com- 
mon and  valuable.  The  gardens  resembled  the 
fields,  being  watered  in  the  same  manner  by 
irrigation.    On  the  tenure  of  land  much  light 


is  thrown  by  the  history  of  Joseph.  Before  the 
famine  each  city  and  large  village  had  its  field 
(Gen.  xli.  48)  ;  but  Joseph  gained  for  Pharaoh 
all  the  land,  except  that  of  the  priests,  in  ex- 
change for  food,  and  required  for  the  right 
thus  obtained  a  fifth  of  the  produce,  which  be- 
came a  law  (xlvii.  20-26).  The  basis  of  the 
religion  was  Nigritian  fetichism,  the  lowest 
kind  of  nature-worship,  differing  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  and  hence  obviously  in- 


Pyramids  of  Gizeh,  Egypt. 

digenous.  Upon  this  were  ingrafted,  first,  cos- 
mic worship,  mixed  up  with  traces  of  primeval 
revelation,  as  in  Babylonia;  and  then,  a  system 
of  personifications  of  moral  and  intellectual  ab- 
stractions. There  were  three  orders  of  gods — 
the  eight  great  gods,  the  twelve  lesser,  and  the 
Osirian  group.  There  was  no  prominent  hero- 
worship,  although  deceased  kings  and  other 
mdividuals  otten  received  divine  honors.  The 
great  doctrines  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
man's  responsibility,  and  future  rewards  and 
punishments,  were  taught.  There  are  some 
notices  of  the  Egyptian  army  in  the  O.  T. 
They  show,  like  the  monuments,  that  its  most 
important  branch  was  the  chariot-force.  The 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  led  600  chosen  chariots 
besides  his  whole  chariot-force  in  pursuit  of  the 
Israelites.  The  warriors  fighting  in  chariots 
are  probably  the  "horsemen"  mentioned  in  the 
relation  of  this  event  and  elsewhere,  for  in 
Egyptian  they  are  called  the  "horse"  or 
"cavalry."  The  sculptures  and  paintings  of 
the  tombs  give  us  a  very  full  insight  into  the 
domestic  life  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  What 
most  strikes  us  in  their  manners  is  the  high 
position  occupied  by  women,  and  the  entire 
absence  of  the  harem  system  of  seclusion. 
Marriage  appears  to  have  been  universal,  at 
least  with  the  richer  class;  and  if  polygamy 
were  tolerated  it  was  rarely  practised.  There 


109 


EGYPT 


ELDER 


were  no  castes,  although  great  classes  were 
very  distinct.  The  Egyptian  feasts,  and  the 
dances,  music,  and  feats  which  accompanied 
them,  for  the  diversion  of  the  guests,  as  well 
as  the  common  games,  were  probably  intro- 
duced among  the  Hebrews  in  the  most  lux- 
urious days  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and 
Judah.  The  account  of  the  noontide  dinner  of 
Joseph  (Gen.  xliii.  i6,  31-34)  agrees  with  the 
'representations  of  the  monuments.  The  funeral 
ceremonies  were  far  more  important  than  any 
events  of  the  Egyptian  life,  as  the  tomb  was 
regarded  as  the  only  true  home.  We  find  fre- 
quent reference  in  the  Bible  to  the  magicians 
of  Egypt  (Gen.  xli.  8;  Ex.  vii.  11,  &c.).  The 
monuments  do  not  recognize  any  such  art,  and 
we  must  conclude  that  magic  was  secretly 
'practised,  not  because  it  was  thought  to  be 
unlawful,  but  in  order  to  give  it  importance. 
The  industrial  arts  held  an  important  place  in 
the  occupations  of  the  Eyyptians.  The  work- 
ers in  fine  flax  and  the  weavers  of  white  linen 
are  mentioned  in  a  manner  that  shows  they 
were  among  the  chief  contributors  to  the  riches 
of  the  country  (Is.  xix.  9).  The  fine  linen  of 
Egypt  found  its  way  to  Palestine  (Prov.  vii. 
16).  Pottery  was  a  great  branch  of  the  native 
manufactures,  and  appears  to  have  furnished 
employment  to  the  Hebrews  during  the  bond- 
age (Ps.  Ixxxi.  6,  Ixviii.  13;  comp.  Ex.  i.  14). 
With  respect  to  the  difficult  question  of  the 
period  of  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in 
Egypt,  the  following  remarks  may  suffice.  The 
chronology  of  Egypt  is  now  so  far  settled  that 
the  accession  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty  may  be 
regarded  as  fixed  to  within  a  few  years  of  B.  C. 
1525.  The  era  of  the  Exodus,  in  the  system  of 
Ussher,  is  B.  C.  1491.  The  obvious  conclusion 
agrees  with  the  statement  of  Manetho,  that 
Moses  left  Egypt  under  Amosis,  the  first  king 
of  the  eighteenth  dynasty.  The  same  king,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  expelled  the  Shepherd 
Kings ;  and  there  is,  in  fact,  no  doubt  that  the 
great  power  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty  was 
connected  with  this  expulsion.  In  this  change 
of  dynasty  many  writers  see  a  natural  explana- 
tion of  the  "new  king  who  knew  not  Joseph." 
If  this  view  is  correct,  Joseph  would  have 
come  into  Egypt  under  one  of  the  later  kings 
of  the  Shepherd  dynasty.  But,  plausible  as 
this  theory  is,  the  uncertainty  in  which  Scrip- 
tural chronology  is  involved  prevents  us  from 
coming  to  any  definite  conclusion.  Le.psius 
and  other  eminent  Egyptologers  place  the  ar- 
rival of  the  Israelites  under  the  eighteenth 
dynasty,  and  the  "Exodus  under  the  nineteenth, 
in  the  year  1314  B.  C.  Pie  identifies  the  chief 
oppressor,  from  whom  Moses  fled,  with  the 
great  king  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  Rameses 


II.,  and  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  with  his 
son  and  successor  Menptah,  or  Phthahmen. 
Mr.  Poole,  however,  takes  an  entirely  opposite 
view,  and  places  not  only  the  ^rival  of  the 
Israelites  in  Egypt,  but  also  the  Exodus,  with- 
in the  dynasties  of  the  Shepherd  kings.  It 
seems  impossible  to  come  to  any  definite  con- 
clusion upon  the  subject.  The  difficulty  of  a 
solution  is  still  further  increased  by  the  un- 
certainty as  to  the  length  of  the  sojourn  of  the 
Israelites  in  Egypt,  whether  it  was  215  years, 
according  to  the  Septuagint,  or  430  years,  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrew. 

Egyptian,  Egyptians.    Natives  of  Egypt. 

Elder.  The  term  elder  or  old  man,  as  the 
Hebrew  literally  imports,  was  one  of  extensive 
use,  as  an  official  title,  among  the  Hebrews 
and  the  surrounding  nations.  It  had  reference 
to  various  offices  (Gen.  xxiv.  2,  1.  7;  2  Sam. 
xii.  17;  Ez.  xxvii.  9).  As  betokening  a  political 
office,  it  applied  not  only  to  the  Hebrews,  but 
also  to  the  Egyptians  (Gen.  1.  7),  the  Moabites 
and  Midianites  (Num.  xxii.  7).  Wherever  a 
patriarchal  system  is  in  force,  the  office  of  the 
elder  will  be  found,  as  the  keystone  of  the 
social  and  political  fabric ;  it  is  so  at  the  pres- 
ent day  among  the  Arabs,  where  the  Sheikh 
(=  the  old  man)  is  the  highest  authority  in 
the  tribe.  The  earliest  notice  of  the  elders  act- 
ing in  concert  as  a  political  body  is  at  the  time 
of  the  Exodus.  They  were  the  representatives 
of  the  people,  so  much  so  that  elders  and 
people  are  occasionally  used  as  equivalent 
terms  (comp.  Josh.  xxiv.  i  with  2,  19,  21 ;  i 
Sam.  viii.  4  with  7,  10,  19).  Their  authority 
was  undefined,  and  extended  to  all  matters 
concerning  the  public  weal.  When  the  tribes 
became  settled  the  elders  were  distinguished 
by  different  titles  according  as  they  were  act- 
ing as  national  representatives,  as  district  gov- 
ernors over  the  several  tribes  (Deut.  xxxi.  28; 
2  Sam.  xix.  11),  or  as  local  magistrates  in  the 
provincial  towns,  whose  duty  it  was  to  sit  in 
the  gate  and  administer  justice  (Deut.  xix.  12; 
Ruth  iv.  9,  II  ;  I  K.  xxi.  8).  Their  number  and 
influence  may  be  inferred  from  i  Sam.  xxx.  26, 
fif.  They  retained  their  position  under  all  the 
political  changes  which  the  Jews  underwent : 
under  the  Judges  (Judg.  ii.  7;  i  Sam.  iv.  3); 
under  the  kings  (2  Sam.  xvii.  4)  ;  during  the 
captivity  (Jer.  xxix.  i  ;  Ez.  viii.  l)  ;  subse- 
quently to  the  return  (Ezr.  v.  5,  vi.  7,  14,  x.  8, 
14)  ;  under  the  Maccabees,  when  they  were  de- 
scribed sometimes  as  the  senate  (i  Mace.  xii. 
6;  2  Mace.  i.  10,  iv.  44,  xi.  27),  sometimes  by 
their  ordinary  title  (i  Mace.  vii.  33,  xi.  23,  xii. 
35)  ;  and,  lastly,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era,  when  they  are  noticed  as  a  dis- 
tinct body  from  the  Sanhedrim. 


1 10 


ELEAZAR 


ELIJAH 


Elea'zar.  Third  son  of  Aaron,  by  Elisheba, 
daughter  of  Amminadab.  After  the  death  of 
Nadab  and  Abihu  without  children  (Lev.  x.  i ; 
Num.  iii.  4),  Eleazar  was  appointed  chief  over 
the  principal  Levites  (Num.  iii.  32).  With  his 
brother  Ithamar  he  ministered  as  a  priest  dur- 
ing their  father's  lifetime,  and  immediately 
before  his  death  was  invested  on  Mount  Hor 
with  the  sacred  garments,  as  the  successor  of 
Aaron  in  the  office  of  high-priest  (Num. 
XX.  28). 

Elephant.  The  word  does  not  occur  in  the 
text  of  the  canonical  Scriptures  of  the  A.  V., 
but  is  found  as  the  marginal  reading  to  Behe- 
moth, in  Job  xl.  15.  "Elephant's  teeth"  is  the 
marginal  reading  for  "ivory"  in  I  K.  x.  22;  2 
Chr.  ix.  41.  Elephants,  however,  are  repeat- 
edly mentioned  in  the  ist  and  2d  books  of 
Maccabees,  as  being  used  in  warfare  (l 
Alacc.  vi.). 

E'li  (ascension)  was  descended  from  Aaron 
through  Ithamar,  the  youngest  of  his  two  sur- 
viving sons  (Lev.  x.  i,  2,  12;  comp.  i  K.  ii.  27 
with  2  Sam.  viii.  17;  i  Chr.  xxiv.  3).  As  the 
history  makes  no  mention  of  any  high-priest 
of  the  line  of  Ithamar  before  Eli,  he  is  gener- 
ally supposed  to  have  been  the  first  of  that  line 
who  held  the  office.  From  him,  his  sons  hav- 
ing died  before  him,  it  appears  to  have  passed 
to  his  grandson,  Ahitub  (i  Sam.  xiv.  3),  and  it 
certainly  remained  in  his  family  till  Abiathar, 
the  grandson  of  Ahitub,  was  "thrust  out  from 
being  priest  unto  the  Lord"  by  Solomon  for 
his  share  in  Adonijah's  rebellion  (i  K.  ii.  26, 
27;  i.  7),  and  the  high-priesthood  passed  back 
again  to  the  family  of  Eleazar  in  the  person  of 
Zadok  (i  K.  ii.  35).  Its  return  to  the  elder 
branch  was  one  part  of  the  punishment  which 
had  been  denounced  against  Eli  during  his  life- 
time, for  his  culpable  negligence  "(i  Sam.  ii. 
22-25)  when  his  sons  by  their  rapacity  and 
licentiousness  profaned  the  priesthood,  and 
brought  the  rites  of  religion  into  abhorrence 
among  the  people  (i  Sam.  ii.  27-36,  with  i  K. 
ii.  27).  Notwithstanding  this  one  great  blem- 
ish, the  character  of  Eli  is  marked  by  eminent 
piety,  as  shown  by  his  meek  submission  to  the 
divine  judgment  (i  Sam.  iii.  18),  and  his  su- 
preme regard  for  the  ark  of  God  (iv.  18).  In 
addition  to  the  office  of  high-priest  he  held 
that  of  judge,  being  the  immediate  predecessor 
of  his  pupil  Samuel  (i  Sam.  vii.  6,  15-17),  the 
last  of  the  judges.  He  died  at  the  advanced 
age  of  98  years  (i  Sam.  iv.  15),  overcome  by 
the  disastrous  intelligence  that  the  ark  of  God 
had  been  taken  in  battle  by  the  Philistines, 
who  had  also  slain  his  sons  Hophni  and 
Phinehas. 

Elie'zer.  i.   Abraham's  chief  servant,  called 

II 


by  him  "Eliezer  of  Damascus"  (Gen.  xv.  2), 
There  is  an  apparent  contradiction  in  the  A. 
v.,  for  it  does  not  appear  how,  if  he  was  "of 
Damascus,"  he  could  be  "born  in  Abraham's 
house"  (ver.  3).  But  the  phrase  "son  of  my 
house,"  only  imports  that  he  was  one  of  Abra- 
ham's household,  not  that  he  was  born  in  his 
house.  It  was,  most  likely,  this  same  Eliezer 
who  is  described  in  Gen.  xxiv.  2. 

Eli'jah  (my  God  is  Jehovah)  has  been  well 
entitled  "the  grandest  and  the  most  romantic 
character  that  Israel  ever  produced."  "Elijah 
the  Tishbite  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gilead,"  is 
literally  all  that'  is  given  us  to  know  of  his 
parentage  and  locality.  Of  his  appearance  as 
he  "stood  before"  Ahab  (B.  C.  910),  with  the 
suddenness  of  motion  to  this  day  character- 
istic of  the  Bedouins  from  his  native  hills,  we 
can  perhaps  realize  something  from  the 
touches,  few,  but  strong,  of  the  narrative.  His 
chief  characteristic  was  his  hair,  long  and 
thick,  and  hanging  down  his  back.  His 
ordinary  clothing  consisted  of  a  girdle  of  skin 
round  his  loins,  which  he  tightened  when  about 
to  move  quickly  (i  K.  xviii.  46).  But  in  ad- 
dition to  this  he  occasionally  wore  the  "man- 
tle," or  cape,  of  sheepskin,  which  has  supplied 
us  with  one  of  our  most  familiar  figures  of 
speech,  i.  What  we  may  call  the  first  Act 
in  his  life  embraces  between  three  and  four 
years — three  years  and  six  months  for  the 
duration  of  the  drought,  according  to  the  state- 
ments of  the  New  Testament  (Luke  iv.  25; 
James  v.  17),  and  three  or  four  months  more 
for  the  journey  to  Horeb,  and  the  return  to 
Gilead  (i  K.  xvii.  i-xix.  21).  His  introduction 
is  of  the  most  startling  description :  he  sud- 
denly appears  before  Ahab  and  proclaims  the 
vengeance  of  Jehovah  for  the  apostasy  of  the 
king.  What  immediate  action  followed  on  this 
we  are  not  told  ;  but  it  is  plain  that  Elijah  had 
to  fly  before  some  threatened  vengeance  either 
of  the  king,  or  more  probably  of  the  queen 
(comp.  xix.  2).  Perhaps  it  was  at  this  juncture 
that  Jezebel  "cut  off  the  prophets  of  Jehovah" 
(i  K.  xviii.  4).  He  was  directed  to  the  brook 
Cherith.  There  in  the  hollow  of  the  torrent- 
bed  he  remained,  supported  in  the  miraculous 
manner  with  which  we  are  all  familiar,  till  the 
failing  of  the  brook  obliged  him  to  forsake  it. 
His  next  refuge  was  at  Zarephath,  a  Phoe- 
nician town  lying  between  Tyre  and  Sidon. 
The  widow  woman  in  whose  house  he  lived 
seems,  however,  to  have  been  an  Israelite,  and 
no  Baal-worshipper,  if  we  may  take  her 
adjuration  by  "Jehovah  thy  God"  as  an  indica- 
tion. Here  Elijah  performed  the  miracles  of 
prolonging  the  oil  and  the  meal ;  and  restored 
the  son  of  the  widow  to  life  after  his  apparent 
I 


ELIJAH 

death.  In  this,  or  some  other  retreat,  an  inter- 
val of  more  than  two  years  must  have  elapsed. 
The  drought  continued,  and  at  last  the  full 
horrors  of  famine,  caused  by  the  failure  of  the 
crops,  descended  on  Samaria.  Again  Elijah 
appears  before  Ahab.  There  are  few  more 
sublime  stories  in  history  than  this.  On  the 
one  hand  the  solitar)'  servant  of  Jehovah,  ac- 
companied by  his  one  attendant;  with  his  wild 
shaggy  hair,  his  scanty  garb  and  sheepskin 
cloak,  but  with  calm  dignity  of  demeanor  and 
the  minutest  regularity  of  procedure,  repairing 
the  ruined  altar  of  Jehovah  with  twelve  stones 
— on  the  other  hand  the  ^50  prophets  of  Baal 
and  Ashtaroth,  doubtless  in  all  the  splendor  of 
their  vestments  (2  K.  x.  22),  with  the  wild  din 
of  their  vain  repetitions  and  the  maddened 
fury  of  their  disappointed  hopes,  and  the  silent 
people  surrounding  all.  The  conclusion  of  the 
long  day  need  only  be  glanced  at.  The  fire  of 
Jehovah  consuming  both  sacrifice  and  altar — 
the  prophets  of  Baal  killed,  it  would  seem  by 
Elijah's  own  hand  (xviii.  40) — the  king,  with 
an  apathy  almost  unintelligible,  eating  and 
drinking  in  the  very  midst  of  the  carnage  of 
his  own  adherents — the  rising  storm — the  ride 
across  the  plain  to  Jezreel,  a  distance  of  at 
least  16  miles;  the  prophet,  with  true  Arab 
endurance,  running  before  the  chariot,  but  also 
with  true  Arab  instinct  stopping  short  of  the 
city,  and  going  no  farther  than  the  "entrance 
of  Jezreel."  So  far  the  triumph  had  been  com- 
plete; but  the  spirit  of  Jezebel  was  not  to  be 
so  easily  overcome,  and  her  first  act  is  a  vow 
of  vengeance  against  the  author  of  this  de- 
struction. Elijah  takes  refuge  in  flight.  The 
danger  was  great,  and  the  refuge  must  be  dis- 
tant. The  first  stage  on  the  journey  was  Beer- 
sheba.  Here  Elijah  halted.  In  the  morning 
came  the  "word  of  Jehovah" — the  question, 
"What  doest  thou  here,  Elijah?"  In  answer 
to  this  invitation  the  prophet  opens  his  griefs. 
He  is  directed  to  leave  the  cavern  and  stand 
on  the  mountain  in  the  open  air,  face  to  face 
with  Jehovah.  Then,  as  before  with  Moses 
(Ex.  xxxiv.  6),  "The  Lord  passed  by,"  passed 
in  all  the  terror  of  His  most  appalling  mani- 
festations ;  and  penetrating  the  dead  silence 
which  followed  these,  came  the  mysterious 
symbol — the  "still  small  voice."  Three  com- 
mands were  laid  on  him — three  changes  were 
to  be  made.  Of  these  three  commands  the  two 
first  were  reserved  for  Elisha  to  accomplish, 
the  last 'only  was  executed  by  Elijah  himself. 
His  first  search  was  for  Elisha.  Elisha,  whom 
he  finds  ploughing  at  the  time,  and  Elijah 
"passed  over  to  him" — possibly  crossed  the 
river; — and  cast  his  mantle,  the  well-known 
sheepskin  cloak,  upon  him,  as  if,  by  that 

I 


ELIJAH 

familiar  action,  claiming  himi  for  his  son.  2. 
Ahab  and  Jezebel  now  probably  believed  that 
their  threats  had  been  effectual,  and  that  they 
had  seen  the  last  of  their  tormentor.  But  after 
the  murder  of  Naboth,  Elijah,  who  had  received 
an  intimation  from  Jehovah  of  what  was  taking 
place,*  Elijah  again  suddenly  appears  before 
the  king.  And  then  follows  the  curse,  in  terms 
fearful  to  any  Oriental — peculiarly  terrible  to 
a  Jew — and  most  of  all  significant  to  a  suc- 
cessor of  the  apostate  princes  of  the  northern 
kingdom.  The  whole  of  Elijah's  denunciation 
may  possibly  be  recovered  by  putting  together 
the  words  recalled  by  Jehu,  2  K.  ix.  26,  36,  37, 
and  those  given  in  i  K.  xxi.  19-25.  3.  A  space 
of  three  or  four  years  now  elapses  (comp.  i  K. 
xxii.  I,  51,  2  K.  i,  17)  before  we  again  catch  a 
glimpse  of  Elijah.  Ahaziah  has  met  with  a 
fatal  accident,  and  is  on  his  death-bed  (2  K.  i. 
I,  2;  I  K.  xxii.  51).  In  his  extremity,  he  sends 
to  an  oracle  or  shrine  of  Baal  at  the  Philistine 
town  of  Ekron,  to  ascertain  the  issue  of  his 
illness.  But  as  on  the  former  occasions,  Elijah 
suddenly  appears  on  the  path  of  the  messen- 
gers, without  preface  or  inquiry  utters  his  mes- 
sage of  death,  and  as  rapidly  disappears.  But 
this  check  only  roused  the  wrath  of  Ahaziah. 
A  captain  was  despatched,  with  a  party  of 
fifty,  to  take  Elijah  prisoner.  "And  there  came 
down  fire  from  heaven  and  consumed  him  and 
his  fifty."  A  second  party  was  sent,  only  to 
meet  the  same  fate.  The  altered  tone  of  the 
leader  of  a  third  party  brought  Elijah  down. 
But  the  king  gained  nothing.  The  message 
was  delivered  to  his  face  in  the  same  words  as 
it  had  been  to  the  messengers,  and  Elijah  was 
allowed  to  go  harmless.  4.  It  must  have 
been  shortly  after  the  death  of  Ahaziah  that 
Elijah  made  a  communication  with  the  south- 
ern kingdom.  When  Jehoram  the  son  of 
Jehoshaphat  began  "to  walk  in  the  ways  of  the 
kings  of  Israel,"  Elijah  sent  him  a  letter  de- 
nouncing his  evil  doings,  and  predicting  his 
death  (2  Chr.  xxi.  12-15).  I*  was  at  Gilgal — 
probably  on  the  western  edge  of  the  hills  of 
Ephraim — that  the  prophet  received  the  divine 
intimation  that  his  departure  was  at  hand.  He 
was  at  the  time  with  Elisha,  who  seems  now 
to  have  become  his  constant  companion,  and 
whom  he  endeavors  to  persuade  to  remain  be- 
hind while  he  goes  on  an  errand  of  Jehovah. 
But  Elisha  will  not  so  easily  give  up  his  mas- 
ter. "And  it  came  to  pass  as  they  still  went 
on  and  talked,  that,  behold,  a  chariot  of  fire 
and  horses  of  fire,  and  parted  them  both  asun- 
der, and  Elijah  went  up  by  the  whirlwind  into 
the  skies." — And  here  ends  all  the  direct  in- 
formation which  is  vouchshafed  to  us  of  the 
life  and  work  of  this  great  prophet.   How  deep 

12 


ELISHA 


ELISHA 


was  the  impression  which  he  made  on  the 
mmd  of  the  nation  may  be  judged  of  from  the 
nxed  belief  which  many  centuries  after  pre- 
vailed that  Elijah  would  gain  appear  for  the 
relief  and  restoration  of  his  country.  But  on 
the  other  hand,  the  deep  impression  which 
Elijah  had  thus  made  on  his  nation  only 
renders  more  remarkable  the  departure  which 
the  image  conveyed  by  the  later  references  to 
him  evinces,  from  that  so  sharply  presented  in 
the  records  of  his  actual  life.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  eulogiums  contained  in  the  cata- 
logues of  worthies  in  the  book  of  Jesus  the  son 
of  Sirach  (xlviii.)  and  i  Mace.  ii.  58,  and  the 
passing  allusion  in  Luke  ix.  54,  none  of  these 
later  references  allude  to  his  works  of  destruc- 
tion or  of  portent.  They  all  set  forth  a  very 
different  side  of  his  character  to  that  brought 
out  in  the  historical  narrative.  They  speak  of 
his  being  a  man  of  like  passions  with  ourselves 
(James  v.  17)  ;  of  his  kindness  to  the  widow  of 
Sarepta  (Luke  iy.  25) ;  of  his  "restoring  all 
things"  (Matt.  xvii.  ll)  ;  "turning  the  hearts 
of  the  fathers  to  the  children,  and  the  dis- 
obedient to  the  wisdom  of'  the  just"  (Mai.  iv. 
5,  6;  Luke  i.  17).  2.  A  priest  of  the  sons  of 
Harim,  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr. 
x.  21). 

Eli'sha  (God  his  salvation),  son  of  Shaphat 
of  Abel-meholah  ;  the  attendant  and  disciple  of 
Elijah,  and  subsequently  his  successor  as 
prophet  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  The 
earliest  mention  of  his  name  is  in  the  com- 
mand to  Elijah  in  the  cave  at  Horeb  (i  K.  xix. 
16,  17).  Elijah,  on  his  way  from  Sinai  to 
Damascus  by  the  Jordan  valley,  lights  on  his 
successor  engaged  in  the  labors  of  the  field. 
To  cross  to  him,  to  throw  over  his  shoulders 
the  rough  mantle — a  token  at  once  of  investi- 
ture with  the  prophet's  office,  and  of  adoption 
as  a  son — delayed  merely  to  give  the  farewell 
kiss  to  his  father  and  mother,  and  preside  at  a 
parting  feast  with  his  people,  and  then  fol- 
lowed the  great  prophet  on  his  northward 
road.  Seven  or  eight  years  must  have  passed 
between  the  call  of  Elisha  and  the  removal  of 
his  master,  and  during  the  whole  of  that  time 
we  hear  nothing  of  him.  But  when  that  period 
had  elapsed  he  reappears,  to  become  the  most 
prominent  figure  in  the  history  of  his  country 
during  the  rest  of  his  long  life.  In  almost 
every  respect  Elisha  presents  the  most  com- 
plete contrast  to  Elijah.  Elijah  was  a  true 
Bedouin  child  of  the  desert.  If  he  enters  a 
city  it  is  only  to  deliver  his  message  of  fire 
and  be  gone.  Elisha,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a 
civilized  man,  an  inhabitant  of  cities.  And  as 
with  his  manners  so  with  his  appearance.  The 
touches  of  the  narrative  are  very  slight ;  but 


we  can  gather  that  his  dress  was  the  ordinary 
garment  of  an  Israelite,  the  beged,  probably 
similar  in  fo.rm  to  the  long  abbeyeh  of  the 
modern  Syrians  (2  K.  ii.  12),  that  his  hair  was 
worn  trimmed  behind,  in  contrast  to  the  dis- 
ordered locks  of  Elijah  (ii.  23),  and  that 
he  used  a  walking-staff  (iv.  29)  of  the 
kind  ordinarily  carried  by  grave  or  aged 
citizens  (Zech.  viii.  4).  The  call  of  Elisha 
seems  to  have  taken  place  about  four  years 
before  the  death  of  Ahab.  He  died  in  the  reign 
of  Joash,  the  grandson  of  Jehu.  This  em- 
braces a  period  of  not  less  than  65  years,  for 
certainly  55  of  which  he  held  the  office  of 
"prophet  in  Israel"  (2  K.  v.  8).  After  the  de- 
parture of  his  master,  Elisha  returned  to  dwell 
at  Jericho  (2  K.  ii.  18).  The  town  had  been 
lately  rebuilt  (i  K.  xvi.  34),  and  was  the  resi- 
dence of  a  body  of  the  "sons  of  the  prophets" 
(2  K.  ii.  5,  15).  One  of  the  springs  of  Jericho 
was  noxious  at  the  time  of  Elisha's,  visit.  At 
the  request  of  the  men  of  Jericho  he  remedied 
this  "evil.  He  took  salt  in  a  new  vessel,  and 
cast  it  into  the  water  at  its  source  in  the  name 
of  Jehovah.  We  next  meet  with  Elisha  at 
Bethel,  in  the  heart  of  the  country,  on  his  way 
from  Jericho  to  Mount  Carmel  (2  K.  ii.  23). 
The  mocking  children  scoff  at  the  new  comer 
as  he  walks  by — "Go  up,  roundhead!  go  up, 
roundhead!"  For  once  Elisha  assumed  the 
sternness  of  his  master.  He  turned  upon  them 
and  cursed  them  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  and 
we  all  know  the  catastrophe  which  followed. 
Elisha  extricates  Jehoram  king  of  Israel,  and 
the  kings  of  Judah  and  Edom,  from  their  diffi- 
culty in  the  campaign  against  Moab,  arising 
from  want  of  water  (iii.  4-27).  This  incident 
probably  took  place  at  the  S.  E.  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  The  widow  of  one  of  the  sons  of 
the  prophets  is  in  debt,  and  her  two  sons  are 
about  to  be  taken  from  her  and  sold  as  slaves. 
She  has  no  property  but  a  pot  of  oil.  This 
Elisha  causes  (in  his  absence,  iv.  5)  to  multi- 
ply, until  the  widow  has  filled  with  it  all  the 
vessels  which  she  could  borrow.  The  next  oc- 
currence is  at  Shunem  and  Mount  Carmel  (iv. 
8-37).  The  story  divides  itself  into  two  parts, 
separated  from  each  other  by  several  years. 
Elisha,  probably  on  his  way  between  Car- 
mel and  the  Jordan  valley,  calls  accidentally 
at  Shunem.  Here  he  is  hospitably  entertained 
by  a  woman  of  substance,  apparently  at  that 
time  ignorant  of  the  character  of  her  guest, 
whose  son  dies  and  is  brought  to  life  again 
by  Elisha  (2  Kings  iv.  42-44),  then  at  Gilgal 
he  purifies  the  deadly  pottage  (2  Kings  iv.  38- 
41)  and  multiplies  the  loaves  (2  Kings  iv. 
42-44).  The  simple  records  of  these  domestic 
incidents  amongst  the  sons  of  the  prophets  are 

13 


EMBALMING 


EMBALMING 


now  interrupted  by  an  occurrence  of  a  more 
important  character  (v.  1-27).  The  chief  cap- 
tain of  the  army  of  Syria  was  afflicted  with 
leprosy  (v.  27),  and  is  sent  by  an  Israelite 
maid  to  the  prophet  Elisha,  who  directs  him 
to  dip  seven  times  in  the  Jordan,  which  he 
does  and  is  healed  (2  Kings  v.  1-14),  while 
Naaman's  servant,  Gehazi,  he  strikes  with 
leprosy  for  his  unfaithfulness  (ch.  v.,  20-27). 
Again  the  scene  changes.  It  is  probably  at 
Jericho  that  Elisha  causes  the  iron  axe  to 
swim  (2  Kings  vi.  1-7).  A  band  of  Syrian 
marauders  are  sent  to  seize  him,  but  are  struck 
blind,  and  he  misleads  them  to  Samaria,  where 
they  find  themselves  in  the  presence  of  the 
Israelite  king  and  his  troops  (2  Kings  vi.  8-23). 
During  the  famine  in  Samaria  (2  Kings  vi. 
24-33,  he  prophesied  incredible  plenty  (ch.  vii. 
1-2),  which  was  soon  fulfilled  (ch.  vii.  3-20). 
We  next  find  the  prophet  at  Damascus.  Ben- 
hadad  the  king  is  sick,  and  sends  to  Elisha  by 
Hazael  to  know  the  result.  Elisha  prophesies 
the  king's  death,  and  announces  to  Hazael 
that  he  is  to  succeed  to  the  throne  (2  Kings 
viii.  7-15).  Finally  this  prophet  of  God,  after 
having  filled  the  position  for  sixty  years,  is 
found  on  his  death-bed  in  his  own  house  (2 
Kings  xiii.  14-19).  The  power  of  the  prophet, 
however,  does  not  terminate  with  his  death. 
Even  in  the  tomb  he  restores  the  dead  to  life 
(ch.  xiii.  21). 

Embalming,  the  process  by  which  dead 
bodies  are  preserved  from  putrefaction  and 
decay.    It    was    most    general    among  the 


Mummy-Cases. 

Egyptians,  and  it  is  in  connection  with  this 
people  that  the  two  instances  which  we  meet 
with  in  the  O.  T.  are  mentioned  (Gen.  1.  2,  26). 
Of  the  Egyptian  method  of  embalming  there 
remain  two  minute  accounts,  which  have  a 
general  kind  of  agreement,  though  they  differ 


in  details.  Herodotus  (ii.  86-89)  describes 
three  modes,  varying  in  completeness  and  ex- 
pense, and  practised  by  persons  regularly 
trained  to  the  profession  who  were  initiated 
into  the  mysteries  of  the  art  by  their  an- 
cestors. The  embalmers  first  removed  part  of 
the  brain  through  the  nostrils,  by  means  of  a 


Different  Forms  of  Mummy-Cases. 

1,  2,  4,  9,  of  Wood;  3,  5,  6,  7,  8,  of  Stone;  10,  of  Burnt 
Earthenware. 

crooked  iron,  and  destroyed  the  rest  by  inject- 
ing caustic  drugs.  An  incision  was  then  made 
along  the  flank  with  a  sharp  Ethiopian  stone, 
and  the  whole  of  the  intestines  removed.  The 
cavity  was  rinsed  out  with  palm-wine,  and 
afterwards  scoured  with  pounded  perfumes. 
It  was  then  filled  with  pure  myrrh  pounded, 
cassia,  and  other  aromatics,  except  frankin- 
cense. This  done,  the  body  was  sewn  up  and 
steeped  in  natron  for  seventy  days.  When  the 
seventy  days  were  accomplished,  the  embalm- 
ers washed  the  corpse  and  swathed  it  in 
bandages  of  linen,  cut  in  strips  and  srheared 
with  gum.  They  then  gave  it  up  to  the  rela- 
tives of  the  deceased,  who  provided  for  it  a 
wooden  case,  made  in  the  shape  of  a  man,  in 
which  the  dead  was  placed,  and  deposited  in 
an  erect  position  against  the  wall  of  the 
sepulchral  chamber.  The  second  mode  of 
embalming  cost  about  20  minae.  In  this  case 
no  incision  was  made  in  the  body,  nor  were 
the  intestines  removed,  but  cedar-oil  was  in- 
jected into  the  stomach  by  the  rectum.  The 
oil  was  prevented  from  escaping,  and  the  body 
was  then  steeped  in  natron  for  the  appointed 
number  of  days.  On  the  last  day  the  oil  was 
withdrawn,  and  carried  off  with  it  the  stomach 
and  intestines  in  a  state  of  solution,  while  the 
flesh  was  consumed  by  the  natron,  and  noth- 
ing was  left  but  the  skin  and  bones.  The  body 
in  this  state  was  returned  to  the  relatives  of 


114 


EMBROIDERER 


ENOCH,  THE  BOOK  OF 


the  deceased.  The  third  mode,  which  was 
adopted  by  the  poorer  classes,  and  cost  but  lit- 
tle, consisted  in  rinsing  out  the  intestines  with 
syrmaea,  an  infusion  of  senna  and  cassia,  and 
steeping  the  body  for  the  usual  number  of 
days  in  natron.  It  does  not  appear  that  em- 
balming, properly  so-called,  was  practised  by 
the  Hebrews. 

Embroiderer.  In  Exodus  the  embroiderer  is 
contrasted  with  the  "cunning  workman." 
Various  explanations  have  been  ofi"ered  as  to 
the  distinction  between  them,  ^but  most  of 
these  overlook  the  distinction  marked  in  the 
Bible  itself,  viz.  that  the  rokem  wove  simply  a 
variegated  texture,  without  gold  thread  or  fig- 
ures, and  that  the  chosheb  interwove  gold 
thread  or  figures  into  the  variegated  texture. 
The  art  of  embroidery  by  the  loom  was  exten- 
sively practised  among  the  nations  of  an- 
tiquity. In  addition  to  the  Egyptians,  the 
Babylonians  were  celebrated  for  it ;  but  em- 
broidery in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  i.  e. 
with  the  needle,  was  a  Phrygian  invention  of 
later  date  (Plin.  viii.  48). 


Emmaus. 

Emerald,  a  precious  stone,  first  in  the  sec- 
ond row  on  the  breastplate  of  the  high-priest 
(Ex.  xxviii.  18,  xxxix.  11),  imported  to  Tyre 
from  Syria  (Ez.  xxvii.  16),  used  as  a  seal  or 
signet  (Ecclus.  xxxii.  6),  as  an  ornament  of 
clothing  and  bedding  (Ez.  xxviii.  13;  Jud.  x. 
21),  and  spoken  of  as  one  of  the  foundations 
of  Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  19;  Tob.  xiii.  16).  The 
rainbow  round  the  throne  is  compared  to 
Emerald  in  Rev.  iv.  3. 

Em'maus,  the  village  to  which  the  two  dis- 
ciples were  going  when  our  Lord  appeared  to 
them  on  the  way,  on  the  day  of  His  resurrec- 
tion (Luke  xxiv.  13).  Luke  makes  its  distance 
from  Jerusalem  sixty  stadia  (A.  V.  "threescore 
furlongs"),  or  about  7^/2  miles;  and  Josephus 
mentions  "a  village  called  Emmaus"  at  the 


II 


same  distance.  The  site  of  Emmaus  remains 
yet  to  be  identified. 

Engine,  a  term  exclusively  applied  to  mili- 
tary afifairs  in  the  Bible.  The  engines  to  which 
the  term  is  applied  in  2  Chr.  xxvi.  15  were  de- 
signed to  propel  various  missiles  from  the 
walls  of  a  besieged  town :  one,  with  which  the 
Hebrews  were  acquainted,  was  the  battering- 
ram,  described  in  Ez.  xxvi.  9,  and  still  more 
precisely  in  Ez.  iv.  2,  xxi.  22. 

Engraver.  His  chief  business  was  cutting 
names  or  devices  on  rings  and  seals ;  the  only 
notices  of  engraving  are  in  connection  with  the 
high-priest's  dress — the  two  onyx-stones,  the 
twelve  jewels,  and  the  mitre-plate  having  in- 
scriptions on  them  (Ex.  xxviii.  11,  21,  36). 

E'noch  (dedicated),  i.  The  eldest  son  of 
Cain  (Gen.  iv.  17),  who  called  the  city  which 
he  built  after  his  name  (18).  2.  The  son  of 
Jared  and  father  of  Methuselah  (Gen.  v.  21, 
fif. ;  Luke  iii.  28).  In  the  Epistle  of  Jude  (24) 
he  is  described  as  "the  seventh  from  Adam;" 
and  the  number  is  probably  noticed  as  convey- 
ing the  idea  of  divine  completion  and  rest, 
while  Enoch  was  himself  a  type  of  perfected 
humanity.  After  the  birth  of  Methuselah  it  is 
said  (Gen.  v.  22-24)  that  Enoch  "walked  with 
God  three  hundred  years  .  .  .  and  he  was  not ; 
for  God  took  him."  The  phrase  "walked  with 
God"  is  elsewhere  only  used  of  Noah  (Gen.  vi. 
9;  cf.  Gen.  xvii.  i,  &c.),  and  is  to  be  explained 
of  a  prophetic  life  spent  in  immediate  converse 
with  the  spiritual  world.  In  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  the  spring  and  issue  of  Enoch's  life 
are  clearly  marked. — Both  the  Latin  and  Greek 
fathers  commonly  coupled  Enoch  and  Elijah 
as  historic  witnesses  of  the  possibility  of  a 
resurrection  of  the  body  and  of  a  true  human 
existence  in  glory ;  and  the  voice  of  early  ec- 
clesiastical tradition  is  almost  unanimous  in 
regarding  them  as  "the  two  witnesses"  (Rev. 
xi.  3,  ff.)  who  should  fall  before  "the  beast." 

Enoch,  The  Book  of.  The  first  trace  of  its 
existence  is  generally  found  in  the  Epistle  of 
St.  Jude  (14,  15),  but  the  words  of  the  Apostle 
leave  it  uncertain  whether  he  derived  his  quo- 
tation from  tradition  or  from  writing,  though 
the  wide  spread  of  the  book  in  the  second  cen- 
tury seems  almost  decisive  in  favor  of  the  lat- 
ter supposition.  Considerable  fragments  are 
preserved  in  the  Chronographia  of  Georgius 
Syncellus  (about  792  A.  D.),  and  these  with 
the  scanty  notices  of  earlier  writers  constituted- 
the  sole  remains  of  the  book  known  in  Europe 
till  the  close  of  the  last  century.  Meanwhile, 
however,  a  report  was  current  that  the  entire 
book  was  preserved  in  Abyssinia ;  and  at 
length,  in  1773,  Bruce  brought  with  him  on  his 
return  from  Egypt  three  MSS.  containing  the 

5 


ENSIGN 


EPHESUS 


complete  Ethiopic  translation.  The  Ethiopic 
translation  was  made  from  the  Greek,  and 
probably  towards  the  middle  or  close  of  the 
fourth  century.  But  it  is  uncertain  whether 
the  Greek  text  was  the  original,  or  itself  a 
translation  from  the  Hebrew.  In  its  present 
shape  the  book  consists  of  a  series  of  revela- 
tions supposed  to  have  been  given  to  Enoch 
and  Noah,  which  extend  to  the  most  varied 
aspects  of  nature  and  life,  and  are  designed  to 
of?er  a  comprehensive  vindication  of  the  action 
of  Providence.  Notwithstanding  the  quota- 
tion in  St.  Jude,  and  the  wide  circulation  of 
the  book  itself,  the  apocalypse  of  Enoch  was 
uniformly  and  distinctly  separated  from  the 
canonical  Scriptures. 

Ensign  (nes;  in  the  A.  V.  generally  "en- 
sign," sometimes  "standard ;"  degel,  "stand- 
ard," with  the  exception  of  Cant.  ii.  4,  "ban- 
ner;  6th,  "ensign").  The  distinction  between 
these  three  Hebrew  terms  is  sufficiently 
marked  by  their  respective  vises :  nes  is  a  sig- 
nal :  degel  a  military  standard  for  a  large  di- 


Roman  Standards. 

vision  of  an  army ;  and  6th,  the  same  for  a 
small  one.  Neither  of  them,  however,  ex- 
presses the  idea  which  "standard"  conveys  to 
our  minds,  viz.  a  flag;  the  standards  in  use 
among  the  Hebrews  probably  resembled  those 
of  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians — a  figure  or 
device  of  some  kind  elevated  on  a  pole.  (l.) 
The  notices  of  the  nes  or  "ensign"  are  most 
frequent ;  it  consisted  of  some  well-understood 
signal  which  was  exhibited  on  the  top  of  a  pole 
from  a  bare  mountain  top  (Is.  xiii.  2;  xviii.  3). 
What  the  nature  of  the  signal  was,  we  have  no 
means  of  stating.  The  important  point  to  be 
observed  is,  that  the  nes  was  an  occasional  sig- 
nal, and  not  a  military  standard.  (2.)  The 
term  degel  is  used  to  describe  the  standards 
which  were  given  to  each  of  the  four  divisions 
of  the  Israelite  army  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus 
(Num.  i.  52,  ii.  2,  ff.,  x.  14,  fif.).  The  character 
of  the  Hebrew  military  standards  is  quite  a 


matter  of  conjecture;  they  probably  resembled 
the  Egyptian,  which  consisted  of  a  sacred 
emblem,  such  as  an  animal,  a  boat,  or  the 
king's  name. 

Ephesians,  The  Epistle  to  the,  was  written 
by  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  during  his  first  cap- 


The  Ephesian  Temple  of  Diana  (Restored). 

tivity  at  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  16),  apparently 
immediately  after  he  had  written  the  Epistle  to 
the  Colossians  [Colossians,  Ep.  to],  and  dur- 
ing that  period  (perhaps  the  early  part  of  A. 
D.  62)  when  his  imprisonment  had  not  as- 
sumed the  severer  character  which  seems  to 
have  marked  its  close.  This  epistle  was  ad- 
dressed to  the  Christian  church  at  Ephesus. 
[Ephesus.]  Its  contents  may  be  divided  into 
two  portions,  the  first  mainly  doctrinal  (ch. 
i.-iii.),  the  second  hortatory  and  practical.  The 
Apostle  reminds  his  converts  that  they  had 
been  redeemed  from  sin  by  grace,  and  not  by 


Ancient  Eplicsus.    Theatre  in  the  Foreground. 

works,  and  he  exhorts  them  to  walk  worthy  of 
this  calling,  and  to  keep  the  unity  of  the  Spirit. 

Eph'esus,  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province 
of  Asia,  and  an  illustrious  city  in  the  district 
of  Ionia,  nearly  opposite  the  island  of  Samos. 
St.  Paul's  life  furnishes  illustrations   of  the 


116 


EPHESUS 

mercantile  relations  of  Ephesus  with  Achaia 
on  the  W.,  Macedonia  on  the  N.,  and  Syria  on 
the  E.  As  to  the  relations  of  Ephesus  to  the 
inland  regions  of  the  continent,  these  also  are 
prominently  brought  before  us  in  the  Apostle's 
travels.  The  "upper  coasts"  (Acts  xix.  i) 
through  which  he  passed,  when  about  to  take 
up  his  residence  in  the  city,  were  the  Phrygian 
table-lands  of  the  interior.  Two  great  roads 
at  least,  in  the  Roman  times,  led  eastward 
from  Ephesus ;  one  through  the  passes  of 
Tmolus  to  Sardis  (Rev.  iii.  i)  and  thence  to 
Galatia  and  the-N.  E.,  the  other  round  the  ex- 
tremity of  Pactyas  to  Magnesia,  and  so  up  the 
valley  of  the  Maeander  to  Iconium,  whence  the 
communication  was  direct  to  the  Euphrates 
and  to  the  Syrian  Antioch.  There  seem  to 
have  been  Sardian  and  Magnesian  gates  on  the 
E.  side  of  Ephesus  corresponding  to  these 
roads  respectively.  There  were  also  coast- 
roads  leading  northwards  to  Smyrna  and 
southwards  to  Miletus.  By  the  latter  of  these 
it  is  probable  that  the  Ephesian  elders  travelled 
when  summoned  to  meet  Paul  at  the  latter  city 
(Acts  XX.  17,  18).  Conspicuous  at  the  head  of 
the  harbor  of  Ephesus  was  the  great  temple  of 
Diana  or  Artemis,  the  tutelary  divinity  of  the 
city.  This  building  was  raised  on  immense 
substructions,  in  consequence  of  the  swampy 
nature  of  the  ground.  The  earlier  temple, 
which  had  been  begun  before  the  Persian  war, 
was  burnt  down  in  the  night  when  Alexander 
the  Great  was  born ;  and  another  structure, 
raised  by  the  enthusiastic  co-operation  of  all 
the  inhabitants  of  "Asia,"  had  taken  its  place. 
The  magnificence  of  this  sanctuary  was  a 
proverb  throughout  the  civilized  world. 
Ephesus  itself  was  a  "free  city,"  and  had  its 
own  assemblies  and  its  own  magistrates.  The 
senate  is  mentioned  by  Josephus ;  and  St. 
Luke,  in  the  narrative  before  us,  speaks  of  "the 
people"  and  of  its  customary  assemblies  (ver. 
39,  A.  V.  "a  lawful  assembly").  We  even  find 
conspicuous  mention  made  of  one  of  the  most 
important  municipal  ofificers  of  Ephesus,  the 
"Town-Clerk"  or  keeper  of  the  records,  whom 
we  know  from  other  sources  to  have  been  a 
person  of  great  influence  and  responsibility.  It 
is  remarkable  how  all  those  political  and  re- 
ligious characteristics  of  Ephesus,  which  ap- 
pear in  the  sacred  narrative,  are  illustrated  by 
inscriptions  and  coins.  The  coins  of  Ephesus 
are  full  of  allusions  to  the  worship  of  Diana  in 
various  aspects.  The  Jews  were  established 
there  in  considerable  numbers  (Acts  ii.  9,  vi. 
9).  It  is  here,  and  here  only,  that  we  find  dis- 
ciples of  John  the  Baptist  explicitly  mentioned 
after  the  ascension  of  Christ  (Acts  xviii.  25, 
xix.  3).    The  case  of  Apollos  (xviii.  24)  is  an 

II 


EPHRAIM 

exemplification  further  of- the  Intercourse  be- 
tween this  place  and  Alexandria.  The  first 
seeds  of  Christian  truth  were  possibly  sown  at 
Ephesus  immediately  after  the  Great  Pente- 
cost (Acts  ii.).  In  St.  Paul's  stay  of  more  than 
two  years  (xix.  8,  10,  xx.  31),  which  formed 
the  most  important  passage  of  his  third  cir- 
cuit, and  during  which  he  labored,  first  in  the 
synagogue  (xix.  8),  and  then  in  the  school  of 
Tyrannus  (ver.  9),  and  also  in  private  houses 
(xx.  20),  and  during  which  he  wrote  the  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  we  have  the  period 
of  the  chief  evangelization  of  this  shore  of  the 
Aegean.  The  whole  place  is  now  utterly 
desolate,  with  the  exception  of  the  small 
Turkish  village  at  Ayasaluk.  The  ruins  are  of 
vast  extent. 

Ephod,  a  sacred  vestment  originally  appro- 
priate to  the  high-priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  4),  but 
afterwards  worn  by  ordinary  priests  (i  Sam. 
xxii.  18),  and  deemed  characteristic  of  the 
office  (i  Sam.  ii.  28,  xiv.  3;  Hos.  iii.  4).  For  a 
description  of  the  robe  itself  see  High-Priest. 
The  importance  of  the  Ephod  as  the  receptacle 
of  the  breastplate  led  to  its  adoption  in  the 
idolatrous  forms  of  worship  instituted  in  the 
time  of  the  Judges  (Judg.  viii.  27,  xvii.  5,  xviii. 
14,  ff-). 

E'phraim  (double  fruitfulness),  the  second 
son  of  Joseph  by  his  wife  Asenath.  The  first 
indication  we  have  of  that  ascendency  over  his 
elder  brother  Manasseh,  which  at  a  later  period 
the  tribe  of  Ephraim  so  unmistakably  pos- 
sessed, is  in  the  blessing  of  the  children  by 
Jacob,  Gen.  xlviii.  Ephraim  would  appear  at 
that  time  to  have  been  about  21  years  old.  He 
was  born  before  the  beginning  of  the  seven 
years  of  famine,  towards  the  latter  part  of 
which  Jacob  had  come  to  Egypt,  17  years  be- 
fore his  death  (Gen.  xlvii.  28).  Before  Joseph's 
death  Ephraim's  family  had  reached  the  third 
generation  (Gen.  1.  23),  and  it  must  have  been 
about  this  time  that  the  afifray  mentioned  in 
I  Chr.  vii.  21  occurred.  To  this  early  period 
too  must  probably  be  referred  the  circum- 
stance alluded  to  in  Ps.  Ixxviii.  9.  It  is  at  the 
time  of  the  sending  of  the  spies  to  the  Prom- 
ised Land  that  we  are  first  introduced  to  the 
great  hero  to  whom  the  tribe  owed  much  of  its 
subsequent  greatness.  Under  Joshua  the  tribe 
must  have  taken  a  high  position  in  the  nation, 
to  judge  from  the  tone  which  the  Ephraimites 
assumed  on  occasions  shortly  subsequent  to 
the  conquest.  The  boundaries  of  the  portion 
of  Ephraim  are  given  in  Josh.  xvi.  i-io.  The 
south  boundary  was  coincident  for  part  of  its 
length  with  the  north  boundary  of  Benjamin. 
It  extended  from  the  Jordan  on  the  E.,  at  the 
reach  opposite  Jericho,  to  the  Mediterranean 

7 


EPHRAIM 


ESAU 


on  the  W.,  probably  about  Joppa.  On  the  N. 
of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  were  the  tribes  of 
Asher,  Zebulun,  and  Issachar.  The  territory 
thus  allotted  to  the  "house  of  Joseph"  may  be 
roughly  estimated  at  55  miles  from  E.  to  W.  by 
70  from  N.  to  S.  Of  this  district  the  northern 
half  was  occupied  by  the  great  tribe  we  are 
now  considering.  This  was  the  Har-Ephraim, 
the  "Mount  Ephraim,"  a  district  which  seems 
to  extend  as  far  south  as  Ramah  and  Bethel 
(i  Sam.  i.  I,  vii.  17;  2  Chr.  xiii.  4,  19,  compared 
with  XV.  8),  places  but  a  few  miles  north  of 
Jerusalem,  and  within  the  limits  of  Benjamin. 
After  the  revolt  of  Jeroboam,  the  history  of 
Ephraim  is  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  since  not  only  did  the  tribe  become  a 
kingdom,  but  the  kingdom  embraced  little 
besides  the  tribe.  This  is  not  surprising,  and 
quite  susceptible  of  explanation.  North  of 
Ephraim  the  country  appears  never  to  have 
been  really  taken  possession  of  by  the  Israel- 
ites. And  in  addition  to  this  original  defect 
there  is  much  in  the  physical  formation  and 
circumstances  of  the  upper  portion  of  Pales- 
tine to  explain  why  those  tribes  never  took 
any  active  part  in  the  kingdom.  But  on  the 
other  hand  the  position  of  Ephraim  was  alto- 
gether different.  It  was  one  at  once  of  great 
richness  and  great  security.  Her  fertile  plains 
and  well  watered  valleys  could  only  be  reached 
by -a  laborious  ascent  through  steep  and  nar- 
row ravines,  all  but  impassable  for  an  army. 
There  is  no  record  of  any  attack  on  the  cen- 
tral kingdom,  either  from  the  Jordan  valley 
or  the  maritime  plain.  On  the  north  side, 
from  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  it  was  more  ac- 
cessible, and  it  was  from  this  side  that  the  final 
invasion  appears  to  have  been  made. 

E'phraim,  a  city  "in  the  district  near  the 
wilderness"  to  which  our  Lord  retired  with  his 
disciples  when  threatened  with  violence  by  the 
priests  (John  xi.  54).  Perhaps  Ophrah  and 
Ephraim  are  identical,  and  their  modern  rep- 
resentative is  et-Taiyibeh.  It  is  situated  4  or 
5  miles  east  of  Bethel,  and  16  from  Jerusalem. 

Epicure'ans,  The,  derived  their  name  from 
Epicurus  (342-271  B.  C),  a  philosopher  of 
Attic  descent,  whose  "Garden"  at  Athens 
rivalled  in  popularity  the  "Porch"  and  the 
"Academy."  The  doctrines  of  Epicurus  found 
wide  acceptance  in  Asia  Minor  and  Alexandria, 
and  they  gained  a  brilliant  advocate  at  Rome 
in  Lucretius  (95-50  B.  C).  The  object  of 
Epicurus  was  to  find  in  philosophy  a  practical 
guide  to  happiness.  True  pleasure  and  not  ab- 
solute truth  was  the  end  at  which  he  aimed; 
experience  and  not  reason  the  test  on  which 
he  relied.  It  is  obvious  that  a  system  thus 
framed  would  degenerate  by  a  natural  descent 

II 


into  mere  materialism ;  and  in  this  form  Epi- 
curism was  the  popular  philosophy  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  era.  When  St.  Paul 
addressed  "Epicureans  and  Stoics"  (Acts  xvii. 
18)  at  Athens,  the  philosophy  of  life  was  prac- 
tically reduced  to  the  teaching  of  those  two 
antagonistic  schools. 

Epistle,  The  epistles  of  the  N.  T.  in  their 
outward  form  are  such  as  might  be  expected 
from  men  who  were  brought  into  contact  with 
Greek  and  Roman  customs,  themselves  be- 
longing to  a  different  race,  and  so  reproducing 
the  imported  style  with  only  partial  accuracy. 
They  begin  (the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  i 
John  excepted)  with  the  names  of  the  writer, 
and  of  those  to  whom  the  Epistle  is  addressed. 
Then  follows  the  formula  of  salutation.  Then 
the  letter  itself  commences,  in  the  first  person, 
the  singular  and  plural  being  used  indiscrim- 
inately. When  the  substance  of  the  letter  has 
been  completed,  come  the  individual  messages. 
The  conclusion  in  this  case  was  probably 
modified  by  the  fact  that  the  letters  were  dic- 
tated to  an  amanuensis.  When  he  had  done 
his  work,  the  Apostle  took  up  the  pen  or  reed, 
and  added,  in  his  own  large  characters  (Gal. 
vi.  11)  the  authenticating  autograph.  In  one 
instance,  Rom.  xvi.  22,  the  amanuensis  in  his 
own  name  adds  his  salutation. 

E'sau  (hairy),  the  oldest  son  of  Isaac,  and 
twin-brother  of  Jacob.  The  singular  appear- 
ance of  the  child  at  his  birth  originated  the 
name  (Esau  means  hairy,  Gen.  xxv.  25),  This 
was  not  the  only  remarkable  circumstance 
connected  with  the  birth  of  the  infant.  Even 
in  the  womb  the  twin-brothers  struggled  to- 
gether (xxv.  22).  Esau's  robust  frame  and 
"rough"  aspect  were  the  types  of  a  wild  and 
daring  nature.  The  peculiarities  of  his  char- 
acter soon  began  to  develop  themselves.  He 
was,  in  fact,  a  thorough  Bedouin,  a  "son  of  the 
desert,"  who  delighted  to  roam  free  as  the 
wind  of  heaven,  and  who  was  impatient  of  the 
restraints  of  civilized  or  settled  life.  His  old 
father,  by  a  caprice  of  afifection  not  uncom- 
mon, loved  his  wilful,  vagrant  boy;  and  his 
keen  relish  for  savory  food  being  gratified  by 
Esau's  venison,  he  liked  him  all  the  better  for 
his  skill  in  hunting  (xxv.  28).  An  event  oc- 
curred which  exhibited  the  reckless  character 
of  Esau  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  selfish,  grasp- 
ing nature  of  his  brother  on  the  other.  Jacob 
takes  advantage  of  his  brother's  distress  to  rob 
him  of  that  which  was  dear  as  life  itself  to  an 
Eastern  patriarch.  Esau  married  at  the  age  of 
40,  and  contrary  to  the  wish  of  his  parents. 
His  wives  were  both  Canaanites;  and  they 
"were  bitterness  of  spirit  unto  Isaac  and  to 
Rebekah"  (Gen.  xxvi.  34,  35)-  The  next 
8 


ESDRAELON 


ESSENES 


episode  in  the  history  of  Esau  and  Jacob  is 
still  more  painful  than  the  former.  Jacob, 
through  the  craft  of  his  mother,  is  again  suc- 
cessful, and  secures  irrevocably  the  covenant 
blessing.  Esau  vows  vengeance.  But  he  knew 
not  a  mother's  watchful  care.  By  a  charac- 
teristic piece  of  domestic  policy  Rebekah  suc- 
ceeded both  in  exciting  Isaac's  anger  against 
Esau,  and  obtaining  his  consent  to  Jacob's 
departure.  When  Esau  heard  that  his  father 
had  commanded  Jacob  to  take  a  wife  of  the 
daughters  of  his  kinsman  Laban,  he  also  re- 
solved to  try  whether  by  a  new  alliance  he 
could  propitiate  his  parents.  He  accordingly 
married  his  cousin  ^lahalath,  the  daughter  of 
Ishmael  (xxviii.  8,  9).  This  marriage  appears 
to  have  brought  him  into  connection  with  the 
Ishmaelitish  tribes  beyond  the  valley  of 
Arabah.  He  soon  afterwards  established  him- 
self in  Mount  Seir;  still  retaining,  however. 


Plain  of  Esdraelon.  (Jezreel.) 

some  interest  in  his  father's  property  in  South- 
ern Palestine.  He  was  residing  in  Mount  Seir 
when  Jacob  returned  from  Padan-aram,  and 
had  then  become  so  rich  and  powerful  that  the 
imjjressions  of  his  brother's  early  offences  seem 
to  have  been  almost  completely  effaced.  It 
does  not  appear  that  the  brothers  again  met 
until  the  death  of  their  father  about  20  years 
afterwards.  They  united  in  laying  Isaac's  body 
in  the  cave  of  Machpelah.  Of  Esau's  subse- 
quent history  nothing  is  known ;  for  that  of  his 
descendants  see  Edom. 

EsdraeTon,  This  name  is  merely  the  Greek 
form  of  the  Hebrew  word  Jezreel.  It  occurs 
in  this  exact  shape  only  twice  in  the  A.  V. 
(Jud.  iii.  9,  iv.  6).  In  Jud.  iii.  3  it  is  Esdraelom, 
and  in  i.  8  Esdrelom,  with  the  addition  of  "the 
great  plain."  In  the  O.  T.  the  plain  is  called 
the  Valley  of  Jezreel ;  by  Josephus  "the  great 

II 


plain."  The  name  is  derived  from  the  old  royal 
city  of  Jezreel,  which  occupied  a  commanding 
site,  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  plain, 
on  a  spur  of  Motmt  Gilboa. 

Es'dras,  First  Book  of,  the  first  in  order  of 
the  Apocryphal  books  in  the  English  Bible.  It 
was  never  known  to  exist  in  Hebrew,  and 
formed  no  part  of  the  Hebrew  Canon.  As  re- 
gards the  contents  of  the  book,  and  the  author 
or  authors  of  it — the  first  chapter  is  a  transcript 
of  the  two  last  chapters  of  2  Chr.  for  the  most 
part  verbatim,  and  only  in  one  or  two  parts 
slightly  abridged  and  paraphrased.  Chapters 
iii.,  iv.,  and  v.  to  the  end  of  v.  6,  are  the 
original  portions  of  the  book,  and  the  rest  is 
a  transcript  more  or  less  exact  of  the  book  of 
Ezra,  with  the  chapters  transposed  and  quite 
otherwise  arranged,  and  a  portion  of  Nehe- 
miah.  Hence  a  twofold  design  in  the  compiler 
is  discernible.  One  to  introduce  and  give 
Scriptural  sanction  to  the  legend  about  Zerub- 
babel ;  the  other  to  explain  the  great  obscuri- 
ties of  the  book  of  Ezra,  in  which,  however,  he 
has  signally  failed.  As  regards  the  time  and 
place  when  the  compilation  was  made,  the 
original  portion  is  that  which  alone  affords 
much  clew.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
writer  was.  thoroughly  conversant  with 
Hebrew,  even  if  he  did  not  write  the  book  in 
that  language.  He  was  well  acquainted  too 
with  the  books  of  Esther  and  Daniel  (i  Esdr. 
iii.  I,  2,  sqq.),  and  other  books  of  Scripture  (ib. 
20,  21,  39,  41,  &c.,  and  45  compared  with  Ps. 
cxxxvii.  7).  But  that  he  did  not  live  under 
the  Persian  kings,  appears  by  the  undis- 
criminating  way  in  which  he  uses  promiscu- 
ously the  phrase  Medes  and  Persians,  or, 
Persians  and  Medes,  according  as  he  happened 
to  be  imitating  the  language  of  Daniel  or  of 
the  book  of  Esther. 

Es'dras,  The  Second  Book  of,  in  the  English 
Version  of  the  Apocrypha,  and  so  called  by 
the  author  (2  Esdr.  i.  i).  The  original  title, 
"the  Apocalypse  of  Ezra,"  is  far  more  ap- 
propriate. Chapters  iii.-xiv.  consist  of  a  series 
of  angelic  revelations  and  visions  in  which 
Ezra  is  instructed  in  some  of  the  great  myster- 
ies of  the  moral  world,  and  assured  of  the  final 
triumph  of  the  righteous.  The  date  of  the 
book  is  uncertain,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  is  a  genuine  product  of  Jewish  thought. 
The  Apocalypse  was  probably  written  in 
Egypt;  the  opening  and  closing  chapters  cer- 
tainly were. 

Essenes',  a  Jewish  sect,  who,  according  to 
the  description  of  Josephus,  combined  the 
ascetic  virtues  of  the  Pythagoreans  and  Stoics 
with  a  spiritual  knowledge  of  the  Divine  Law. 
It  seems  probable   that   the   name  signifies 

9 


ESTHER 


ETHIOPIAN  WOMAN 


"seer,"  or  "the  silent,  the  mysterious."  As  a 
sect  the  Essenes  were  distinguished  by  an 
aspiration  after  ideal  purity  rather  than  by  any 
special  code  of  doctrines.  From  the  Mac- 
cabean  age  there  was  a  continuous  cfifort 
among  the  stricter  Jews  to  attain  an  absolute 
standard  of  holiness.  Each  class  of  devotees 
was  looked  upon  as  practically  impure  by  their 
successors,  who  carried  the  laws  of  purity  still 
further;  and  the  Essenes  stand  at  the  extreme 
limit  of  the  mystic  asceticism  which  was  thus 
gradually  reduced  to  shape.  To  the  Pharisees 
they  stood  nearly  in  the  same  relation  as  that 
in  which  the  Pharisees  themselves  stood  with 
regard  to  the  mass  of  the  people.  There  were 
isolated  communities  of  Essenes,  which  were 
regulated  by  strict  rules,  analogous  to  those  of 
the  monastic  institutions  of  a  later  date.  All 
things  were  held  in  common,  without  distinc- 
tion of  property ;  and  special  provision  was 
made  for  the  relief  of  the  poor.  Self-denial, 
temperance,  and  labor — especially  agriculture 
— were  the  marks  of  the  outward  life  of  the 
Essenes;  purity  and  divine  communion  the 
objects  of  their  aspiration.  Slavery,  war,  and 
commerce  were  alike  forbidden.  Their  best 
known  settlements  were  on  the  N.  W.  shore  of 
the  Dead  Sea. 

Es'ther,  the  Persian  name  of  Hadassah, 
daughter  of  Abihail,  the  son  of  Shimei,  the  son 
of  Kish,  a  Benjamite.  Esther  was  a  beautiful 
Jewish  maiden,  whose  ancestor  Kish  had  been 
among  the  captives  led  away  from  Jerusalem 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  when  Jehoiachin  was 
taken  captive.  She  was  an  orphan  without 
father  or  mother,  and  had  been  brought  up  by 
her  cousin  Mordecai,  who  had  an  office  in  the 
household  "of  Ahasuerus  king  of  Persia,  and 
dwelt  at  "Shushan  the  palace."  When  Vashti 
was  dismissed  from  being  queen,  and  all  the 
fairest  virgins  of  the  kingdom  had  been  col- 
lected at  Shushan  for  the  king  to  make  choice 
of  a  successor  to  her  from  among  them,  the 
choice  fell  upon  Esther.  The  king  was  not 
a'ware,  however,  of  her  race  and  parentage ; 
and  so,  on  the  representation  of  Haman  the 
Agagite  that  the  Jews  scattered  through  his 
empire  were  a  pernicious  race,  he  gave  him  full 
power  and  authority  to  kill  them  all,  young 
and  old,  women  and  children,  and  take  posses- 
sion of  their  property.  The  means  taken  by 
Esther  to  avert  this  great  calamity  from  her 
people  and  her  kindred  are  fully  related  in  the 
book  of  Esther. 

Es'ther,  Book  of,  one  of  the  latest  of  the 
canonical  books  of  Scripture,  having  been  writ- 
ten late  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes,  or  early  in  that 
of  his  son  Artaxcrxes  Longimanus.  The  author 
is  not  known,  but  may  very  probably  have 


been  Mordecai  himself.  Those  who  ascribe  it 
to  Ezra,  or  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue,- 
may  have  merely  meant  that  Ezra  edited  and 
added  it  to  the  canon  of  Scripture,  which  he 
probably  did.  The  book  of  Esther  is  placed 
among  the  hagiographa  by  the  Jews,  and  in 
that  first  portion  of  them  which  they  call  "the 
five  rolls."  It  is  sometimes  emphatically  called 
Megillah  ("roll")  without  other  distinction, 
and  is  read  through  by  the  Jews  in  their  syna- 
gogues at  the  feast  of  Purim.  It  has  often 
been  remarked  as  a  peculiarity  of  this  book 
that  the  name  of  God  does  not  once  occur  in 
it.  The  style  of  writing  is  remarkably  chaste 
and  simple.  It  does  not  in  the  least  savor  of 
romance.  The  Hebrew  is  very  like  that  of 
Ezra  and  parts  of  the  Chronicles;  generally 
pure,  but  mixed  with  some  words  of  Persian 
origin,  and  some  of  Chaldaic  affinity.  In  short 
it  is  just  what  one  would  expect  to  find  in  a 
work  of  the  age  to  which  the  book  of  Esther 
professes  to  belong.  As  regards  the  Septuagint 
version  of  the  book,  it  consists  of  the  canonical 
Esther  with  various  interpolations  prefixed,  in- 
terspersed, and  added  at  the  close.  Though, 
however,  the  interpolations  of  the  Greek  copy 
are  thus  manifest,  they  make  a  consistent  and 
intelligible  story.  But  the  Apocryphal  addi- 
tions as  they  are  inserted  in  some  editions  of 
the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  in  the  English  Bible, 
are  incomprehensible. 

Ethio'pia.  The  country  which  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  described  as  "Aethiopia"  and  the 
Hebrews  as  "Gush"  lay  to  the  S.  of  Egypt,  and 
embraced,  in  its  most  extended  sense,  the  mod- 
ern Nubia,  Sennaar,  Kordofan,  and  northern 
Abyssinia,  and  in  its  more  definite  sense  the 
kingdom  of  Meroe.  Syene  marked  the  division 
between  Ethiopia  and  Egypt  (Ez.  xxix.  lo). 
The  Hebrews  do  not  appear  to  have  had  much 
practical  acquaintance  with  Ethiopia  itself, 
though  the  Ethiopians  were  well  known  to 
them  through  their  intercourse  with  Egypt. 
The  inhabitants  of  Ethiopia  were  a  Hamitic 
race  (Gen.  x.  6).  They  were  divided  into 
various  tribes,  of  which  the  Sabaeans  were  the 
most  powerful.  The  history  of  Ethiopia  is 
closely  interwoven  with  that  of  Egypt.  The 
two  countries  were  not  unfrequently  united 
under  the  rule  of  the  same  sovereign.  Shortly 
before  our  Saviour's  birth  a  native  dynasty  of 
females,  holding  the  ofificial  title  of  Candace 
(Plin.  vi.  35),  held  sway  in  Ethiopia,  and  even 
resisted  the  advance  of  the  Roman  arms.  One 
of  these  is  the  queen  noticed  in  Acts  viii.  27. 

Ethio'pian  Woman.  The  wife  of  Moses  is 
so  described  in  Num.  xii.  i.  She  is  elsewhere 
said  to  have  been  the  daughter  of  a  Midianite, 
and  in  consequence  of  this  some  have  sup- 


120 


THE  W^^^^^ 
OF  TH^ 


ETHIOPIANS 


EVANGELIST 


posed  that  the  allusion  is  to  another  wife 
whom  Moses  married  after  the  death  of  Zip- 
porah. 

Ethio'pians,  properly  "Cush"  or  "Ethiopia" 
in  two  passages  (Is.  xx.  4;  Jer.  xlvi.  3).  Else- 
where "Cushites,"  or  inhabitants  of  Ethiopia 
(2  Chr.  xii.  3,  xiv.  12  [ii],  13  [12],  xvi.  8,  xxi. 
16:  Dan.  xi.  43;  Am.  ix.  7;  Zeph.  ii.  12). 

Eunuch.  The  law  (Deut.  xxiii.  i  ;  comp. 
Lev.  xxii.  24)  is  repugnant  to  thus  treating 
any  Israelite.  The  origination  of  the  practice 
is  ascribed  to  Semiramis,  and  is  no  doubt  as 
early,  or  nearly  so,  as  Eastern  despotism  itself. 
The  complete  assimilation  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  and  latterly  of  Judah,  to  the  neighbor- 
ing models  of  despotism,  is  traceable  in  the 
rank  and  prominence  of  eunuchs  (2  K.  viii.  6, 
ix.  32,  xxiii.  II,  XXV.  19;  Is.  Ivi.  3,  4;  Jer.  xxix. 
2,  xxxiv.  19,  xxxviii.  7,  xli.  16,  lii.  25).  They 
mostly  appear  in  one  of  two  relations,  either 


village  of  Anah  on  the  Euphrates. 

military,  as  "set  over  the  men  of  war,"  greater 
trustworthiness  possibly  counterbalancing  in- 
ferior courage  and  military  vigor,  or  asso- 
ciated, as  we  mostly  recognize  them,  with 
women  and  children.  We  find  the  Assyrian 
Rab-Saris,  or  chief  eunuch  (2  K.  xviii.  17),  em- 
ployed together  with  other  high  officials  as  am- 
bassador. It  is  probable  that  Daniel  and  his 
companions  were  thus  treated,  in  fulfilment  of 
2  K.  XX.  17,  18;  Is.  xxxix.  7;  comp.  Dan.  i.  3, 
7.  The  court  of  Herod  of  course  had  its 
eunuchs,  as  had  also  that  of  Queen  Candace 
(Acts  viii.  27). 

Euphra'tes  is  probably  a  word  of  Aryan 
origin,  signifying  "the  good  and  abounding 
river."  It  is  most  frequently  denoted  in  the 
Bible  by  the  term  "the  river."  The  Euphrates 
is  the  largest,  the  longest,  and  by  far  the  most 
important  of  the  rivers  of  Western  Asia.  It 
rises  from  two  chief  sources  in  the  Armenian 
mountains,  and  flows  into  the  Persian  Gulf. 


The  entire  course  is  1780  miles,  and  of  this  dis- 
tance more  than  'two  thirds  (1200  miles)  is 
navigable  for  boats.  The  width  of  the  river  is 
greatest  at  the  distance  of  700  or  800  miles 
from  its  mouth — that  is  to  say,  from  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Khabour  to  the  village  of  Werai. 
It  there  averages  400  yards.  The  annual  in- 
undation of  the  Euphrates  is  caused  by  the 
melting  of  the  snows  in  the  Armenian  high- 
lands. It  occurs  in  the  month  of  May.  The 
great  hydraulic  works  ascribed  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar had  for  their  chief  object  to  control  the 
inundation.  The  Euphrates  is  first  mentioned 
in  Scripture  as  one  of  the  four  rivers  of  Eden 
(Gen.  ii.  14).  Its  celebrity  is  there  sufficiently 
indicated  by  the  absence  of  any  explanatory 
phrase,  such  as  accompanies  the  names  of  the 
other  streams.  We  next  hear  of  it  in  the 
covenant  made  with  Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  18), 
where  the  whole  country  from  "the  great 
river,  the  river  Euphrates,"  to  the  river  of 
Egypt  is  promised  to  the  chosen  race.  During 
the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon  the  dominion 
of  Israel  actually  attained  to  the  full  extent 
both  ways  of  the  original  promise,  the 
Euphrates  forming  the  boundary  of  their  em- 
pire to  the  N.  E.,  and  the  river  of  Egypt  to  the 
S.  W.  This  wide-spread  territory  was  lost 
upon  the  disruption  of  the  empire  under  Reho- 
boam ;  and  no  more  is  heard  in  Scripture  of 
the  Euphrates  until  the  expedition  of  Necho 
against  the  Babylonians  in  the  reign  of  Josiah. 
The  river  still  brings  down  as  much  water  as 
of  old,  but  the  precious  element  is  wasted  by 
the  neglect  of  man ;  the  various  watercourses 
along  which  it  was  in  former  times  conveyed 
are  dry ;  the  main  channel  has  shrunk ;  and 
the  water  stagnates  in  unwholesome  marshes. 

Evangelist  ineans  "the  publisher  of  glad  tid- 
ings," and  therefore  seems  common  to  the 
work  of  the  Christian  ministry  generally;  yet 
in  Eph.  iv.  11,  the  "evangelists"  appear  on  the 
one  hand  after  the  "apostles"  and  "prophets:" 
on  the  other  before  the  "pastors"  and  "teach- 
ers." This  passage  accordingly  would  lead  us 
to  think  of  them  as  standing  between  the  two 
other  groups — sent  forth  as  missionary  preach- 
ers of  the  Gospel  by  the  first,  and  as  such  pre- 
paring the  way  for  the  labors  of  the  second. 
The  same  inference  would  seem  to  follow  the 
occurrence  of  the  word  as  applied  to  Philip  in 
Acts  xxi.  8.  It  follows  from  what  has  been 
said  that  the  calling  of  the  Evangelist  is  the 
proclamation  of  the  glad  tidings  to  those  who 
have  not  known  them,  rather  than  the  instruc- 
tion and  pastoral  care  of  those  who  have  be- 
lieved and  been  baptized.  It  follows  also  that 
the  name  denotes  a  work  rather  than  an  order. 
The  Evangelist  might   or   might   not   be  a 


121 


EVE 


EXCOMMUNICATION 


Bishop-Elder  or  a  deacon.  The  Apostles,  so 
far  as  they  evangelized  (Acts  viii.  25,  xiv.  7; 
I  Cor.  i.  17),  might  claim  the  title,  though 
there  were  many  Evangelists  who  were  not 
Apostles.  If  the  Gospel  was  a  written  book, 
and  the  office  of  the  Evangelists  was  to  read 
or  distribute  it,  then  the  writers  of  such  books 
were  pre-eminently  the  Evangelists.  In  later 
liturgical  language  the  word  was  applied  to 
the  reader  of  the  Gospel  for  the  day. 

Eve,  the  name  given  in  Scripture  to  the  first 
woman.  The  account  of  Eve's  creation  is 
found  at  Gen.  ii.  21,  22.  Perhaps  that  which 
we  are  chiefly  intended  to  learn  from  the  nar- 
rative is  the  foundation  upon  which  the  union 
between  man  and  wife  is  built,  viz.,  identity  of 
nature  and  oneness  of  origin.  Through  the 
subtlety  of  the  serpent,  Eve  was  beguiled  into 
a  violation  of  the  one  commandment  which 
had  been  imposed  upon  her  and  Adam.  The 
Scripture  account  of  Eve  closes  with  the  birth 
of  Seth. 

Excommunication  (expulsion  from  com- 
munion). Jewish  Excommunication.  The 
Jewish  system  of  excommunication  was  three- 
fold. For  a  first  offence  a  delinquent  was  sub- 
jected to  the  penalty  of  Niddui.  The  twenty- 
four  offences  for  which  it  was  inflicted  are 
various,  and  range  in  heinousness  from  the 
offence  of  keeping  a  fierce  dog  to  that  of  tak- 
ing God's  name  in  vain.  The  offender  was 
first  cited  to  appear  in  court ;  and  if  he  refused 
to  appear  or  to  make  amends,  his  sentence  was 
pronounced.  The  term  of  this  punishment  was 
thirty  days ;  and  it  was  extended  to  a  second 
and  to  a  third  thirty  days  when  necessary.  If 
at  the  end  of  that  time  the  offender  was  still 
contumacious,  he  was  subjected  to  the  second 
excommunication,  termed  Cherem,  a  word 
meaning  something  devoted  to  God  (Lev. 
xxvii.  21,  28;  Ex.  xxii.  20  [19];  Num.  xviii. 
14).  Severer  penalties  were  now  attached. 
The  sentence  was  delivered  by  a  court  of  ten, 
and  was  accompanied  by  a  solemn  maledic- 
tion. Lastly  followed  Shammatha,  which  was 
an  entire  cutting  off  from  the  congregation. 
The  punishment  of  excommunication  is  not 
appointed  by  the  Law  of  Moses.  It  is  founded 
on  the  natural  right  of  self-protection  which 
all  societies  enjoy.  The  case  of  Korah,  Da- 
than,  and  Abiram  (Num.  xvi.),  the  curse  de- 
nounced on  Meroz  (Judg.  v.  23),  the  commis- 
sion and  proclamation  of  Ezra  (vii.  26,  x.  8), 
and  the  reformation  of  Nehemiah  (xiii.  25), 
are  appealed  to  by  the  Talmudists  as  prece- 
dents by  which  their  proceedings  are  regu- 
lated. In  the  New  Testament,  Jewish  excom- 
munication is  brought  prominently  before  us 
in  the  case  of  the  man  that  was  born  blind 


(John  ix.).  The  expressions  here  used  refer, 
no  doubt,  to  the  first  form  of  excommunica- 
tion, or  Niddui.  In  Luke  vi.  22,  it  has  been 
thought  that  our  Lord  referred  specifically  to 
the  three  forms  of  Jewish  excommunication : 
"Blessed  are  ye  when  men  shall  hate  you,  and 
when  they  shall  separate  you  from  their  com- 
pany, and  shall  reproach  you,  and  cast  out 
your  name  as  evil,  for  the  Son  of  Man's  sake." 
Excommunication,  as  exercised  by  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  is  not  merely  founded  on  the  nat- 
ural right,  possessed  by  all  societies,  nor 
merely  on  the  example  of  the  Jewish  Church 
and  nation.  It  was  instituted  by  our  Lord 
(Matt,  xviii.  15,  18),  and  it  was  practised  and 
commanded  by  St.  Paul  (i  Tim.  i.  20;  i  Cor. 
v.  II ;  Tit.  iii.  10).  In  the  Epistles  we  find  St. 
Paul  frequently  claiming  the  right  to  exercise 
discipline  over  his  converts  (comp.  2  Cor.  i. 
23,  xiii.  10).  In  two  cases  we  find  him  exer- 
cising this  authority  to  the  extent  of  cutting 
off  offenders  from  the  Church.  There  are  two 
passages  still  more  important  to  our  subject 
(Gal.  i.  8,  9;  I  Cor.  xvi.  22).  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  these  two  expressions,  "let  him  be 
Anathema,"  "let  him  be  Anathema  Mara- 
natha,"  refer  respectively  to  the  two  later 
stages  of  Jewish  excommunication  —  the 
cherem  and  the  shammatha.  The  Nature  of 
Excommunication  is  made  more  evident  by 
the  acts  of  St.  Paul  than  by  any  investigation 
of  Jewish  practice  or  of  the  etymology  of 
words.  We  thus  find,  (i)  that  it  is  a  spiritual 
penalty,  involving  no  temporal  punishment, 
except  accidentally;  (2)  that  it  consists  in 
separation  from  the  communion  of  the  Church  ; 
(3)  that  its  object  is  the  good  of  the  sufferer 
(i  Cor.  V.  5),  and  the  protection  of  the  sound 
members  of  the  Church  (2  Tim.  iii.  17)  ;  (4) 
that  its  subjects  are  those  who  are  guilty  of 
heresy  (i  Tim.  i.  20),  or  gross  immorality  (i 
Cor.  V.  i)  ;  (5)  that  it  is  inflicted  by  the 
authority  of  the  Church  at  large  (Matt,  xviii. 
18),  wielded  by  the  highest  ecclesiastical  offi- 
cer (i  Cor.  V.  3;  Tit.  iii.  10)  ;  (6)  that  this  offi- 
cer's sentence  is  promulgated  by  the  congrega- 
tion to  which  the  offender  belongs  (i  Cor.  v. 
4),  in  deference  to  his  superior  judgment  and 
command  (2  Cor.  ii.  9),  and  in  spite  of  any 
opposition  on  the  part  of  a  minority  (ib.  6)  ; 
(7)  that  the  exclusion  may  be  of  indefinite 
duration,  or  for  a  period;  (8)  that  its  duration 
may  be  abridged  at  the  discretion  and  by  the 
indulgence  of  the  person  who  has  imposed  the 
penalty  (ib.  8)  ;  (9)  that  penitence  is  the  con- 
dition on  which  restoration  to  communion  is 
granted  (ib.  7)  ;  (10)  that  the  sentence  is  to  be 
publicly  reversed  as  it  was  publicly  promul- 
gated (ib,  10). 


122 


EXILE 


EZEKIEL 


Exile.  [Captivity.] 

Ex'odus  (that  is,  going  out  [of  Eg>'pt]),  the 
second  book  of  the  Law  or  Pentateuch.  It 
ma}'  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts:  1. 
Historical,  i.  i-xviii.  27;  and  II.  Legislative, 
xi.x.  i-xl.  38.  The  former  of  these  may  be  sub- 
divided into,  (i.)  the  preparation  for  the  deliv- 
erance of  Israel  from  their  bondage  in  Egypt; 
(2.)  the  accomplishment  of  tlvat  deliverance. 
I.  (i.)  The  first  section  (i.  i-xii.  36)  contains 
an  account  of  the  following  particulars :  The 
great  increase  of  Jacob's  posterity  in  the  land 
of  Egypt,  and  their  oppression  under  a  new 
dynasty,  which  occupied  the  throne  after  the 
death  of  Joseph  (ch.  i.)  ;  the  birth,  education, 
and  flight  of  Moses  (ii.)  ;  his  solemn  call  to  be 
the  deliverer  of  his  people  (iii.  i-iv.  17),  and 
his  return  to  Egypt  in  consequence  (iv.  18-31)  ; 
his  first  ineffectual  attempt  to  prevail  upon 
Pharoah  to  let  the  Israelites  go,  which  only 
resulted  in  an  increase  of  their  burdens  (v. 
1-21);  a  further  preparation  of  Moses  and 
Aaron  for  their  office,  together  with  the  ac- 
count of  their  genealogies  (v.  22-vii.  7)  ;  the 
successive  signs  and  wonders,  by  means  of 
which  the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  the  land 
of  bondage  is  at  length  accomplished,  and  the 
institution  of  the  Passover  (vii.  8-xii.  36).  (2.) 
A  narrative  of  evente  from  the  departure  out 
of  Eg>'pt  to  the  arrival  of  the  Israelites  at 
Mount  Sinai.  II.  The  solemn  establishment  of 
the  Theocracy  on  ?\Iount  Sinai.  This  book,  in 
short,  gives  a  sketch  of  the  early  history  of 
Israel-  as  a  nation :  and  the  history  has  three 
clearly  marked  stages.  First  we  see  a  nation 
enslaved ;  next  a  nation  .redeemed ;  lastly  a 
nation  set  apart,  and  through  the  blending  of 
its  religious  and  political  life  consecrated  to 
the  service  of  God. 

Ex'odus,  The,  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt. 
On  the  date  of  this  event  see  Egypt,  p.  108. 
The  history  of  the  Exodus  itself  commences 
with  the  close  of  that  of  the  Ten  Plagues. 
[Plagues  of  Egypt.]  In  the  night  in  which,  at 
midnight,  the  firstborn  were  slain  (Ex.  xii.  29), 
Pharaoh  urged  the  departure  of  the  Israelites 
(ver.  31,  32).  They  at  once  set  forth  from  Ra- 
nieses  (ver.  37,  39),  apparently  during  the 
night  (ver.  42),  but  towards  morning,  on  the 
15th  day  of  the  first  month  (Num.  xxxiii.  3). 
They  made  three  journeys  and  encamped  by 
the  Red  Sea.  Here  Pharaoh  overtook  them, 
and  the  great  miracle  occurred  by  which  they 
were  saved,  while  the  pursuer  and  his  army 
were  destroyed.    [Red  Sea,  Passage  of.] 

Exorcist.  The  use  of  the  term  exorcists  in 
Acts  xix.  13  confirms  what  we  know  .from 
other  sources  as  to  the  common  practice  of 
exorcism  amongst  the  Jews.    That  some,  at 


least,  of  them  not  only  pretended  to,  but  pos- 
sessed, the  power  of  exorcising,  appears  by  our 
Lord's  admission  when  he  asks  the  Pharisees, 
*Tf  I  by  Beelzebub  cast  out  devils,  by  whom 
do  your  disciples  cast  them  out?"  (Matt.  xii. 
27.)  What  means  were  employed  by  real 
exorcists  we  are  not  informed.  David,  by 
playing  skilfully  on  a  harp,  procured  the 
temporary  departure  of  the  evil  spirit  which 
troubled  Saul  (i  Sam.  xvi.  23).  It  was  the 
profane  use  of  the  name  of  Jesus  as  a  mere 
charm  or  spell  which  led  to  the  disastrous 
issue  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (xix. 
13-16).  The  power  of  casting  out  devils  was 
bestowed  by  Christ  while  on  earth  upon  the 
Apostles  (Matt.  x.  8)  and  the  seventy  disciples 
(Luke  X.  17-19,  and  was,  according  to  His 
promise  (Mark  xvi.  17),  exercised  by  believers 
after  His  Ascension  (Acts  xvi.  18)  ;  but  to  the 
Christian  miracle,  whether  as  performed  by 
our  Lord  himself  or  by  His  followers,  the  N.  T. 
writers  never  apply  the  terms  "exorcise"  or 
"exorcist." 

Expiation.  [Sacrifice.] 

Eze'kiel  (the  strength  of  God),  one  of  the 
four  greater  prophets,  was  the  son  of  a  priest 
named  Buzi,  and  was  taken  captive  in  the  cap- 
tivity of  Jehoiachin,  eleven  years  before  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  He  was  a  member 
of  a  community  of  Jewish  exiles  who  settled 
on  the  banks  of  the  Chebar,  a  "river"  or  stream 
of  Babylonia.  It  was  by  this  river  'in  the  land 
of  the  Chaldaeans"  that  God's  message  first 
reached  him  (i.  3).  His  call  took  place  "in  the 
fifth  year  of  king  Jehoiachin's  captivity,"  B.  C. 
595  (i.  2),  "in  the  thirtieth  year,  in  the  fourth 
month."  The  latter  expression  is  uncertain.  It- 
now  seems  generally  agreed  that  it  was  the 
30th  year  from  the  new  era  of  Nabopolassar, 
father  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  began  to  reign 
B.  C.  625.  The  use  of  this  Chaldee  epoch  is 
the  more  appropriate  as  the  prophet  wrote  in 
Babylonia,  and  he  gives  a  Jewish  chronology 
in  ver.  2.  The  decision  of  the  question  is  the 
less  important  because  in  all  other  places 
Ezekiel  dates  from  the  year  of  Jehoiachin's 
captivity  (xxix.  17,  xxx.  29,  et  passim).  We 
learn  from  an  incidental  allusion  (xxiv.  18)  — 
the  only  reference  which  he  makes  to  his  per- 
sonal history — that  he  was.  married,  and  had  a 
house  (xiii.  i)  in- his  place  of  exile,  and  lost  his 
wife  by  a  sudden  and  unforeseen  stroke.  He 
lived  in  the  highest  consideration  among  his 
companions  in  exile,  and  their  elders  consulted 
him  on  all  occasions  (viii.  i,  xi.  25,  xiv.  i,  xx. 
I,  &c.).  The  last  date  he  mentions  is  the  27th 
year  of  the  captivity  (xxix.  17),  so  that  his 
mission  extended  over  twenty-two  years,  dur- 
ing part  of  which  period  Daniel  was  probably 


123 


EZRA 


EZRA,  BOOK  OF 


living,  and  already  famous  (Ez.  xiv.  14,  xxviii. 
3).  He  is  said  to  have  been  murdered  in 
Babylon  by  some  Jewish  prince  whom  he  had 
convicted  of  idolatry,  and  to  have  been  buried 
in  the  tomb  of  Shem  and  Arphaxad,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Euphrates.  The  tomb,  said  to 
have  been  built  by  Jehoiachin,  was  shown  a 
few  days'  journey  from  Bagdad.  Ezekiel  was 
distinguished  by  his  stern  and  inflexible  energy 
of  will  and  character ;  and  we  also  observe  a 
devoted  adherence  to  the  rites  and  ceremonies 
of  his  national  religion.  The  depth  of  his  mat- 
ter, and  the  marvellous  nature  of  his  visions, 
make  him  occasionally  obscure.  The  book  is 
divided  into  two  great  parts — of  which  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  is  the  turning-point ; 
chapters  i.-xxiv.  contain  predictions  delivered 
before  that  event,  and  xxv.-xlviii.  after  it,  as 
we  see  from  xxvi.  2.  Again,  chapters  i.-xxxii. 
are  mainly  occupied  with  correction,  denuncia- 
tion, and  reproof,  while  the  remainder  deal 
chiefly  in  consolation  and  promise.  A  paren- 
thetical section  in  the  middle  of  the  book 
(xxv.-xxxii.)  contains  a  group  of  prophecies 
against  seven  foreign  nations,  the  septenary 
arrangement  being  apparently  intentional. 
There  are  no  direct  quotations  from  Ezekiel  in 
the  New  Testament,  but  in  the  Apocalypse 
there  are  many  parallels  and  obvious  allusions 
to  the  later  chapters  (xl.-xlviii.). 

Ez'ra  (help),  called  Esdras  in  the  Apocry- 
pha, the  famous  Scribe  and  Priest,  descended 
from  Hilkiah  the  high-priest  in  Josiah's  reign, 
from  whose  younger  son  Azariah  sprung 
Seraiah,  Ezra's  father,  quite  a  different  person 
from  Seraiah  the  high-priest  (Ezr.  vii.  i).  All 
that  is  really  known  of  Ezra  is  contained  in  the 
four  last  chapters  of  the  book  of  Ezra  and  in 
Neh.  viii.  and  xii.  26.  From  these  passages  we 
learn  that  he  was  a  learned  and  pious  priest 
residing  at  Babylon  in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus.  The  origin  of  his  influence  with 
the  king  does  not  appear,  but  in  the  seventh 
year  of  his  reign,  in  spite  of  the  unfavorable 
report  which  had  been  sent  by  Rehum  and 
Shimshai,  he  obtained  leave  to  go  to  Jerusalem, 
and  to  take  with  him  a  company  of  Israelites, 
together  with  priests,  Levites,  singers,  porters, 
and  Nethinim.  The  journey  of  Ezra  and  his 
companions  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  took 
just  four  months;  and  they  brought  up  with 
them  a  large  free-will  offering  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver, and  silver  vessels.  It  appears  that  his 
great  design  was  to  effect  a  religious  reforma- 
tion among  the  Palestine  Jews,  and  to  bring 
them  back  to  the  observation  of  the  Law  of 
Moses,  from  which  they  had  grievously  de- 
clined. His  first  step,  accordingly,  was  to 
enforce  a  separation  from  their  wives  upon  all 


who  had  made  heathen  marriages,  in  which 
number  were  many  priests  and  Levites,  as  well 
as  other  Israelites.  This  was  effected  in  little 
more  than  six  months  after  his  arrival  at 
Jerusalem.  With  the  detailed  account  of  this 
important  transaction  Ezra's  autobiography 
ends  abruptly,  and  we  hear  nothing  more  of 
him  till,  13  years  afterwards,  in  the  20th  of 
Artaxerxes,  we  find  him  again  at  Jerusalem 
with  Nehemiah  "the  Tirshatha."  It  seems 
probable  that  after  he  had  ef¥ected  the  above- 
named  reformation,  and  had  appointed  com- 
petent judges  and  magistrates,  with  authority 
to  maintain  it,  he  himself  returned  to  the  king 
of  Persia.  The  functions  he  executed  under 
Nehemiah's  government  were  purely  of  a 
priestly  and  ecclesiastical  character.  But  in 
such  he  filled  the  first  place.  As  Ezra  is  not 
mentioned  after  Nehemiah's  departure  for 
Babylon  in  the  32d  Artaxerxes,  and  as  every- 
thing fell  into  confusion  during  Nehemiah's 
absence  (Neh.  xiii.),  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
Ezra  may  have  died  or  returned  to  Babylon 
before  that  year.  There  was  a  Jewish  tradi- 
tion that  he  was  buried  in  Persia.  The  prin- 
cipal works  ascribed  to  him  by  the  Jews  are: 
I.  The  institution  of  the  Great  Synagogue.  2. 
The  settling  the  canon  of  Scripture,  and  restor- 
ing, correcting,  and  editing  the  whole  sacred 
volume.  3.  The  introduction  of  the  Chaldee 
character  instead  of  the  old  Hebrew  or 
Samaritan.  4.  The  authorship  of  the  books  of 
Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and,  some  add, 
Esther ;  and,  many  of  the  Jews  say,  also  of 
the-  books  of  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  and  the  twelve 
prophets.  5.  The  establishment  of  synagogues. 

Ez'ra,  Book  of,  is  a  continuation  of  the 
books  of  Chronicles.  Like  these  books,  it  con- 
sists of  the  contemporary  historical  journals 
kept  from  time  to  time,  which  were  afterwards 
strung  together,  and  either  abridged  or  added 
to,  as  the  case  required,  by  a  later  hand.  That 
later  hand,  in  the  book  of  Ezra,  was  doubtless 
Ezra's  own,  as  appears  by  the  four  last  chap- 
ters, as  well  as  by  other  matter  inserted  in  the 
previous  chapters.  The  chief  portion  of  the 
last  chapter  of  2  Chr.  and  Ezr.  i.  was  probably 
written  by  Daniel.  As  regards  Ezr.  ii.,  and  as 
far  as  iii.  i,  it  is  found  (with  the  exception  of 
clerical  errors)  in  the  7th  ch.  of  Nehemiah, 
where  it  belongs  beyond  a  shadow  of  doubt. 
The  next  portion  extends  from  iii.  2  to  the  end 
of  ch.  vi.  With  the  exception  of  one  large  ex- 
planatory addition  by  Ezra,  extending  from 
iv.  6  to  23,  this  portion  is  the  work  of  a  writer 
contemporary  with  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua, 
and  an  eye-witness  of  the  rebuilding  of  the 
Temple  in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Darius 
Hystaspis.    That  it  was  the  prophet  Haggai 


124 


AN  ISRAELITE  OF  JERUSALEM,     FROM  A  rilOTOGUAPH.  ; 

i 

1 


1 


THE  m 

OF  THE 


FABLE 


FAN 


becomes  tolerably  sure  when  we  observe  fur- 
ther the  remarkable  coincidences  in  style.  Ezr. 
iv.  6-23  is  a  parenthetic  addition  by  a  much 
later  hand,  and  as  the  passage  most  clearly 
shows,  made  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
manus.  The  compiler  who  inserted  ch..  ii.,  a 
document  drawn  up  in  the  rfeign  of  Artaxerxes 
to  illustrate  the  return  of  the  captives  under 
Zerubbabel,  here  inserts  a  notice  of  two  his- 
torical facts — of  which  one  occurred  in  the 
reign  of  Xerxes,  and  the  other  in  the  reign  of 
Artaxerxes — 'to  illustrate  the  opposition  of- 
fered by  the  heathen  to  the  rebuilding  of  the 
Temple  in  the  reign  of  Cyrus  and  Cambyses. 
The  last  four  chapters,  beginning  with  ch.  vii., 
are  Ezra's  own,  and  continue  the  history  after 
a  gap  of  fifty-eight  years — from  the  sixth  of 
Darius  to  the  seventh  of  Artaxerxes.  It  is 
written  partly  in  Hebrew,  and  partly  in  Chal- 
dee.  The  Chaldee  begins  at  iv.  8,  and  con- 
tinues to  the  end  of^vi.  18.  The  letter  or  de- 
cree of  Artaxerxes,  vii.  12-26,  is  also  given  in 
the  original  Chaldee.  The  period  covered  by 
the  book  is  eighty  years,  from  the  first  of 
Cyrus,  B.  C.  536,  to  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
of  Artaxerxes,  B.  C.  456. 

F. 

Fable.  Of  the  fable,  as  distinguished  from 
the  parable  [Parable],  we  have  but  two  exam- 
ples in  the  Bible,  (i)  that  of  the  trees  choosing 
their  king,  addressed  by  Jotham  to  the  men  of 
Shechem  (Judg.  ix.  8-15)  ;  (2)  that  of  the 
cedar  of  Lebanon  and  the  thistle,  as  the  an- 
swer of  Jehoash  to  the  challenge  of  Amaziah 
(2  K.  xiv.  9).  The  fables  of  false  teachers 
claiming  to  belong  to  the  Christian  church,  al- 
luded to  by  writers  of  the  N.  T.  (i  Tim.  i.  4, 
iv.  7;  Tit.  i.  14;  2  Pet.  i.  16),  do  not  appear 
to  have  had  the  character  of  fables,  properly 
so  called. 

Fairs,  a  word  which  occurs  only  in  Ez. 
xxvii.,  and  there  no  less  than  seven  times  (ver. 
12,  14,  16,  19,  22,  27,  33)  :  in  the  last  of  these 
verses  it  is  rendered  "wares,"  and  this  we  be- 
lieve to  be  the  true  meaning  of  the  word 
throughout. 

Famine.  In  the  whole  of  Syria  and  Arabia, 
the  fruits  of  the  earth  must  ever  be  dependent 
on  rain ;  the  watersheds  having  few  large 
springs,  and  the  small  rivers  not  being  suffi- 
cient for  the  irrigation  of  even  the  level  lands. 
If  therefore  the  heavy  rains  of  November  and 
December  fail,  the  sustenance  of  the  people  is 
cut  off  in  the  parching  drought  of  harvest-time, 
when  the  country  is  almost  devoid  of  moisture. 
Eg>'pt,  again,  owes  all  its  fertility  to  its  mighty 
river,  whose  annual  rise  inundates  nearly  the 
whole  land.    The  causes  of  dearth  and  famine 

l: 


in  Egypt  are  occasioned  by  defective  inunda- 
tion, preceded  and  accompanied  and  followed 
by  prevalent  easterly  and  southerly  winds. 
The  first  famine  recorded  in  the  Bible  is  that 
of  Abraham  after  he  had  pitched  his  tent  on 
the  east  of  Bethel  (Gen.  xii.  10).  We  may  con- 
clude that  this  famine  was  extensive,  although 
this  is  not  quite  proved  by  the  fact  of  Abra- 
ham's going  to  Egypt ;  for  on  the  occasion  of 
the  second  famine,  in  the  days  of  Isaac,  this 
patriarch  found  refuge  with  Abimelech  king  of 
the  Philistines  in  Gerar  (Gen.  xxvi.  i,  sq.).  We 
hear  no  more  of  times  of  scarcity  until  the 
great  famine  of  Egypt  which  "was  over  all  the 
face  of  the  earth."  We  have  mentioned  the 
chief  causes  of  famines  in  Egypt :  this  instance 
differs  in  the  providential  recurrence  of  seven 
years  of  plenty,  whereby  Joseph  was  enabled 
to  provide  against  the  coming  dearth,  and  to 
supply  not  only  the  population  of  Egypt  with 
corn,  but  those  of  the  surrounding  countries 


Winnowing- Fans. 


(Gen.  xli.  53-57).  The  modern  history  of 
Egypt  throws  some  curious  light  on  these  an- 
cient records  of  famines ;  and  instances  of  their 
recurrence  may  be  cited  to  assist  us  in  under- 
standing their  course  and  extent.  The  most 
remarkable  famine  was  that  of  the  reign  of 
the  Fatimee  Khaleefeh,  El-Mustansir  billah, 
which  is  the  only  instance  on  record  of  one 
of  seven  years'  duration  in  Egypt  since  the 
tinie  of  Joseph  (A.  H.  457-464,  A.  D.  1064- 
1071).  Vehement  drought  and  pestilence  con- 
tinued for  seven  consecutive  years,  so  that  the 
people  ate  corpses,  and  animals  that  died  of 
themselves.  The  famine  of  Samaria  resem- 
bled it  in  many  particulars ;  and  that  very 
briefly  recorded  in  2  K.  viii.  i,  2,  afifords  an- 
other instance  of  one  of  seven  years.  In  Ara- 
bia, famines  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Fan,  a  winnowing-shovel,  with  which  grain 
was  thrown  up  against  the  wind  to  be  cleansed 
from  the  chaff  and  straw  (Is.  xxx.  24;  Matt. 


FARTHING 


FATHER 


iii.  12).  A  large  wooden  fork  is  used  at  the 
present  day. 

Farthing.  Two  names  of  coins  in  the  N.  T. 
are  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by  this  word. 
Quadrans  (Matt.  v.  26;  Mark  xii.  42),  a  corn- 
current  in  Palestine  in  the  time  of  our  Lord. 
It  was  equivalent  to  two  lepta  (A.  V.  "mites"). 
The  name  quadrans  was  originally  given  to 
the  quarter  of  the  Roman  as,  or  piece  of  three 
unciae,   therefore  also  called  teruncius. 

Fasts.  I.  One  fast  only  was  appointed  by 
the  law,  that  on  the  day  of  Atonement.  There 
is  no  mention  of  any  other  periodical  fast  in 
the  O.  T.,  except  in  Zech.  vii.  1-7,  viii.  19. 
From  these  passages  it  appears  that  the  Jews, 
during  their  captivity,  observed  four  annual 
fasts,  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  seventh,  and  tenth 
months.  Zechariah  simply  distinguishes  the 
fasts  by  the  months  in  which  they  were  ob- 
served; but  the  Mishna  and  St.  Jerome  give 
statements  of  certain  historical  events  which 
they  were  intended  to  commemorate.  The 
number  of  annual  fasts  in  the  present  Jewish 
Calendar  has  been  multiplied  to  twenty-eight. 
'II.  Public  fasts  were  occasionally  proclaimed 
to  express  national  humiliation,  and  to  sup- 


A  Farthing. 

plicate  divine  favor.  In  the  case  of  public 
danger,  the  proclamation  appears  to  have  been 
accompanied  with  the  blowing  of  trumpets 
(Joel  ii.  1-15).  The  following  instances  are 
recorded  of  strictly  national  fasts:  Samuel 
gathered  "all  Israel"  to  Mizpeh  and  pro- 
claimed a  fast  (i  Sam.  vii.  6)  ;  Jehoshaphat  ap- 
pointed one  "throughout  all  Judah"  when  he 
was  preparing  for  war  against  Moab  and  Am- 
mor  (2  Chr.  xx.  3)  ;  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim, 
one  was  proclaimed  for  "all  the  people  in  Jeru- 
salem and  all  who  came  thither  out  of  the 
cities  of  Judah,"  when  the  prophecy  of  Jere- 
miah was  publicly  read  by  Baruch  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
6-10;  cf.  Baruch  i.  5);  three  days  after  the 
feast  of  Tabernacles,  when  the  second  temple 
was  completed,  "the  children  of  Israel  assem- 
bled with  fasting  and  with  sackclothes  and 
earth  upon  them"  to  hear  the  law  read,  and 
to  confess  their  sins  (Neh.  ix.  i).  There  are 
references  to  general  fasts  in  the  Prophets 
(Joel  i.  14,  ii.  15;  Is.  Iviii.),  and  two  are  no- 
ticed in  the  books  of  the  Maccabees  (i  Mace, 
iii.  46,  47;  2  Mace.  xiii.  10-12).  III.  Private 
occasional  fasts  are  recognized  in  one  passage 


of  the  law  (Num.  xxx.  13).  The  instances 
given  of  individuals  fasting  under  the  influen'ce 
of  grief,  vexation,  or  anxiety,  are  numerous. 
IV.  In  the  N.  T.  the  only  references  to  the 
Jewish  fasts  are  the  mention  of  "the  Fast"  in 
Acts  xxvii.  9  (generally  understood  to  denote 
the  Day  of  Atonement),  and  the  allusions  to 
the  weekly  fasts  (Matt.  ix.  14;  Mark  ii.  18; 
Luke  V.  33,  xviii.  12;  Acts  x.  30).  These  fasts 
originated  some  time  after  the  captivity.  They 
were  observed  on  the  second  and  fifth  days  of 
the  week,  which,  being  appointed  as  the  days 
for  public  fasts,  seem  to  have  been  selected  for 
these  private  voluntary  fasts.  V.  The  Jewish 
fasts  were  observed  with  various  degrees  of 
strictness.  Sometimes  there  was  entire  absti- 
nence from  food  (Esth.  iv.  i6,  &c.).  On  other 
occasions,  there  appears  to  have  been  only  a 
restriction  to  a  very  plain  diet  (Dan.  x.  3). 
Those  who  fasted  frequently  dressed  in  sack- 
cloth or  rent  their  clothes,  put  ashes  on  their 
head  and  went  barefoot  (i  K.  xxi.  27;  Neh.  ix. 
i;  Ps.  xxxv.  13).  VI.  The  sacrifice  of  the 
personal  will,  which  gives  to  fasting  all  its 
value,  is  expressed  in  the  old  term  used  in  the 
law,  afflicting  the  soul. 

Fat.  The  Hebrews  distinguished  between 
the  suet  or  pure  fat  of  an  animal,  and  the  fat 
which  was  intermixed  with  the  lean  (Neh.  viii. 
10).  Certain  restrictions  were  imposed  upon 
them  in  reference  to  the  former ;  some  parts 
of  the  suet,  viz.,  about  the  stomach,  the  en- 
trails, the  kidneys  and  the  tail  of  a  sheep, 
which  grows  to  an  excessive  size  in  many  east- 
ern countries,  and  produces  a  large  quantity  of 
rich  fat,  were  forbidden  to  be  eaten  in  the  case 
of  animals  offered  to  Jehovah  in  sacrifice  (Lev. 
iii.  3,  9,  17,  vii.  3,  23).  The  ground  of  the  pro- 
hibition was  that  the  fat  was  the  richest  part 
of  the  animal,  and  therefore  belonged  to 
Him  (iii.  16).  The  presentation  of  the  fat  as 
the  richest  part  of  the  animal  was  agreeable 
to  the  dictates  of  natural  feeling,  and  was  the 
ordinary  practice  even  of  heathen  nations.  The 
burning  of  the  fat  of  sacrifices  was  particularly 
specified  in  each  kind  of  offering. 

Father.  The  position  and  authority  of  the 
father  as  the  head  of  the  family  are  expressly 
assumed  and  sanctioned  in  Scripture,  as  a  like- 
ness of  that  of  the  Almighty  over  His  crea- 
tures. It  lies  of  course  at  the  root  of  that  so- 
called  patriarchal  government  (Gen.  iii.  16;  i 
Cor.  xi.  3),  which  was  introductory  to  the  more 
definite  systems  which  followed,  and  which  in 
part,  but  not  wholly,  superseded  it.  The  fa- 
ther's blessing  was  regarded  as  conferring 
special  benefit,  but  his  malediction  special  in- 
jury, on  those  on  whom  it  fell  (Gen.  ix.  25,  27; 
xxvii.  27-40;  xlviii.  15,  20;  xlix)  ;  and  so  also 


126 


FATHOM 


FIG,  FIG-TREE 


the  sin  of  the  parent  was  held  to  afifect,  in  cer- 
tain cases,  the  welfare  of  his  descendants  (2 
K.  V.  27).  The  command  to  honor  parents  is 
noticed  by  St.  Paul  as  the  only  one  of  the 
Decalogue  which  bore  a  distinct  promise  (Ex. 
XX.  12;  Eph.  vi.  2),  and  disrespect  towards 
them  was  condemned  by  the  Law  as  one  of 
the  worst  of  crimes  (Ex.  xxi.  15,  17;  i  Tim.  i. 
9).  It  is  to  this  well  recognized  theory  of 
parental  authority  and  supremacy  that  the 
very  various  uses  of  the  term  "father"  in  Scrip- 
ture are  due.  "Fathers"  is  used  in  the  sense 
of  seniors  (Acts  vii.  2,  xxii.  i),  and  of  parents 
in  general,  or  ancestors  (Dan.  v.  2 ;  Jer.  xxvii. 
7 :  Matt,  xxiii.  30,  32). 

Fathom.  [Measures.] 

Feasts.  [Festivals.] 

Fenced  Cities.  The  broad  distinction  be- 
tween a  city  and  a  village  in  Biblical  language 
consisted  in  the  possession  of  walls.  The  city 
had  walls,  the  village  was  unwalled,  or  had 
only  a  watchman's  tower,  to  which  the  vil- 
lagers resorted  in  times  of  danger.  A  three- 
fold distinction  is  thus  obtained — i.  cities;  2. 
unwalled  villages ;  3.  villages  with  castles  or 


The  Gecko. 

towers  (i  Chr.  xxvii.  25).  The  fortifications 
of  the  cities  of  Palestine,  regularly  "fenced," 
consisted  of  one  or  more  walls  crowned  with 
battlemented  parapets,  having  towers  at  reg- 
ular intervals  (2  Chr.  xxxii.  5;  Jer.  xxxi.  38), 
on  which  in  later  times  engines  of  war  were 
placed,  and  watch  was  kept  by  day  and  night 
in  time  of  war  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  9,  15  ;  Judg.  ix.  45  ; 
2  K.  ix.  'I7). 

Ferret.  One  of  the  unclean  creeping  things 
mentioned  in  Lev.  xi.  30.  The  animal  referred 
to  was  probably  a  reptile  of  the  lizard  tribe 
(the  gecko).  The  Rabbinical  writers  seem  to 
have  identified  this  animal  with  the  hedgehog. 

Festivals.  I.  The  religious  times  ordained 
in  the  Law  fall  under  three  heads:  (i.)  Those 
formally  connected  with  the  institution  of  the 
Sabbath  ;  (2.)  The  historical  or  great  festivals; 
(3.)The  Day  of  Atonement*,  (i.)  Immediately 
connected  with  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath 
are:  (a)  The  weekly  Sabbath  itself,  (b)  The 
seventh  new  moon  or  Feast  of  Trumpets,  (c) 
The  Sabbatical  Year,    (d)  The  Year  of  Jubi- 


lee. (2.)  The  great  feasts  are :  (a)  The  Pass- 
over, (b)  The  Feast  of  Pentecost,  of  Weeks, 
of  Wheat-harvest,  or,  of  the  First-fruits,  (c) 
The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  or  of  Ingathering. 
On  each  of  these  occasions  every  male  Israel- 
ite was  commanded  "to  appear  before  the 
Lord,"  that  is,  to  attend  in  the  court  of  the 
tabernacle  or  the  temple,  and  to  make  his 
ofifering  with  a  joyful  heart  (Deut.  xxvii.  7; 
Neh.  viii.  9-12).  The  attendance  of  women 
was  voluntary,  but  the  zealous  often  went  up 
to  the  Passover.  On  all  the  days  of  Holy  Con- 
vocation there  was  to  be  an  entire  suspension 
of  ordinary  labor  of  all  kinds  (Ex.  xii.  16; 
Lev.  xvi.  29,  xxiii.  21,  24,  25,  35).  But  on  the 
intervening  da3^s  of  the  longer  festivals  work 
might  be  carried  on.  Besides  their  religious 
purpose,  the  great  festivals  must  have  had  an- 
important  bearing  on  the  maintenance  of  a 
feeling  of  national  unity. 

Fever  (kaddachath,  dalleketh,  charchur; 
Lev.  xxvi.  16;  Deut.  xxviii.  22).  These  words, 
from  various  roots,  signifying  heat  or  inflam- 
mation, are  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by  various 
words  suggestive  of  fever,  or  a  feverish  affec- 
tion. The  third  word  may  perhaps  be  erysipe- 
las. Intermittent  fever  and  dysentery,  the  lat- 
ter often  fatal,  are  ordinary  Arabian  diseases. 

Field.  The  Hebrew  sadeh  is  applied  to  any 
cultivated  ground,  and  in  some  instances  in 
marked  opposition  to  the  neighboring  wilder- 
ness. On  the  other  hand  the  sadeh  is  fre- 
quently contrasted  with  what  is  enclosed, 
whether  a  vineyard,  a  garden,  or  a  walled 
town.  In  many  passages  the  term  implies 
what  is  remote  from  a  house  (Gen.  iv.  8,  xxiv. 
63;  Deut.  xxii.  25)  or  settled  habitation,  as  in 
the  case  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxv.  27).  The  separate 
plots  of  ground  were  marked  ofif  by  stones, 
which  might  easily  be  removed  (Deut.  xix. 
14,  xxvii.  17;  cf.  Job  xxiv.  2;  Prov.  xxii.  28, 
xxiii.  10)  ;  the  absence  of  fences  rendered  the 
fields  liable  to  damage  from  straying  cattle 
(Ex.  xxii.  5)  or  fire  (ver.  6;  2  Sam.  xiv.  30)  ; 
hence  the  necessity  of  constantly  watching 
flocks  and  herds.  From  the  absence  of  en- 
closures, cultivated  land  of  any  size  might  be 
termed  a  field.  It  should  be  observed  that  the 
expressions  "fruitful  field"  (Is.  x.  18,  xxix.  17, 
xxxii.  15,  16),  and  "plentiful  field"  (Is.  xvi.  10; 
Jer.  xlviii.  33),  are  not  connected  with  sadeh, 
but  with  carmel,  meaning  a  park  or  wellkept 
wood,  as  distinct  from  a  wilderness  or  a  forest. 

Fig,  Fig-tree.  The  fig-tree  is  very  common 
in  Palestine  (Deut.  viii.  8).  Mount  Olivet  was 
famous  for  its  fig-trees  in  ancient  times,  and 
they  are  still  found  there.  "To  sit  under  one's 
own  vine  and  one's,  own  fig-tree"  became  a 
proverbial  expression  among  the  Jews  to  de- 


127 


FIR 


FIRST-BORN 


note  peace  and  prosperity  (i  K.  iv.  25;  Mic. 
iv.  4;  Zech.  iii.  10). 

Fir.  As  the  term  "cedar"  is  in  all  probabil- 
ity applicable  to  more  than  one  tree,  so  also 
"fir"  in  the  A.  V.  represents  probably  one  or 
other  of  the  following  trees:  i.  Scotch  fir;  2. 
Larch ;  3.  cypress,  all  which  are  at  this  day 
found  in  the  Lebanon. 

Fire  is  represented  as  the  symbol  of  Jeho- 


Flgs. 


hovah's  presence,  and  the  instrument  of  his 
power,  in  the  way  either  of  approval  or  of  de- 
struction (Ex.  iii.  2,  xiv.  19,  &c.).  Parallel 
with  this  application  of  fire  and  with  its  sym- 
bolical meaning  are  to  be  noted  the  similar  use 
for  sacrificial  purposes  and  the  respect  paid  to 
it,  or  to  the  heavenly  bodies  as  symbols  of 
deity,  which  prevailed  among  so  many  nations 
of  antiquity,  and  of  which  the  traces  are  not 
even  now  extinct :  e.  g.  the  Sabaean  and 
Magian  systems  of  worship,  and  their  alleged 
connection  with  Abraham  ;  the  occasional  re- 
lapse of  the  Jews  themselves  into  sun,  or  its 
corrupted  form  of  fire-worship  (Is.  xxvii.  9; 
Deut.  xvii.  3,  &c.),  the  worship  or  deification 
of  heavenly  bodies  or  of  fire,  prevailing  to 
some  extent,  as  among  the  Persians,  so  also 
even  in  Egypt.  Fire  for  sacred  purposes  ob- 
tained elsewhere  than  from  the  altar  was 
called  "strange  fire,"  and  for  the  use  of  such 
Nadab  and  Abihu  were  punished  by  death  by 
fire  from  God  (Lev.  x.  i,  2;  Num.  iii.  4,  xxvi. 
61). 

Firkin.  [Weights  and  Measures.] 
Firmament.  The  Hebrew  rakia,  so  trans- 
lated, is  generally  regarded  as  expressive  of 
simple  expansion,  and  is  so  rendered  in  the 
margin  of  the  A.  V.  (Gen.  i.  6).  The  root 
means  to  expand  by  beating,  whether  by  the 
hand,  the  foot,  or  any  instrument.    It  is  espe- 

I 


cially  used  for  beating  out  metals  into  thin 
plates  (Ex.  xxxix.  3 ;  Num.  xvi.  39).  The  sense 
of  solidity,  therefore,  is  combined  with  the 
ideas  of  expansion  and  tenuity  in  the  term. 
The  same  idea  of  solidity  runs  through  all  the 
references  to  the  rakia.  In  Ex.  xxiv.  10,  it  is 
represented  as  a  solid  floor.  So  again,  in  Ez. 
i.  22-26,  the  "firmament"  is  the  floor  on  which 
the  throne  of  the  Most  High  is  placed.  Fur- 
ther, the  office  of  the  rakia  in  the  economy  of 
the  world  demanded  strength  and  substance. 
It  was  to  serve  as  a  division  between  the 
waters  above  and  the  waters  below  (Gen.  i.  7). 
In  keeping  with  this  view  the  rakia  was  pro- 
vided with  "windows"  (Gen.  vii.  11;  Is.  xxiv. 
18;  Mai.  iii.  10)  and  "doors"  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  23), 
through  which  the  rain  and  the  snow  might 
descend.  A  secondary  purpose  which  the 
rakia  served  was  to  support  the  heavenly  bod- 
ies, sun,  moon,  and  stars  (Gen.  i.  14),  in  which 
they  were  fixed  as  nails,  and  from  which,  con- 
secjuently,  they  might  be  said  to  drop  ofif  (Is. 
xiv.  12,  xxxiv.  4;  Matt.  xxiv.  29). 


Fig  Tree. 

First-born.  Under  the  Law,  in  memory  of  ' 
the  Exodus,  the  eldest  son  was  regarded  as 
devoted  to  God,  and  was  in  every  case  to  be 
redeemed  by  an  ofifering  not  exceeding  5  shek- 
els, within  one  month  from  birth.  If  he  died 
before  the  expiration  of  30  days,  the  Jewish 
doctors  held  the  father  excused,  but  liable  to 
the  payment  if  he  outlived  that  time  (Ex.  xiii. 
12-15,  29;  Num.  viii.  17,  xviii.  15,  16;  Lev. 
xxvii.  6).  The  eldest  son  received  a  double 
portion  of  the  father's  inheritance  (Deut.  xxi. 


i 


FIRST-FRUITS 


FLAGON 


I 


17),  but  not  of  the  mother's.  Under  the  mon- 
archy, the  eldest  son  usually,  but  not  always, 
as  appears  in  the  case  of  Solomon,  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  kingdom  (i  K.  i.  30,  ii.  22). 
The  male  first-born  of  animals  was  also  de- 
voted to  God  (Ex.  xiii.  2,  12,  13,  xxii.  29,  xxxiv. 
19,  20).  Unclean  animals  were  to  be  redeemed 
with  the  addition  of  one-fifth  of  the  value,  or 
else  put  to  death  ;  or,  if  not  redeemed,  to  be 
sold,  and  the  price  given  to  the  priests  (Lev. 
xxvii.  13,  27,  28). 

First-fruits,  i.  The  Law  ordered  in  general, 
that  the  first  of  all  ripe  fruits  and  of  liquors, 
or,  as  it  is  twice  expressed,  the  first  of  first- 
fruits,  should  be  offered  in  God's  house  (Ex. 
xxii.  29,  xxiii.  19,  xxxiv.  27).  2.  On  the  mor- 
row after  the  Passover  sabbath,  i.  e.  on  the 
i6th  of  Xisan,  a  sheaf  of  new  corn  was  to  be 
brought  to  the  priest  and  waved  before  the 
altar,  in  acknowledgment  of  the  gift  of  fruit- 
fulness  (Lev.  xxiii.  5,  6,  10,  12,  ii.  12).  3.  At 
the  expiration  of  7  weeks  from  this  time,  i.  e. 
at  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  an  oblation  was  to 
be  made  of  2  loaves  of  leavened  bread  made 
from  the  new  flour,  which  were  to  be  waved 
in  like  manner  with  the  Passover  sheaf  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  22;  Lev.  xxiii.  15,  17;  Num.  xxviii.  26). 
4.  The  feast  of  ingathering,  i.  e.  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  in  the  7th  month,  was  itself  an 
acknowledgment  of  the  fruits  of  the  harvest 
(Ex.  xxiii.  16,  xxxiv.  22;  Lev.  xxiii.  39).  These 
four  sorts  of  offerings  were  national.  Besides 
them,  the  two  following  were  of  an  individual 
kind.  5.  A  cake  of  the  first  dough  that  was 
baked,  was  to  be  offered  as  a  heave-offering 
(Num.  XV.  19,  21).  6.  The  first-fruits  of  the 
land  were  to  be  brought  in  a  basket  to  the 
holy  place  of  God's  choice,  and  there  presented 
to  the  priest,  who  was  to  set  the  basket  down 
before  the  altar  (Deut.  xxvi.  2-1 1).  The  offer- 
ings were  the  perquisite  of  the  priests  (Num. 
xviii.  11;  Deut.  xviii.  4).  Nehemiah,  at  the 
Return  from  Captivity,  took  pains  to  reorgan- 
ize the  offerings  of  first-fruits  of  both  kinds, 
and  to  appoint  places  to  receive  them  (Neh.  x. 
35'  37>  xii.  44). 

Fish.  The  Hebrews  recognized  fish  as  one 
of  the  great  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
and,  as  such,  give  them  a  place  in  the  account 
of  the  creation  (Gen.  i.  21,  28),  as  well  as  in 
other  passages  where  an  exhaustive  descrip- 
tion of  living  creatures  is  intended  .(Gen.  ix. 
2;  Ex.  XX.  4;  Deut.  iv.  18;  i  K.  iv.  33).  The 
Mosaic  law  (Lev.  xi.  9,  10)  pronounced  un- 
clean such  fish  as  were  devoid  of  fins  and 
scales :  these  were  and  are  regarded  as  un- 
wholesome in  Egypt.  Among  the  Philistines, 
Dagon  was  represented  by  a  figure,  half  man 
and  half  fish  (i  Sam.  v.  4).    On  this  account 


the  worship  of  fish  is  expressly  prohibited 
(Deut.  iv.  18).  In  Palestine,  the  Sea  of  Gali- 
lee was  and  still  is  remarkably  well  stored  with 
fish.  Jerusalem  derived  its  supply  chiefly  from 
the  Mediterranean  (comp.  Ez.  xlvii.  10).  The 
existence  of  a  regular  fish-market  is  implied 
in  the  notice  of  the  fish-gate,  which  was  prob- 
ably contiguous  to  it  (2  Chr.  xxxiii.  14;  Neh. 
iii.  3,  xii.  39;  Zeph.  i.  10).  Numerous  allusions 
to  the  art  of  fishing  occur  in  the  Bible.  The 
most  usual  method  of  catching  fish  was  by 
the  use  of  the  net,  either  the  casting  net  (Hab. 
i.  15;  Ez.  xxvi.  5,  14,  xlvii.  10),  probably  re- 
sembling the  one  used  in  Egypt,  as  shown  in 
Wilkinson  (iii.  55),  or  the  draw  or  drag  net 
(Is.  xix.  8;  Hab.  i.  15),  which  was  larger,  and 
required  the  use  of  a  boat :  the  latter  was 
probably  most  used  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  as 
the  number  of  boats  kept  on  it  was  very  con- 
siderable.   Angling  was  a  favorite  pursuit  of 


An  Egyptian  Landing-net.  (Wilkinson.) 

the  wealthy  in  Egypt,  as  well  as  followed  by 
the  poor  who  could  not  afford  a  net.  '  A  still 
more  scientific  method  was  with  the  trident  or 
the  spear,  as  practised  in  Egypt  in  taking  the 
crocodile  (Job  xli.  7)  or  the  hippopotamus. 

Flag,  the  representative  in  the  A.  V.  of  the 
two  Heb.  words  achfi  and  suph.  I.  Achu,  a 
word,  according  to  Jerome,  of  Egyptian  origin, 
and  denoting  "any  green  and  coarse  herbage, 
such  as  rushes  and  reeds,  which  grows  in 
marshy  places."  It  seems  probable  that  some 
specific  plant  is  denoted  in  Job  viii.  11.  The 
word  occurs  once  again  in  Gen.  xli.  2,  18, 
where  it  is  said  that  the  seven  well-favored 
kine  came  up  out  of  the  river  and  fed  in  an 
achu.  It  is  perhaps  the  Cyperus  esculentus. 
2.  Sijph  (Ex.  ii.  3,  5;  Is.  xix.  6)  appears  to  be 
used  in  a  very  wide  sense  to  denote  "weeds  of 
any  kind." 

Flagon,  a  word  employed  in  the  A.  V.  to 
render  two  distinct  Hebrew  terms:  i.  Ashi- 
shah  (2  Sam.  vi.  19;  i  Chr.  xvi.  3;  Cant.  ii.  5; 
Hos.  iii.  i).  -It  really  means  a  cake  of  pressed 
raisins.  2.  Nebel  (Is.  xxii.  24)  is  commonly 
used  for  a  bottle  or  vessel,  originally  prob- 


129 


1 


FLAX 


FOOD 


ably  a  skin,  but  in  later  times  a  piece  of  pot- 
tery (Is.  XXX.  14). 

Flax.  Two  words  are  used  for  this  plant  in 
the  O.  T.,  or  rather  the  same  word  slightly 
modified.  Eliminating  all  the  places  where 
the  words  are  used  for  the  article  manufac- 
tured in  the  thread,  the  piece,  or  the  made  up 
garment,  we  reduce  them  to  two  (Ex.  ix.  31 ; 
Josh.  ii.  6).  It  seems  probable  that  the  culti- 
vation of  flax  for  the  purpose  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  linen  was  by  no  means  confined  to 
Egypt ;  but  that  originating  in  India  it  spread 
over  Asia  at  a  very  early  period  of  antiquity. 
That  it  was  grown  in  Palestine  even  before 
the  conquest  of  that  country  by  the  Israelites 
appears  from  Josh.  ii.  6.  The  various  proc- 
esses employed  in  preparing  the  flax  for  manu- 
facture into  cloth  are  indicated:  i.  The  drying 
process.  2.  The  peeling  of  the  stalks,  and 
separation  of  the  fibres.    3.  The  hackling  (Is. 


Flax. 


xix.  9).  That  flax  was  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant crops  in  Palestine  appears  from  Hos.  ii. 
5,  9- 

Flea,  an  insect  twice  only  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  viz.,  in  i  Sam.  xxiv.  14,  xxvi.  20. 
Fleas  are  abundant  in  the  East,  and  afford  the 
subject  of  many  proverbial  expressions. 

Flesh.  [Food.] 

Flint.  The  Heb.  challamish  is  rendered  flint 
in  Deut.  viii.  15,  xxxii,  13;  Ps.  cxiv.  8;  and  Is. 
1.  7.  In  Job  xxviii.  9  the  same  word  is  ren- 
dered rock  in  the  text,  and  flint  in  the  margin. 
In  Ez.  iii.  9  the  English  word  "flint"  occurs 
in  the  same  sense,  but  there  it  represents  the 
Heb.  Tzor. 

Flood.  [Noah.] 

Floor.  [Pavement.] 

Flour.  [Bread.] 

Flute  (i  K.  i.  4,  marg.  [Pipe]),  a  musical 


instrument  mentioned  amongst  others  (Dan.  ' 

iii.  5,  7,  10,  15)  as  used  at  the  worship  of  the 
golden  image  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  set 
up. 

Fly,  Flies.  Arob  ("swarms  of  flies,"  "divers 
s6rts  of  flies,"  A.  V.),  the  name  of  the  insect, 
or  insects,  which  God  sent  to  punish  Pharaoh ; 
see  Ex.  viii.  21-31;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  45,  cv.  31.  As 
the  arob  are  said  to  have  filled  the  houses  of 
the  Egyptians,  it  seems  not  improbable  that 
common  flies  are  more  especially  intended. 

Food.  The  diet  of  Eastern  nations  has  been 
in  all  ages  light  and  simple.  As  compared 
with  our  own  habits,  the  chief  points  of  con- 
trast are  the  small  amount  of  animal  food  con- 
sumed, the  variety  of  articles  used  as  accom- 
paniments to  bread,  the  substitution  of  milk 
in  various  forms  for  our  liquors,  and  the  com- 
bination of  what  we  should  deem  heterogene- 
ous elements  in  the  same  dish,  or  the  same 
meal.  The  chief  point  of  agreement  is  the 
large  consumption  of  bread,  the  importance  of 
which  in  the  eyes  of  the  Hebrew  is  testified 
by  the  use  of  the  term  lechem  (originally  food 
of  any  kind)  specifically  for  bread,  as  well  as 
by  the  expression  "staf¥  of  bread"  (Lev.  xxvi. 
26;  Ps.  cv.  16;  Ez.  iv.  16,  xiv.  13).  Simpler 
preparations  of  corn  were,  however,  common ; 
sometimes  the  fresh  green  ears  were  eaten  in 
a  natural  state,  the  husks  beink  rubbed  off  by 
the  hand  (Lev.  xxiii.  14;  Deut.  xxiii.  25;  2  K. 

iv.  42;  Matt.  xii.  i;  Luke  vi.  i)  ;  more  fre- 
quently, however,  the  grains,  after  being  care- 
fully picked,  were  roasted  in  a  pan  over  a  fire 
(Lev.  ii.  14),  and  eaten  as  "parched  corn,"  in 
which  form  they  were  an  ordinary  article  of 
diet,  particularly  among  laborers,  or  others 
who  had  not  the  means  of  dressing  food  (Lev. 
xxiii.  14;  Ruth  ii.  14;  i  Sam.  xvii.  17,  xxv.  18; 
2  Sam.  xvii.  28)  :  this  practice  is  still  very 
usual  in  the  East.  Sometimes  the  grain  was 
bruised  (A.  V.  "beaten,"  Lev.  ii.  14,  16),  and 
then  dried  in  the  sun  ;  it  was  eaten  either  mixed 
with  oil  (Lev.  ii  .15),  or  made  into  a  soft  cake 
(A.  V.  "dough;"  Num.  xv.  20;  Neh.  x.  37;  Ez. 
xliv.  30).  The  Hebrews  used  a  great  variety 
of  articles  (John  xxi.  5)  to  give  a  relish  to 
bread.  Sometimes  salt  was  so  used  (Job  vi. 
6),  as  we  learn  from  the  pa^ssage  just  quoted; 
-sometimes  the  bread  was  dipped  into  the  sour 
wine  (A.  V.  "vinegar")  which  the  laborers 
drank  (Ruth  ii.  14)  ;  or,  where  meat  was  eaten, 
into  the  gravy,  which  was  either  served  up 
separately  for  the  purpose,  as  by  Gideon 
(Judg.  vi.  19),  or  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
meat-dish,  as  done  by  the  Arabs.  TMilk  and  its 
preparations  hold  a  conspicuous  place  in  East- 
ern diet,  as  affording  substantial  nourishment ; 
sometimes  it  was  produced  in  a  fresh  state 


130 


FOOD 

(Gen.  xviii.  8),  but  more  generally  in  the  form 
of  the  modern  leban,  i.  e.  sour  milk  (A.  V. 
"butter ;"  Gen.  xviii.  8 ;  Judg.  v.  25 ;  2  Sam. 
xvii.  29).  Fruit  was  another  source  of  sub- 
sistence: figs  stand  first  in  point  of  impor- 
tance ;  they  were  generally  dried  and  pressed 
into  cakes.  Grapes  were  generally  eaten  in  a 
dried  state  as  raisins.  Fruit-cake  forms  a  part 
of  the  daily  food  of  the  Arabians.  Of  vege- 
tables we  have  most  frequent  notice  of  lentiis 
(Gen.  XXV.  34;  2  Sam.  xvii.  28,  xxiii.  li;  Ez. 
iv.  9),  which  are  still  largely  used  by  the 
Bedouins  in  travelling;  beans  (2  Sam.  xvii. 
28;  Ez.  iv.  9),  leeks,  onions,  and  garlic,  which 
were  and  still  are  of  a  superior  quality  in 
Egypt  (Num.  xi.  5).  The  modern  Arabians 
consume  but  few  vegetables:  radishes  and 
letks  are  most  in  use,  and  are  eaten  raw  with 
bread.  In  addition  to  these  classes  we  have 
to  notice  some  other  important  articles  of 
food:  in  the  first  place,  honey,  whether  the 
natural  product  of  the  bee  (i  Sam.  xiv.  25; 
Matt.  iii.  4),  which  abounds  in  most  parts  of 
Arabia,  or  of  the  other  natural  and  artificial 
productions  included  under  that  head,  espe- 
cially the  dibs  of  the  Syrians  and  Arabians, 
i.  e.  grape-juice  boiled  down,  which  is  still  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  East;  the  latter  is  sup- 
posed to  be  referred  to  in  Gen.  xliii.  li,  and 
Ez.  xxvii.  17.  With  regard  to  oil,  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  used  to  the  extent  we 
might  have  anticipated.  Eggs  are  not  often 
noticed,  but  were  evidently  known  as  articles 
of  food  (Is.  X.  14,  lix.  5;  Luke  xi.  12).  The 
Orientals  have  been  at  all  times  sparing  in  the 
use  of  animal  food:  not  only  does  the  exces- 
sive heat  of  the  climate  render  it  both  un- 
wholesome to  eat  much  meat,  and  expensive 
from  the  necessity  of  immediately  consuming 
a  whole  animal,  but  beyond  this  the  ritual  reg- 
ulations of  the  Mosaic  law  in  ancient,  as  of  the 
Koran  in  modern  times,  have  tended  to  the 
same  result.  The  prohibition  expressed  against 
consuming  the  blood  of  any  animal  (Gen.  ix. 
4)  was  more  fully  developed  in  the  Levitical 
law,  and  enforced  by  the  penalty  of  death 
(Lev.  iii.  17,  vii.  26,  xix.  26;  Deut.  xii.  16;  I 
Sam.  xiv.  32,  ff . ;  Ez.  xliv.  7,  15).  Certain  por- 
tions of  the  fat  of  sacrifices  were  also  forbid- 
den (Lev.  iii.  9,  10),  as  being  set  apart  for  the 
altar  (Lev.  iii.  16,  vii.  25,  cf . ;  i  Sam.  ii.  16,  ff. ; 
2  Chr.  vii.  7).  In  addition  to  the  above,  Jews 
were  forbidden  to  eat  the  flesh  of  animals,  por- 
tions of  which  had  been  offered  to  idols.  All 
beasts  and  birds  classed  as  unclean  (Lev.  xi. 
I,  flf. ;  Deut.  xiv.  4,  f¥.)  were  also  prohibited. 
Under  these  restrictions  the  Hebrews  were 
permitted  the  free  use  of  animal  food :  gen- 
erally speaking  they  only  availed  themselves 

13 


FOWL 

of  it  in  the  exercise  of  hospitality  (Gen.  xviii. 
7),  or  at  festivals  of  a  religious  (Ex.  xii.  8), 
public  (i  K.  i.  9;  I  Chr.  xii.  40),  or  private 
character  (Gen.  xxvii.  4;  Luke  xv.  23)  ;  it  was 
only  in  royal  households  that  there  was  a  daily 
consumption  of  meat  (i  K.  iv.  23;  Neh.  v.  18). 
The  animals  killed  for  meat  were — calves 
(Gen.  xviii.  7  ;  I  Sam.  xxviii.  24;  Am.  vi.  4)  ; 
lambs  (2  Sam.  xii.  4;  Am.  vi.  4);  oxen,  not 
above  three  years  of  age  (i  K.  i.  9;  Prov.  xv. 
17;  Is.  xxii.  13;  Matt.  xxii.  4);  kids  (Gen. 
xxvii.  9;  Judg.  vi.  19;  i  Sam.  xvi.  20)  ;  harts, 
roebucks,  and  fallow-deer  (i  K.  iv.  23)  ;  birds 
of  various  kinds ;  fish,  with  the  exception  of 
such  as  were  without  scales  and  fins  (Lev.  xi. 
9;  Deut.  xiv.  9).  Locusts,  of  which  certain 
species  only  were  esteemed  clean  (Lev.  xi.  22), 
were  occasionally  eaten  (Matt.  iii.  4),  but  con- 
sidered as  poor  fare. 

Forehead.  The  practice  of  veiling  the  face 
in  public  for  women  of  the  higher  classes,  espe- 
cially married  women,  in  the  East,  sufficiently 
stigmatizes  with  reproach  the  unveiled  face  of 
women  of  bad  character  (Gen.  xxiv.  65 ;  Jer. 
iii.  3).  The  custom  among  many  Oriental 
nations  both  of  coloring  the  face  and  forehead, 
and  of  impressing  on  the  body  marks  indica- 
tive of  devotion  to  some  special  deity  or  re- 
ligious sect  is  mentioned  elsewhere.  The 
"jewels  for  the  forehead,"  mentioned  by 
Ezekiel  (xvi.  12),  and  in  margin  of  A.  V.  (Gen. 
xxiv.  22),  were  in  all  probability  nose-rings 
(Is.  iii.  21). 

Fountain.  Among  the  attractive  features 
presented  by  the  Land  of  Promise  to  the 
nation  migrating  from  Egypt  by  way  of  the 
desert,  none  would  be  more  striking  than  the 
natural  gush  of  waters  from  the  ground.  The 
springs  of  Palestine,  though  short-lived,  are 
remarkable  for  their  abundance  and  beauty, 
especially  those  which  fall  into  the  Jordan  and 
its  lakes  throughout  its  whole  course.  The 
spring  or  fountain  of  living  water,  the  "eye" 
of  the  landscape,  is  distinguished  in  all 
Oriental  languages  from  the  artificially  sunk 
and  enclosed  well.  Jerusalem  appears  to  have 
possessed  either  more  than  one  perennial 
spring,  or  one  issuing  by  more  than  one  outlet. 
In  Oriental  cities  generally  public  fountains 
are  frequent.  Traces  of  sucla  fountains  at 
Jerusalem  may  perhaps  be  found  in  the  names 
En-Rogel  (2  Sam.  xvii.  17),  the  "Dragon-well" 
or  fountain,  and  the  "gate  of  the  fountain" 
(Neh.  ii.  13,  14). 

Fowl.  Several  distinct  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words  are  thus  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  of  the 
Bible.  Of  these  the  most  common  is  'oph, 
which  is  usually  a  collective  term  for  all  kinds 
of  birds.  In  i  K.  iv.  23,  among  the  daily  pro- 
I 


FOX 


FRONTLETS 


visions  for  Solomon's  table,  "fatted  fowl"  are 
included.  In  the  N.  T.  the  word  translated 
"fowls"  is  most  frequently  that  which  com- 
prehends all  kinds  of  birds  (including  ravens, 
Luke  xii.  24).  [Sparrow.] 

Fox  (Heb.  shii'al).  Probably  the  "jackal" 
is  the  animal  signified  in  almost  all  the 
passages  in  the  O.  T.  where  the  Hebrew  term 


Syrian  Fox. 

occurs.  The  shii'alim  of  Judg.  xv.  4  are  evi- 
dently "jackals,"  and  not  "foxes,"  for  the 
former  animal  is  gregarious,  whereas  the  lat- 
ter is  solitary  in  its  habits.  With  respect  to 
the  jackals  and  foxes  of  Palestine,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  common  jackal  of  the  country 
is  the  Canis  aureus,  which  may  be  heard  every 
night  in  the  villages.  A  vulpine  animal,  under 
the  name  of  Canis  Syriacus,  occurs  in  Leba- 
non. The  Egyptian  Vulpes  Niloticus,  and 
doubtless  the  common  fox  of  our  own  country, 
are  Palestine  species. 

Frankincense,  a  vegetable  resin,  brittle,  glit- 
tering, and  of  a  bitter  taste,  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  sacrificial  fumigation  (Ex.  xxx.  34-36). 
It  is  obtained  by  successive  incisions  in  the 
bark  of  a  tree  called  the  arbor  thuris,  the  first 
of  which  yields  the  purest  and  whitest  kind ; 
while  the  produce  of  the  after  incisions  is  spot- 
ted with  yellow,  and  as  it  becomes  old  loses 
its  whiteness  altogether.  The  Hebrews  im- 
ported their  frankincense  from  Arabia  (Is.  Ix. 
6;  Jer.  vi.  20),  and  more  particularly  from 
Saba ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  at  present  the 
Arabian  Libanum,  or  Olibanum  is  of  a  very 
inferior  kind,  and  that  the  finest  frankincense 
imported  into  Turkey  comes  through  Arabia 
from  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago. 

Frog.  The  mention  of  this  reptile  in  the  O. 
T.  is  confined  to  the  passage  in  Ex.  viii.  2-7, 
&c.,  in  which  the  plague  of  frogs  is  described, 
and  to  Ps.  Ixxviii.  45,  cv.  30.  In  the  N.  T.  the 
word  occurs  once  only,  in  Rev.  xvi.  13.  There 
is  no  question  as  to  the  animal  meant.  The 


only  known  species  of  frog  which  occurs  at 
present  in  Egypt  is  the  edible  frog  of  the  con- 
tinent. 

Frontlets,  or  Phylacteries  (Ex.  xiii.  16; 
Deut.  vi.  8,  xi.  i8;  Matt,  xxiii.  5).  These 
"frontlets"  or  "phylacteries"  were  strips  of 
parchment,  on  which  were  written  four  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  (Ex.  xiii.  2-10,  11-17;  Deut. 
vi.  4-9,  13-23)  in  an  ink  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose. They  were  then  rolled  up  in  a  case  of 
black  calfskin,  which  was  attached  to  a  stififer 
piece  of  leather,  having  a  thong  one  finger 
broad,  and  one  and  a  half  cubits  long.  They 
were  placed  at  the  bend  of  the  left  arm.  Those 
worn  on  the  forehead  were  written  on  four 
strips  of  parchment,  and  put  into  four  little 
cells  within  a  square  case,  on  which  a  Greek 
letter  was  written.  The  square  had  two  thongs, 
on  which  Hebrew  letters  were  inscribed.  That 
phylacteries  were  used  as  amulets  is  certain, 
and  was  very  natural.  The  expression  "they 
make  broad  their  phylacteries"  (Matt,  xxiii.  5) 
refers  not  so  much  to  the  phylactery  itself, 
which  seems  to  have  been  of  a  prescribed 
breath,  as  to  the  case  in  which  the  parchment 
was  kept,  which  the  Pharisees,  among  their 
other  pretentious  customs   (Mark  vii.  3,  4; 


Frankincense. 

Luke  v.  33,  &c.),  made  as  conspicuous  as  they 
could.  It  is  said  that  the  Pharisees  wore  them 
always,  whereas  the  common  people  only  used 
them  at  prayers.  The  modern  Jews  only  wear 
them  at  morning  prayers,  and  sometimes  at 
noon.  In  our  Lord's  time  they  were  worn  by 
all  Jews,  except  the  Karaites,  women,  and 
slaves.  Boys,  at  the  age  of  thirteen  years  and 
a  day,  were  bound  to  wear  them.  The  Karaites 


132 


THE  IIB^^ARY 
'      Of  THE 


FUNERALS 


GALATIA 


explained  Deut.  vi.  8;  Ex.  xiii.  9,  &c.,  as  a 
figurative  command  to  remember  the  law,  as 
is  certainly  the  case  in  similar  passages  (Prov. 
iii.  3,  vi.  21,  vii.  3;  Cant.  viii.  6,  &c.).  It  seems 
clear  to  us  that  the  scope  of  these  injunctions 
favors  the  Karaite  interpretation. 

Funerals.  [Burial.] 

Furlong.  [Measures.]^ 

Furnace.  Various  kinds  of  furnaces  are  no- 
ticed in  the  Bible,  such  as  a  smelting  or  cal- 
cining furnace  (Gen.  xix.  28;  Ex.  ix.  8,  10,  xix. 
18),  especially  a  lime-kiln  (Is.  xxxiii.  12;  Am. 
ii.  ij  :  a  refining  furnace  (Prov.  xvii.  3,  xxvii. 
21  :  Ez.  xxii.  18,  ff.)  ;  a  large  furnace  built  like 
a  brick-kiln  (Dan.  iii.  22.  23) ;  the  potter's  fur- 


nace (Ecclus.  xxvii.  5)  ;  the  blacksmith's  fur- 
nace (Ecclus.  xxxviii.  28).  The  Persians  were 
in  the  habit  of  using  the  furnace  as  a  means  of 
inflicting  punishment  (Dan.  1.  c. ;  Jer.  xxi^. 
22;  2  Mace.  vii.  5;  Hos.  vii.  7). 


Ga'briel.  The  word,  which  is  not  in  itself 
(distinctive,  but  merely  a  description  of  the 
angelic  office,  is  used  as  a  proper  name  or  title 
in  Dan.  viii.  16,  ix.  21,  and  in  Luke  i.  19,  26. 
In  the  ordinary  traditions,  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian, Gabriel  is  spoken  of  as  one  of  the  arch- 
angels. In  Scripture  he  is  set  forth  only  as 
the  representative  of  the  angelic  nature  in  its 
ministration  of  comfort  and  syirfpathy  to  man. 

Gad  (a  troop),  Jacob's  seventh  son,  the  first- 
born of  Zilpah,  Leah's  maid,  and  whole-brother 
to  Asher  (Gen.  xxx.*  11-13,  xlvi.  16,  18).  The 
country  allotted  to  Gad  appears,  speaking 
roughly,  to  have  lain  chiefly  about  the  centre 
of  the  land  east  of  Jordan.  The  south  of  that 
district — from  the  Arnon '  (Wady  Mojeb), 
about  half  way  down  the  Dead  Sea,  to  Hesh- 
bon,  nearly  due  east  of  Jerusalem — was  occu- 
pied by  Reuben,  and  at  or  about  Heshbon  the 
possessions  of  Gad  commenced.  They  em- 
braced half  Gilead,  as  the  oldest  record  spe- 
cially states  (Deut.  iii.  12),  or  half  the  land 


of  the  children  of  Amnion  (Josh.  xiii.  25), 
probably  the  mountainous  district  which  is  in- 
tersected by  the  torrent  Jabbok,  including,  as 
its  most  northern  town,  the  ancient  sanctuary 
of  Mahanaim.  On  the  east  the  furthest  land- 
mark given  is  "Aroer,  that  faces  Rabbah,"  the 
present  Amman  (Josh.  xiii.  25).  West  was 
the  Jordan  (27).  Such  was  the  territory  al- 
lotted to  the  Gadites,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  they  soon  extended  themselves  beyond 
these  limits.  The  official  records  of  the  reign 
of  Jothani  of  Judah  (i  Chr.  v.  11,  16)  show 
them  to  have  been  at  that  time  established 
over  the  whole  of  Gilead,  and  in  possession  of 
Bashan  as  far  as  Salcah,  and  very  far  both  to 
the  north  and  the  east  of  the  iDorder  given 
them  originally,  while  the  Manassites  were 
pushed  still  further  northwards  to  Mount  Her- 
mon  (i  Chr.  v.  23).  The  character  of  the  tribe 
is  throughout  strongly  marked — fierce  and 
warlike — "strong  men  of  might,  men  of  war 
for  the  battle,  that  could  handle  shield  and 
buckler,  their  faces  the  faces  of  lions,  and  like 
roes  upon  the  mountains  for  swiftness."  Gad 
was  carried  into  captivity  by  Tiglath-Pileser 
(i  Chr.  V.  26),  and  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah  the 
cities  of  the  tribe  seem  to  have  been  inhabited 
by  the  Ammonites. 

Gad'ara,  a  strong  city  situated  near  the  river 
Hieromax,  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  over 
against  Scythopolis  and  Tiberias,  and  sixteen 
Roman  miles  distant  from  each  of  those 
places.  Gadara  derives  its  greatest  interest 
from  having  been  the  scene  of  our  Lord's  mir- 
acle in  healing  the  demoniacs  (Matt.  viii.  28- 
34;  Mark  v.  1-21  ;  Luke  viii.  26-40).  The  whole 
circumstances  of  the  narrative  are  strikingly 
illustrated  by  the  features  of  the  country.  The 
most  interesting  remains  of  Gadara  are  its 
tombs,  which  dot  the  clififs  for  a  considerable 
distance  round  the  city. 

Gala'tia  is  literally  the  "Gallia"  of  the  East. 
The  Roman  province  of  Galatia  may  be  rough- 
ly described  as  the  central  region  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Asia  Minor,  with  the  provinces  of  Asia 
on  the  west,  Cappadocia  on  the  east,  Pam- 
phylia  and  Cilicia  on  the  south,  and  Bithynia 
and  Pontus  on  the  north.  These  Eastern  Gauls 
preserved  much  of  their  ancient  character,  and 
something  of  their  ancient  language.  The 
prevailing  speech,  however,  of  the  district  was 
Greek.  The  inscriptions  found  at  Ancyra  are 
Greek,  and  St.  Paul  wrote  his  Epistle  in  Greek. 
It  is  difficult  at  first  sight  to  determine  in  what 
sense  the  word  Galatia  is  used  by  the  writers 
of  the  N.  T.,  or  whether  always  in  the  same 
sense.  In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  the  jour- 
neys of  St.  Paul  through  the  district  are  men- 
tioned in  very  general  terms.    On  a^l  accounts 


133 


GALATIANS 


GALL 


it  seems  most  probable  that  Galatia  is  used  by 
St.  Luke  as  an  ethnographical  term,  and  not 
for  the  Roman  province  of  that  name. 

Galatians,  The  Epistle  to  the,  was  written 
by  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  not  long  after  his  jour- 
ney through  Galatia  and  Phrygia  (Acts  xviii. 
23),  and  probably  in  the  early  portion  of  his 
two  years  and  a  half  stay  at  Ephesus,  which 
terminated  with  the  Pentecost  of  A.  D.  57  or 
58.  The  Epistle  appears  to  have  been  called 
forth  by  the  machinations  of  Judaizing  teach- 
ers, who,  shortly  before  the  date  of  its  com- 
position, had  endeavored  to  seduce  the 
churches  of  this  province  into  a  recognition 
of  circumcision  (v.  2,  11,  12;  vi.  12,  sq.),  and 
had  openly  sought  to  depreciate  the  apostolic 
claims  of  St.  Paul  (comp.  i.  i,  11).  The  scope 
and  contents  of  the  Epistle  are  thus — (i)  apol- 
ogetic (i.,  ii.)  and  polemical  (iii.,  iv.)  ;  and  (2) 
horatory  and  practical  (v.,  vi.)  ;  the  positions 
and  demonstrations  of  the  former  portion  being 
used  with  great  power  and  persuasiveness  in 
the  exhortations  of  the  latter.  Two  historical 
questions  require  a  brief  notice:  •  i.  The  num- 
ber of  visits  made  by  St.  Paul  to  the  churches 
of  Galatia  previous  to  his  writing  the  Epistle. 
These  seem  certainly  to  have  been  two.  The 
Apostle  founded  the  churches  of  Galatia  in  the 
visit  recorded  Acts  xvi.  6,  during  his  second 
missionary  journey,  about  A.  D.  51,  and  re- 
visited them  at  the  period  and  on  the  occasion 
mentioned  Acts  xviii.  23,  when  he  went 
through  the  country  of  Galatia  and  Phrygia. 
On  this  occasion  it  would  seem  probable  that 
he  found  the  leaven  of  Judaism  beginning  to 
work  in  the  churches  of  Galatia.  2.  Closely 
allied  with  the  preceding  question  is  that  of 
the  date,  and  the  place  from  which  the  Epistle 
was  written.  It  was  probably  written  about 
the  same  time  as  the  Epistle  to  Romans  at 
Corinth,  during  the  three  month-s  that  the 
Apostle  staid  there  (Acts  xx.  2,  3),  apparently 
the  winter  of  A.  D.  57  or  58. 

Gal'llee  (circuit).  This  name,  which  in  the 
Roman  age  was  applied  to  a  large  province, 
seems  to  have  been  originally  confined  to  a 
little  "circuit"  of  country  round  Kedesh-Naph- 
tali,  in  which  were  situated  the  twenty  towns 
given  by  Solomon  to  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  as 
payment  for  his  work  in  conveying  timber 
from  Lebanon  to  Jerusalem  (Josh.  xx.  7;  i  K. 
ix.  11).  They  were  then,  or  subsequently,  oc- 
cupied by  strangers,  and  for  this  reason  Isaiah 
gives  to  the  district  the  name  "Galilee  of  the 
Gentiles"  (Is.  ix.  i).  It  is  probable  that  the 
strangers  increased  in  number,  and  became 
during  the  captivity  the  great  body  of  the 
inhabitants ;  extending  themselves  also  over 
the  surrounding  country,  they  gave  to  their 


new  territories  the  old  name,  until  at  length 
Galilee  became  one  of  the  largest  provinces  of 
Palestine.  In  the  time  of  our  Lord  all  Pales- 
tine was  divided  into  three  provinces,  Judaea, 
Samaria,  and  Galilee  (Acts  ix.  31 ;  Luke  xvii. 
11;  Joseph.  B.  J.  iii.  3).  The  latter  included 
the  whole  northern  section  of  the  country,  in- 
cluding the  ancient  territories  of  Issachar, 
Zebulun,  Asher,  and  Naphtali.  On  the  west 
it  was  bounded  by  the  territory  of  Ptolemais, 
which  probably  included  the  whole  plain  of 
Akka'  to  the  foot  of  Carmel.  The  southern 
border  ran  along  the  base  of  Carmel  and  of 
the  hills  of  Samaria  to  Mount  Gilboa,  and  then 
descended  the  valley  of  Jezreel  by  Scythop- 
olis  to  the  Jordan.  The  river  Jordan,  the  Sea 
of  Galilee,  and  the  upper  Jordan  to  the  foun- 
tain at  Dan,  formed  the  eastern  border;  and 
the  northern  ran  from  Dan  westward  across 
the  mountain  ridge  till  it  touched  the  territory 
of  the  Phoenicians.  Galilee  was  divided  into 
two  sections,  "Lower"  and  "Upper."  Lower 
Galilee  included  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon 
with  its  offshoots,  which  run  down  to  the  Jor- 
dan and  the  Lake  of  Tiberias ;  and  the  whole 
of  the  hill  country  adjoining  it  on  the  north 
to  the  foot  of  the  mountain-range.  It  was 
thus  one  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  sec- 
tions of  Palestine.  Galilee  was  the  scene  of 
the  greater  part  of  our  Lord's  private  life  and 
public  acts.  His  early  years  were  spent  at 
Nazareth  ;  and  when  He  entered  on  His  great 
work  He  made  Capernaum  His  home  (Matt, 
iv.  13,  ix.  i).  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the 
first  three  Gospels  are  chiefly  taken  up  with 
our  Lord's  ministrations  in  this  province, 
while  the  Gospel  of  John  dwells  more  upon 
those  in  Judaea.  The  nature  of  our  Lord's 
parables  and  illustrations  was  greatly  influ- 
enced by  the  peculiar  features  and  products  of 
the  country.  The  Apostles  were  all  either 
Galileans  by  birth  or  residence  (Acts  i.  il). 
After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Galilee  be- 
came the  chief  seat  of  Jewish  schools  of  learn- 
ing, and  the  residence  of  their  most  celebrated 
Rabbins. 

Galilee,  Sea  of.  [Gennesareth.] 

Gall.  From  Deut.  xxix.  18,  and  Lam.  iii.  19, 
compared  with  Hos.  x.  4,  it  is  evident  that  the 
Hebrew  term  denotes  some  bitter,  and  perhaps 
poisonous  plant.  Other  writers  have  supposed, 
and  with  some  reason  (from  Deut.  xxxii.  32), 
that  some  berry-bearing  plant  must  be  in- 
tended. Gesenius  understands  "poppies."  The 
capsules  of  the  Papaveraceae  may  well  give 
the  name  of  rosh  ("head")  to  the  plant  in  ques- 
tion, just  as  we  speak  of  poppy  heads.  The 
various  species  of  this  family  spring  up  quickly 
in  corn-fields,  and  the  juice  is  extremely  bitter. 


134 


GALLEY 


GARDEN 


A  steeped  solution  of  poppy  heads  may  be 
"the  water  of  gall"  of  Jer.  viii.  14.  The  pas- 
sages in  the  Gospels  which  relate  the  circum- 
stance of  the  Roman  soldiers  offering  our 
Lord,  just  before  his  crucifixion,  "vinegar  min- 
gled with  gall,"  according  to  St.  Matthew 
(xxvii.  34),  and  '"wine  mingled  with  myrrh," 
according  to  St.  Mark's  account  (ji  .  23),  re- 
quire some  consideration.  "Matth<  n,  in  his 
usual  way,  designates  the  drink  theologically : 
always  keeping  his  eye  on  the  prophecies  of 
the  O.  T.,  he  speaks  of  gall  and  vi'iegar  for 
the  purpose  of  rendering  the  fulfilment  of  the 
Psalms  more  manifest.  Mark  again  (xv.  23), 
according  to  his  way,  looks  rather  at  the  out- 
ward quality  of  the  drink."  "Gall"  is  not  to 
be  understood  in  any  other  sense  than  as  ex- 
pressing the  bitter  nature  of  the  draught.  Not- 
withstanding the  almost  concurrent  opinion  of 
ancient  and  modern  commentators  that  the 
'"wine  mingled  with  myrrh"  was  offered  to  our 
Lord  as  an  anodyne,  we  cannot  readily  come 
to  the  same  conclusion.  Had  the  soldiers  in- 
tended a  mitigation  of  suffering,  they  would 
doubtless  have  offered  a  draught  drugged  with 
some  substance  having  narcotic  properties. 
The  drink  in  question  was  probably  a  mere 
ordinary  beverage  of  the  Romans. 

Galley.  [Ship.] 

Gallows.  [Punishment.] 

Games.  Among  the  Greeks  the  rage  for 
theatrical  exhibitions  was  such  that  every  city 
of  any  size  possessed  its  theatre  and  stadium. 
At  i!,pnesus  an  annual  contest  was  held  in 
honor  of  Diana.  It  is  probable  that  St.  Paul 
was  present  when  these  games  were  proceed- 
ing. A  direct  reference  to  the  exhibitions  that 
took  place  on  such  occasions  is  made  in  i  Cor. 
xv.  32.  St.  Paul's  Epistles  abound  with  allu- 
sions to  the  Greek  contests,  borrowed  prob- 
ably from  the  Isthmian  games,  at  which  he 
may  well  have  been  present  during  his  first 
visit  to  Corinth.  These  contests  (2  li/n.  iv. 
7;  I  Tim.  vi.  12)  were  divided  into  two  c' asses, 
the  pancratium,  consisting  of  boxin  •  and 
wrestling,  and  the  pentathlon,  consist  ig  of 
leaping,  running,  quoiting,  hurling  the  '.pear, 
and  wrestling.  The  competitors  (i  Cor.  ix. 
25 ;  2  Tim.  ii.  5)  required  a  long  and  severe 
course  of  previous  training  (i  Tim.  iv.  8),  dur- 
ing which  a  particular  diet  was  enforced  (l 
Cor.  ix.  25,  27).  St.  Paul  alludes  to  two  only 
out  of  the  five  contests,  boxing  and  running, 
more  frequently  to  the  latter.  In  boxing  (cf. 
I  Cor.  ix.  26)  the  hands  and  arms  were  bound 
with  the  cestus,  a  band  of  leather  studded  with 
nails. 

Garden.  Gardens  in  the  East,  as  the  He- 
brew word  indicates,  are  enclosures,  on  the 


outskirts  of  towns,  planted  with  various  trees 
and  shrubs.  From  the  allusions  in  the  Bible 
we  learn  that  they  were  surrounded  by  hedges 
of  tliorn  (Is.  v.  5),  or  walls  of  stone  (Prov. 
xxiv.  31).  For  further  protection  lodges  (Is. 
i.  8;  Lam.  ii.  6)  or  watchtowers  (Mark  xii.  i) 
were,  built  in  them,  in  which  sat  the  keeper 
(Job  xxvii.  18)  to  drive  away  the  wild  beasts 
and  robbers,  as  is  the  case  to  this  day.  The 
gardens  of  the  Hebrews  were  planted  with 
flowers  "and  aromatic  shrubs  (Cant.  vi.  2,  iv. 
16),  besides  olives,  fig-trees,  nuts,  or  walnuts 
(Cant.  vi.  11),  pomegranates,  and  others  for 
domestic  use  (Ex.  xxiii.  11;  Jer.  xxix.  5;  Am. 
ix.  14).  Gardens  of  herbs,  or  kitchen-gardens, 
are  mentioned  in  Deut.  xi.  10,  and  i  K.  xxi.  2. 
Cucumbers  were  grown  in  them  (Is.  i.  8;  Bar. 
vi.  70),  and  probably  also  melons,  leeks, 
onions,  and  garlic,  which  are  spoken  of  (Num. 
xi.  5)  as  the  productions  of  a  neighboring 
country.  The  rose-garden  in  Jerusalem,  said 
to  have  been  situated  westward  of  the  temple 
mount,  is  remarkable  as  having  been  one  of 
the  few  gardens,  which,  from  the  time  of  the 
prophets,  existed  within  the  city  walls.  But 
of  all  the  gardens  of  Palestine  none  is  pos- 
sessed of  associations  more  sacred  and  imper- 
ishable than  the  garden  of  Gethsemane,  beside 
the  oil-presses  on  the  slopes  of  Olivet.  In  a 
climate  like  that  of  Palestine  the  neighborhood 
of  water  was  an  important  consideration  in 
selecting  the  site  of  a  garden.  To  the  old 
Hebrew  poets  "a  well-watered  garden,"  or  "a 
tree  planted  by  the  waters,"  was  an  emblem  of 
luxuriant  fertility  and  material  prosperity  (Is. 
Iviii.  II  ;  Jer.  xvii.  8,  xxxi.  12).  From  a  neigh- 
boring stream  or  cistern  were  supplied  the 
channels  or  conduits  by  which  the  gardens 
were  intersected,  and  the  water  was  thus  con- 
veyed to  all  parts  (Ps.  i.  3;  Eccl.  ii.  6;  Ecclus. 
xxiv.  30).  The  Hebrews  made  use  of  gardens 
as  places  of  burial  (John  xix.  41).  Manasseh 
and  his  son  Anion  were  buried  in  the  garden 
of  their  palace,  the  garden  of  Uzza  (2  K.  xxi. 
18,  26).  The  retirement  of  gardens  rendered 
them  favorite  places  for  devotion  (Matt.  xxvi. 
36;  John  xviii.  i;  cf.  Gen.  xxiv.  63).  In  the 
degenerate  times  of  the  monarchy  they  were 
selected  as  the  scenes  of  idolatrous  worship 
(Is.  i.  29,  Ixv.  3,  Ixvi.  17),  and  images  of  the 
idols  were  probably  erected  in  them.  The  tra- 
ditional gardens  and  pools  of  Solomon,  sup- 
posed to  be  alluded  to  in  Eccl.  ii.  5.  6,  are 
shown  in  the  Wady  Urtas  (i.  e.  Hortus), 
about  an  hour  and  a  quarter  to  the  south  of 
Bethlehem.  The  "king's  garden,"  mentioned 
in  2  K.  xxv.  4;  Neh.  iii.  15;  Jer.  xxxix.  4,  Hi.  7, 
was  near  the  pool  of  Siloam,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Tyropoeon,  north  of  Bir  Eyub,  and  was 


GARMENT 


GENEALOGY 


formed   by   the   meeting   of  the  valleys  of 
Jehoshaphat  and  Ben  Hinnom. 
Garment.  [Dress.] 

Gate.  The  gates  and  gateways  of  eastern 
cities  anciently  held,  and  still  hold,  an  impor- 
tant part,  not  only  in  the  defence  but  in  the 
public  economy  of  the  place.  They  are  thus 
sometimes  taken  as  representing  the  city  itself 
(Gen.  xxii.  17,  xxiv.  60;  Deut.  xii.  12;  Judg.  v. 
8;  Ruth  iv.  10;  Ps.  Ixxxvii.  2,  cxxii,  2).  Among 
the  special  purposes  for  which  they  were  used 
may  be  mentioned:  i.  As  places  of  public 
resort  (Gen.  xix.  i,  xxiii.  10,  xxxiv.  20,  24;  I 
Sam.  iv.  18,  &c.).  2.  Places  for  public  deliber- 
ation, administration  of  justice,  or  of  audience 
for  kings  and  rulers,  or  ambassadors  (Deut. 
xvi.  18,  xxi.  19,  XXV.  7;  Josh.  xx.  4;  Judg.  ix. 
35,  &c.).  3.  Public  markets  (2  K,  vii.  i).  In 
heathen  towns  the  open  spaces  near  the  gates 
appear  to  have  been  sometimes  used  as  places 
for  sacrifice  (Acts  xiv.  13;  comp.  2  K.  xxiii. 
8).  Regarded  therefore  as  positions  of  great 
importance  the  gates  of  cities  were  carefully 
guarded  and  closed  at  nightfall  (Deut.  iii.  5 ; 
Josh.  ii.  5,  7;  Judg.  ix.  40,  44).  They  con- 
tained chambers  over  the  gateway  (2  Sam. 
xviii.  24).  The  doors  themselves  of  the  larger 
gates  mentioned  in  Scripture  were  two-leaved, 
plated  with  metal,  closed  with  locks  and  fas- 
tened with  metal  bars  (Deut.  iii.  5 ;  Ps.  cvii. 
16;  Is.  xlv.  I,  2).  Gates  not  defended  by  iron 
were  of  course  liable  to  be  set  on  fire  by  an 
enemy  (Judg.  ix.  52).  The  gateways  of  royal 
palaces  and  even  of  private  houses  were  often 
richly  ornamented.  Sentences  from  the  Law 
were  inscribed  on  and  above  the  gates  (Deut. 
vi.  9;  Is.  liv.  12;  Rev.  xxi.  21)..  The  gates  of 
Solomon's  Temple  were  very  massive  and 
costly,  being  overlaid  with  gold  and  carvings 
(i  K.  vi.  34,  35;  2  K.  xviii.  16).  Those  of  the 
Holy  Place  were  of  olive-wood,  two-leaved, 
and  overlaid  with  gold ;  those  of  the  temple  of 
fir  (i  K.  vi.  31,  32,  34;  Ez.  xli.  23,  24).  The 
figurative  gates  of  pearl  and  precious  stones 
(Is.  liv.  12;  Rev.  xxi.  21)  may  be  regarded  as 
having  their  types  in  the  massive  stone  doors 
which  are  found  in  some  of  the  ancient  houses 
in  Syria.  These  are  of  single  slabs  several 
inches  thick,  sometimes  10  feet  high,  and  turn 
on  stone  pivots  above.  The  parts  of  the  door- 
way were  the  threshold  (Judg.  xix.  27)  ;  the 
side-posts,  the  lintel  (Ex.  xii.  7).  In  the  Tem- 
ple, Levites,  and  in  houses  of  the  wealthier 
classes,  and  in  palaces,  persons  were  especially 
appointed  to  keep  the  door  (Jer.  xxxv.  4;  2  K. 
xii.  9,  XXV.  18,  &c.). 

Oath,  one  of  the  five  royal  cities  of  the  Phil- 
istines (Josh.  xiii.  3;  I  Sam.  vi.  17);  and  the 
native  place  of  the  giant  Goliath  (i  Sam.  xvii. 

I 


4,  23).  It  i&  familiar  to  the  Bible  student  as 
the  scene  of  one  of  the  most  romantic  incidents 
in  the  life  of  king  David  (i  Sam.  xxi.  10-15.) 

Ga'za  (properly  Azzah),  one  of  the  five 
chief  cities  of  the  Philistines.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  continuous  existence  and  ■  importance 
from  the  very  earliest  times.  In  Gen.  x.  19  it 
appears,  even  before  the  call  of  Abraham,  as  a 
"border"  city  of  the  Canaanites.  In  the  con- 
quest of  Joshua  the  territory  of  Gaza  is  men- 
tioned as  one  which  he  was  not  able  to  sub- 
due (Josh.  X.  41,  xi.  22,  xiii.  3).  It  was  as- 
signed to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  47), 
and  that  tribe  did  obtain  possession  of  it 
(Judg.  i.  18);  but  they  did  not  hold  it  long; 
for  soon  afterwards  we  find  it  in  the  hands 
of  the  Philistines  (Judg.  iii.  3,  xiii.  i,  xvi.  i, 
21)  ;  indeed  it  seems  to  have  been  their  capi- 
tal ;  and  apparently  continued  through  the 
times  of  Samuel,  Saul,  and  David  to  be  a 
Philistine  city  (i  Sam.  vi.  17,  xiv.  52,  xxxi.  i ; 
2  Sam.  xxi.  15).  Solornon  became  master  of 
"Azzah"  (i  K.  iv.  24).    But  in  after  times  the 


Gaza. 

same  trouble  with  the  Philistines  recurred  (2 
Chr.  xxi.  16,  xxvi.  6,  xxviii.  18).  The  passage 
where  Gaza  is  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  (Acts 
viii.  26)  is  full  of  interest.  It  is  the  account 
of  the  baptism  of  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  on  his 
return  from  Jerusalem  to  Egypt. 
Gehen'na.  [Hinnom.] 
Gems.  [Stones,  Precious.] 
Genealogy.  In  Hebrew  the  term  for 
genealogy  or  pedigree  is  "the  book  of  the 
generations" ;  and  because  the  oldest  histories 
were  usually  drawn  up  on  a  genealogical  basis, 
the  expression  often  extended  to  the  whole 
history,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew,  where  "the  book  of  the  generation 
of  Jesus  Christ"  includes  the  whole  history 
contained  in  that  Gospel.  The  promise  of  the 
land  of  Canaan  to  the  seed  of  Abraham,  Isaac 
and  Jacob  successively,  and  the  separation  of 

36 


i 


GENEALOGY 


GENEALOGY  OF  JESUS  CHRISt 


the  Israelites  from  the  Gentile  world ;  the  ex- 
pectation of  Messiah  as  to  spring  from  the 
tribe  of  Jiidah ;  the  exclusively  hereditary 
priesthood  of  Aaron  with  its  dignity  and 
emoluments ;  the  long  succession  of  kings  in 
the  line  of  David;  and  the  whole  division  and 
occupation  of  the  land  upon  genealogical  prin- 
ciples by  the  tribes,  families,  and  houses  of 
fathers,  gave  a  deeper  importance  to  the 
science  of  genealogy^  among  the  Jews  than  per- 
haps any  other  nation.  When  Zerubbabel 
brought  back  the  captivity  from  Babylon,  one 
of  his  first  cares  seems  to  have  been  to  take  a 
census  of  those  that  returned,  and  to  settle 
them  according  to  their  genealogies.  Passing 
on  to  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ,  we  have 
a  striking  incidental  proof  of  the  continuance 
of  the  Jewish  genealogical  economy  in  the 
fact  that  when  Augustus  ordered  the  census 
of  the  empire  to  be  taken,  the  Jews  in  the 
province  of  Syria  immediately  went  each  one 
to  his  own  city.  The  Jewish  genealogical 
records  continued  to  be  kept  till  near  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem.  Bvit  there  can  be  lit- 
tle doubt  that  the  registers  of  the  Jewish 
tribes  and  families  perished  at  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  and  not  before.  It  remains  to 
be  said  that  just-  notions  of  the  nature  of  the 
Jewish  genealogical  records  are  of  great  im- 
portance with  a  view  to  the  right  interpreta- 
tion of  Scripture.  Let  it  only  be  remembered 
that  these  records  have  respect  to  political  and 
territorial  divisions,  as  much  as  to  strictly 
genealogical  descent,  and  it  will  at  once  be 
seen  how  erroneous  a  conclusion  it  may  be, 
that  all  who  are  called  "sons"  of  such  or  such 
a  patriarch,  or  chief  father,  must  necessarily 
be  his  very  children.  If  any  one  family  or 
house  became  extinct,  some  other  would  suc- 
ceed to  its  place,  called  after  its  own  chief 
father.  Hence  of  course  a  census  of  any  tribe 
drawn  up  at  a  later  period,  would  exhibit  dif- 
ferent divisions  from  one  drawn  up  at  an 
earlier.  The  same  principle  must  be  borne  in 
mind  in  interpreting  any  particular  genealogy. 
Again,  when  a  pedigree  was  abbreviated,  it 
would  naturally  specify  such  generations  as 
would  indicate  from  what  chief  houses  the 
person  descended.  But  then  as  regards  the 
chronological  use  of  the  Scripture  genealogies, 
it  follows  from  the  above  view  that  great  cau- 
tion is  necessary  in  using  them  as  measures 
of  time,  though  they  are  invaluable  for  this 
purpose  whenever  we  can  be  sure  that  they 
are  complete.  The  Jewish  genealogies  have 
two  forms,  one  giving  the  generations  in  a 
descending,  the  other  in  an  ascending  scale. 
Examples  of  the  descending  form  may  be  seen 
in  Ruth  iv.  18-22,  or  i  Chr.  iii.   Of  the  ascend- 


ing, I  Chr.  vi.  33-43  (A.  V.)  ;  Ezr.  vii.  1-5.  Fe- 
males are  named  in  genealogies  when  there  is 
anything  remarkable  about  them,  or  when  any 
right  or  property  is  transmitted  through  them. 
See  Gen.  xi.  29,  xxii.  23,  xxv.  1-4,  xxxv.  22-26; 
Ex.  vi.  23 ;  Num.  xxvi.  33 ;  i  Chr.  ii.  4,  19,  50, 
35.  &c. 

Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  New  Testa- 
ment gives  us  the  genealogy  of  but  one  per- 
son, that  of  our  Saviour.  The  following  propo- 
sitions will  explain  the  true  construction  of 
these  genealogies: — i.  They  are  both  the  gen- 
ealogies of  Joseph  i.  e.  of  Jesus  Christ  as  the 
reputed  and  legal  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  2. 
The  genealogy  of  St.  Matthew  is  Joseph's  gen- 
ealogy as  legal  successor  to  the  throne  of 
David.  St.  Luke's  is  Joseph's  private  gen- 
ealog}-,  exhibiting  his  real  birth,  as  David's 
son,  and  thus  showing  why  he  was  heir  to 
Solomon's  crown.  The  simple  principle  that 
one  evangelist  exhibits  that  genealogy  which 
contained  the  successive  heirs  to  David's  and 
Solomon's  throne,  while  the  other  exhibits  the 
paternal  stem  of  him  who  was  the  heir,  ex- 
plains all  the  anomalies  of  the  two  pedigrees, 
their  agreements  as  well  as  their  discrepancies, 
and  the  circumstance  of  there  being  two  at  all. 
3.*  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus,  was  in  all  prob- 
ability the  daughter  of  Jacob,  and  first,  cousin 
to  Joseph  her  husband.  But  besides  these 
main  difficulties,  as  they  have  been  thought 
to  be,  there  are-  several  others  which  cannot 
be  passed  over  in  any  account,  however  con- 
cise, of  the  genealogies  of  Christ.  The  most 
startling  is  the  total  discrepancy  between 
them  both  and  that  of  Zerubbabel  in  the  O.  T. 
(i  Chr.  iii.  19-24).  In  this  last,  of  seven  sons 
of  Zerubbabel  not  one  bears  the  name,  or  any- 
thing like  the  name,  of  Rhesa  or  Abiud ;  and 
of  the  next  generation  not  one  bears  the  name, 
or  anything  like  the  name,  of  Eliakim  or 
Joanna,  which  are  in  the  corresponding  gen- 
eration in  Matthew  and  Luke.  Rhesa  is  in 
fact  not  a  name  at  all,  but  it  is  the  Chaldee 
title  of  the  princes  of  the  captivity.  It  is  very 
probable  therefore  that  this  title  should  have 
been  placed  against  the  name  of  Zerubbabel 
by  some  early  Christian  Jew,  and  thence  crept 
into  the  text.  If  this  be  so,  St.  Luke  will  then 
give  Joanna  as  the  son  of  Zerubbabel.  But 
Joanna  is  the  very  same  name  as  Hananiah, 
the  son  of  Zerubbabel  according  to  i  Chr.  iii. 
19.  [Hananiah.]  In  St.  Matthew  this  genera- 
tion is  omitted.  In  the  next  generation  we 
identify  Matthew's  Ab-jud  .  (Abiud)  with 
Luke's  Juda,  and  both  with  Hodaiah  of  l  Chr. 
iii.  24,  by  the  simple  process  of  supposing  the 
Shemaiah  of  i  Chr.  iii.  22  to  be  the  same  per- 
son   as   the    Shimei    of   ver.    19.  Another 


137 


GENERATION 


GENESIS 


difficulty  is  the  apparent  deficiency  in  the  num- 
ber of  the  last  tessaro-decade,  which  seems  to 
contain  only  13  names;  but  the  explanation  of 
this  is,  that  either  in  the  process  of  transla- 
tion, or  otherwise,  the  names  of  Jehoiakim  and 
Jehoiachin  have  got  confused  and  expressed 
by  the  one  name  Jechonias.  The  last  difficulty 
of  sufficient  importance  to  be  mentioned  here 
is  a  chronological  one.  In  both  the  genealogies 
there  are  but  three  names  between  Salmon 
and  David — Boaz,  Obed,  Jesse.  But,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  chronology,  from  the  en- 
trance into  Canaan  (when  Salmon  was  come 
to  man's  estate)  to  the  birth  of  David  was  405 
years,  or  from  that  to  500  years  and  upwards. 
Now  for  about  an  equal  period,  from  Solomon 
to  Jehoiachin,  St.  Luke's  genealogy  contains 
20  names.  Obviously  therefore  either  the 
chronology  or  the  genealogy  is  wrong.  It 
must  suffice  here  to  assert  that  the  shortening 
the  interval  between  the  Exodus  and  David  by 
about  200  years,  which  brings  it  to  the  length 
indicated  by  the  genealogies,  does  in  the  most 
remarkable  manner  bring  Israelitish  history 
into  harmony  with  Egyptian,  with  the  tradi- 
tional Jewish  date  of  the  Exodus,  with  the 
fragment  of  Edomitish  history  preserved  in 
Gen.  xxxvi.  31-39,  and  with  the  internal  evi- 
dence of  the  Israelitish  history  itself. 

Generation.  In  the  long-lived  Patriarchal 
age  a  generation  seems  to  have  been  computed 
at  100  years  (Gen.  xv.  16;  comp.  13,  and  Ex. 
xii.  40)  ;  but  subsequently  the  reckoning  was 
the  same  which  has  been  adopted  by  other 
civilized  nations,  viz.,  from  thirty  to  forty 
years  (Job  xlii.  16).  For  generation  in  the 
sense  of  a  definite  period  of  time,  see  Gen.  xv. 
16;  Deut.  xxiii.  3,  4,  8,  &c.  As  an  indefinite 
period  of  time : — for  time  past,  see  Deut.  xxxii. 
7';  Is.  Iviii.  12;  for  time  future,  see  Ps.  xlv.  17, 
Ixxii.  5,  &c.  Generation  is  also  used  to  signify 
the  men  of  an  age,  or  time,  as  contemporaries 
(Gen.  vi.  9;  Is.  liii.  8)  ;  posterity,  especially  in 
legal  formulae  (Lev.  iii.  17,  &c.)  ;  fathers,  or 
ancestors  (Ps.  xlix.  19). 

Genes'areth.  [Gennesaret.] 

Gen'esis,  the  first  book  of  the  Law  or  Penta- 
teuch, so  called  from  its  title  in  the  Septuagint, 
that  is,  Creation.  Respecting  its  integrity  and 
author,  see  Pentateuch.  The  book  of  Genesis 
(with  the  first  chapters  of  Exodus)  describes 
the  steps  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Theocracy.  It  is  a  part  of  the  writer's  plan 
to  tell  us  what  the  Divine  preparation  of  the 
world  was,  in  order  to  show,  first,  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  call  of  Abraham,  and  next,  the 
true  nature  of  the  Jewish  theocracy.  He  begins 
with  the  creation  of  the  world,  because  the 
God  who  created  the  world  and  the  God  who 


I  revealed  Himself  to  the  fathers  is  the  same 
God.  The  book  of  Genesis  has  thus  a  char- 
acter at  once  special  and  universal.  It  em- 
braces the  world ;  it  speaks  of  God  as  the  God 
of  the  whole  human  race.  But  as  the  intro- 
duction to  Jewish  history,  it  makes  the  uni- 
versal interest  subordinate  to  the  national.  Five 
principal  persons  are  the  pillars,  so  to  speak, 
on  which  the  whole  superstructure  rests: 
Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob.  I. 
Adam.  The  creation  of  the  world,  and  the 
earliest  history  of  mankind  (ch.  i.-iii.).  As  yet 
no  divergence  of  the  different  families  of  man. 
II.  Noah.  The  history  of  Adam's  descendants 
to  the  death  of  Noah  (iv.-ix.).  Here  we  have 
(i)  the  line  of  Cain  branching  ofif  while  the 
history  follows  the  fortunes  of  Seth,  whose 
descendants  are  (2)  traced  in  genealogical  suc- 
cession, and  in  an  unbroken  line  as  far  as 
Noah,  and  (3)  the  history  of  Noah  himself 
(vi.-ix.),  continued  to  his  death.  III.  Abraham. 
Noah's  posterity  till  the  death  of  Abraham 
(x.-xxv.  18).  Here  we  have  (i)  the  peopling 
of  the  whole  earth  by  the  descendants  of 
Noah's  three  sons  (xi.  1-9).  The  history  of 
two  of  these  is  then  dropped,  and  (2)  the  line 
of  Shem  only  pursued  (xi.  10-32)  as  far  as 
Terah  and  Abraham,  where  the  genealogical 
table  breaks  of¥.  (3)  Abraham  is  now  the 
prominent  figure  (xii.-xxv.  18).  But  as  Terah 
had  two  other  sons,  Nahor  and  Haran  (xi.  27), 
some  notices  respecting  their  families  are 
added.  Lot's  migration  with  Abraham  into 
the  land  of  Canaan  is  mentioned,  as  well  as  the 
fact  that  he  was  the  father  of  Moab  and  Am- 
nion (xix.  37,  38),  nations  whose  later  history 
was  intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  pos- 
terity of  Abraham.  Nahor  remained  in 
Mesopotamia,  but  his  family  is  briefly  enumer- 
ated (xxii.  20-24),  chiefly  no  doubt  for 
Rebekah's  sake,  who  was  afterwards  the  wife 
of  Isaac.  Of  Abraham's  own  children,  there 
branches  ofif  first  the  line  by  Ishmael  (xxi.  9, 
&c.),  and  next  the  children  by  Keturah ;  and 
the  genealogical  notices  of  these  two  branches 
of  his  posterity  are  apparently  brought  to- 
gether (xxv.  1-6,  and  xxv.  12-18),  in  order  that, 
being  here  severally  dismissed  at  the  end  of 
Abraham's  life,  the  main  stream  of  the  nar- 
rative may  flow  in  the  channel  of  Isaac's  for- 
tunes. IV.  Isaac.  Isaac's  life  (xxv.  19-xxxv. 
29),  a  life  in  itself  retiring  and  uneventful.  But 
in  his  sons  the  final  separation  takes  place, 
leaving  the  field  clear  for  the  great  story  of 
the  chosen  seed.  Even  when  Nahor's  family 
comes  on  the  scene,  as  it  does  in  ch.  xxix.,  we 
hear  only  so  much  of  it  as  is  necessary  to 
throw  light  on  Jacob's  history.  V.  Jacob.  The 
history  of  Jacob  and  Joseph  (xxxvi.  i).  Here, 

38 


GENNESARET 


GETHESMANE 


after  Isaac's  death,  we  have  (i)  the  genealogy 
of  Esau  (xxxvi.),  who  then  drops  out  of  the 
narrative,  in  order  that  (2)  the  history  of  the 
Patriarchs  may  be  carried  on  without  inter- 
mission to  the  death  of  Joseph  (xxxvii.-i).  It 
will  be  seen  that  a  specific  plan  is  preserved 
throughout.  The  main  purpose  is  never  for- 
gotten. God's  relation  to  Israel  holds  the  first 
place  in  the  writer's  mind.  It  is  this  which 
it  is  his  object  to  convey.  The  history  of  that 
chosen  seed,  who  were  the  heirs  of  the  promise 
and  the  guardians  of  the -Divine  oracles,  is  the 
only  history  which  interprets  man's  relation  to 
God.  By  its  light  all  others  shine,  and  may 
be  read  when  the  time  shall  come.  Meanwhile, 
as  the  different  families  drop  ofif  here  and  there 
from  the  principal  stock,  their  course  is  briefly 
indicated.  Beyond  all  doubt,  then,  we  may 
trace  in  the  book  of  Genesis  a  systematic  plan. 

Gennes'aret,  Land  of.  After  the  miracle  of 
feeding  the  five  thousand,  our  Lord  and  His 
disciples  crossed  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret  and 


Gennesaret  from  Klian  Minyeh. 

came  to  the  other  side,  at  a  place  which  is 
called  "the  land  of  Gennesaret"  (Matt.  xiv.  34; 
Mark  vi.  53).  It  is  generally  believed  that  this 
term  was  applied  to  the  fertile  crescent-shaped 
plain  on  the  western  shore  of  the  lake,  ex- 
tending from  Khan  Minyeh  on  the  north  to  the 
steep  hill  behind  Mejdcl  on  the  south,  and 
called  by  the  Arabs  el-Ghuweir,  "the  little 
Ghor."  Mr.  Porter  gives  the  length  as  three 
miles,  and  the  greatest  breadth  as  about  one 
mile.  Additional  interest  is  given  to  the  land 
of  Gennesaret,  or  el-Ghuweir,  by  the  proba- 
bility that  its  scenery  suggested  the  parable 
of  the  Sower. 

Gennes'aret,  Sea  of,  called  in  the  O.  T.  "the 
Sea  of  Chinnereth,"  or  "Cinneroth"  (Num. 
xxxiv.  II;  Josh.  xii.  3),  from  a  town  of  that 
name  which  stood  on  or  near  its  shore  (Josh, 
xix.  35).    At  its  north-western  angle  was  a 


beautiful  and  fertile  plain  called  "Gennesaret" 
(Matt.  xiv.  34;  Mark  vi.  53),  from  which  the 
name  of  the  lake  was  taken.  The  lake  is  also 
called  in  the  N.  T.  "the  sea  of  Galilee,"  from 
the  province  of  Galilee  which  bordered  on  its 
western  side  (Matt.  iv.  18;  Mark  vii.  31;  John 
vi.  i)  ;  and  "the  sea  of  Tiberias,"  from  the  cele- 
brated city  (John  vi.  i).  Most  of  our  Lord's 
public  life  was  spent  in  the  environs  of  the  Sea 
of  Gennesaret.  This  region  was  then  the  most 
densely  peopled  in  all  Palestine.  No  less  than 
nine  cities  stood  on  the  very  shores  of  the  lake. 
The  sea  of  Gennesaret  is  of  an  oval  shape, 
about  thirteen  geographical  miles  long,  and 
six  broad.  The  river  Jordan  enters  it  at  its 
northern  end,  and  passes  out  at  its  southern 
end.  In  fact  the  bed  of  the  lake  is  just  a  lower 
section  of  the  great  Jordan  valley.  Its  most 
remarkable  feature  is  its  deep  depression,  being 
no  less  than  700  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  The  scenery  is  bleak  and  monotonous. 
The  great  depression  makes  the  climate  of  the 
shores  almost  tropical.  This  is  very  sensibly 
felt  by  the  traveller  in  going  down  from  the 
plains  of  Galilee.  In  summer  the  heat  is  in- 
tense and  even  in  early  spring  the  air  has 
something  of  an  Egyptian  balminess.  The 
water  of  the  lake  is  sweet,  cool,  and  trans- 
parent ;  and  as  the  beach  is  everywhere  pebbly 
it  has  a  beautiful  sparkling  look.  It  abounds 
in  fish  now  as  in  ancient  times. 

Gentiles.  In  the  O.  T.  the  Heb.  word  signi- 
fies the  nations,  the  surrounding  nations,  for- 
eigners as  opposed  to  Israel  (Neh.  v.  8),  and 
was  used  with  an  invidious  meaning.  In  the 
N.  T.  it  is  used  as  equivalent  to  Greek.  But 
the  A.  V.  is  not  consistent  in  its  translation  of 
the  word  Hellen,  sometimes  rendering  it  by 
"Greek"  (Acts  xiv.  i,  xvii.  4;  Rom.  i.  16,  x. 
12),  sometimes  by  "Gentile"  (Rom.  ii.  9,  10, 
iii.  9;  I  Cor.  x.  32).  The  latter  use  of  the  word 
seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  almost  universal 
adoption  of  the  Greek  language. 

Ger'izim.  According  to  the  traditions  of  the 
Samaritans  it  was  here  that  Abraham  sacri- 
ficed Isaac.  Careful  observers  of  the  spot  dis- 
credit it  and  believe  Monah  to  be  the  spot 
(Gen.  xxxiii.  18-20).  Here  was  likewise  his 
well  (John  iv.  6),  and  the  tomb  of  his  son 
Joseph  (Josh.  xxiv.  32),  both  of  which  are  still 
shown. 

Gethsem'ane,  a  small  "farm"  (A.  V. 
"place  ;"  Matt.  xxvi.  36;  Mark  xiv.  32),  situated 
across  the  brook  Kedron  (John  xviii.  i), 
probably  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olivet  (Luke 
xxii.  39),  to  the  N.  W.,  and  about  or  of 
a  mile  English  from  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 
There  was  a  "garden,"  or  rather  orchard,  at- 
tached to  it,  to  which  the  olive,  fig,  and  pome- 


139 


GEZER 


GIDEON 


granate  doubtless  invited  resort  by  their  hos- 
pitable shade.  And  we  know  from  the 
Evangelists  Luke  (xxii.  39)  and  John  (xviii. 
2)  that  our  Lord  ofttimes  resorted  thither  with 
his  disciples.  But  Gethscmane  has  not  come 
down  to  us  as  a  scene  of  mirth ;  its  inexhausti- 
ble associations  are  the  of¥spring  of  a  single 
event — the  Agony^  of  the  Son  of  God  on  the 
evening  preceding  His  Passion.  '  A  garden, 
with  eight  venerable  olive-trees,  and  a  grotto 
to  the  north,  detached  from  it,  and  in  closer 
connection  with  the  church  of  the  Sepulchre 
of  the  Virgin,  are  pointed  out  as  the  Gethse- 
mane.  Against  the  contemporafy  antiquity  of 
the  olive-trees  it  has  been  urged  that  Titus  cut 
down  all  the  trees  about  Jerusalem.  The 
probability  would  seem  to  be  that  they  were 


Mount  Gerizim  and  Shechem. 

planted  by  Christian  hands  to  mark  the  spot; 
unless,  like  the  sacred  olive  of  the  Acropolis, 
they  may  have  reproduced  themselves. 

Gez'er,  an  ancient  city  of  Canaan,  whose 
king,  Horam,  or  Elam,  coming  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Lachish,  was  killed  with  all  his  people 
by  Joshua  (Josh.  x.  33,  xii.  12).  It  formed  one 
of  the  landmarks  on  the  south  boundary  of 
Ephraim,  between  the  lower  Beth-horon  and 
the  Mediterranean  (xvi.  3),  the  western  limit 
of  the  tribe  (i  Chr.  vii.  28). 

Giants,  i.  They  are  first  spoken  of  in  Gen. 
vi.  4,  under  the  name  Nephilim.  We  are  told 
in  Gen.  vi.  1-4  that  "there  were  Nephilim  in 
the  earth,"  and  that  afterwards  the  "sons  of 
God"  mingling  with  the  beautiful  "daughters 
of  men"  produced  a  race  of  violent  and  inso- 
lent Gibborim  (A.  V.  "mighty  men").  But 
who  were  the  parents  of  these  giants?  who  are 


"the  sons  of  God  ?"  They  were  most  probably 
the  pious  Sethites,  though  the  prevalent 
opinion  both  in  the  Jewish  and  early  Christian 
Church  is  that  they  were  angels.  It  was  proba- 
bly this  ancient  view  which  gave  rise  to  the 
spurious  Book  of  Enoch,  and  the  notion  quoted 
from  it  by  St.  Jude  (6),  and  alluded  to  by  St. 
Peter  (2  Pet.  ii.  4).  2.  The  Rephaim,  a  name 
which  frequently  occurs.  The  earliest  men- 
tion of  them  is  the  record  of  their  defeat  by 
Chedorlaomer  and  some  allied  kings  at  Ashte- 
roth  Karnaim  (Gen.  xiv.  5).  Extirpated,  how- 
ever, from  the  east  of  Palestine,  they  long 
found  a  home  in  the  west  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18,  sq. ; 
I  Chr.  XX.  4).  It  is  probable  that  they  had  pos- 
sessed districts  west  of  the  Jordan  in  early 
times,  since  the  "Valley  of  Rephaim"  (2  Sam. 
V.  18;  I  Chr.  xi.  15;  Is.  xvii.  5),  a  rich  valley 
S.  W.  of  Jerusalem,  derived  its  name  from 
them.  They  were  probably  an  aboriginal 
people  of  which  the  Emim,  Anakim,  and 
Zuzim  were  branches. 

Gib'eon,  one  of  the  four  cities  of  the  Hivites, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  made  a  league  with 
Joshua  (ix.  3-15),  and  thus  escaped  the  fate 
of  Jericho  and  Ai  (comp.  xi.  19).  Gibeon  lay 
within  the  territory  of  Benjamin  (xviii.  25), 
and  with  its  "suburbs"  was  allotted  to  the 
priests  (xxi.  17),  of  whom  it  became  after- 
wards a  principal  station.  It  retains  its  ancient 
name  almost  intact,  El-Jib.  Its  distance  from 
Jerusalem  by  the  main  road  is  as  nearly  as 
possible  63/2  miles;  but  there  is  a  more  direct 
road  reducing  it  to  5  miles. 

Gib'eonites,  The,  the  people  of  Gibeon,  and 
perhaps  also  of  the  three  cities  associated  with 
Gibeon  (Josh.  ix.  17) — Hivites ;  and  who,  on 
the  discovery  of  the  stratagem  by  which  they 
had  obtained  the  protection  of  the  Israelites, 
were  condemned  to  be  perpetual  bondmen, 
hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water  for  the 
congregation,  and  for  the  house  of  God  and 
altar  of  Jehovah  (Josh.  ix.  23,  27).  Saul  ap- 
pears to  have  broken  this  covenant,  and  in  a 
fit  of  enthusiasm  or  patriotism  to  have  killed 
some,  and  devised  a  general  massacre  of  the 
rest  (2  Sam.  xxi.  i,  2,  5).  This  was  expiated 
many  years  after  by  giving  up  seven  men  of 
Saul's  descendants  to  the  Gibeonites,  who 
hung  them  or  crucified  them  "before  Jehovah" 
— as  a  kind  of  sacrifice — in  Gibeah,  Saul's  own 
town  (4,  6,  9). 

Gid'eon  (he  that  cuts  down),  a  Manassite, 
youngest  son  of  Joash  of  the  Abiezrites,  an 
undistinguished  family  who  lived  at  Ophrah,  a 
town  probably  on  the  west  of  Jordan  (Judg. 
vi.  15).  He  was  the  fifth  recorded  Judge  of 
Israel,  and  for  many  reasons  the  greatest  of 
them  all.    When  we  first  hear  of  him  he  was 


140 


JACOn  WRESTLING  WITH  THE  ANGEL.    EDUARD  VON  GEBHARDT.     AFTER  THE 

OEIGINAL  PAINTING. 


THE  n^'^ARY 
OF  THE 


GILEAD 


GILGAL 


grown  up  and  had  sons  (Judg.  vi.  ii,  viii.  20), 
and  from  the  apostrophe  of  the  angel  (vi.  12) 
we  may  conchide  that  he  had  already  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  w^ar  against  the  roving 
bands  of  nomadic  robbers  who  had  oppressed 
Israel  for  seven  years,  and  whose  countless 
multitudes  (compared  to  locusts  from  their  ter- 
rible devastations,  vi.  5)  annually  destroyed 
all  the  produce  of  Canaan,  except  such  as 
could  be  concealed  in  mountain-fastnesses  (vi. 
2).  It  was  probably  during  this  disastrous 
period  that  the  emigration  of  Elimelech  took 
place  (Ruth  i.  i,  2).  When  the  angel  appeared, 
Gideon  was  threshing  wheat  with  a  flail  in  the 
winepress,  to  conceal  it  from  the  predatory 
tyrants.  His  call  to  be  a  deliverer,  and  his  de- 
struction of  Baal's  altar,  are  related  in  Judg. 
vi.  After  this  begins  the  second  act  of 
Gideon's  life.  Clothed  by  the  Spirit  of  God 
(Judg.  vi.  34;  comp.  i  Chr.  xii.  18;  Luke  xxiv. 
49),  he  blew  a  trumpet,  and  was  joined  by 
Zebulun,  Xaphtali,  and  even  the  reluctant 
Asher.  Streifgthened  by  a  double  sign  from 
God,  he  reduced  his  army  of  32,000  by  the 
usual  proclamation  (Deut.  xx.  8;  comp.  i 
j\Iacc.  iii.  56).  By  a  second  test  at  "the  spring 
of  trembling"  he  again  reduced  the  number  of 
his  followers  to  300  (Judg.  vii.  5,  sq.).  The 
midnight  attack  upon  the  Midianites,  their 
panic,  and  the  rout  and  slaughter  that  fol- 
lowed, are  told  in  Judg.  vii.  The  memory  of 
this  splendid  deliverance  took  deep  root  in  the 
national  traditions  (i  Sam.  xii.  11 ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii. 
11;  Is.  ix.  4,  x.  26;  Heb.  xi.  32).  After  this 
there  was  a  peace  of  40  years,  and  we  see 
Gideon  in  peaceful  possession  of  his  well- 
earned  honors,  and  surrounded  by  the  dignity 
of  a  numerous  household  (viii.  29-31).  It  is 
not  improbable  that,  like  Saul,  he  had  owed  a 
part  of  his  popularity  to  his  princely  appear- 
ance (Judg.  viii.  18).  In  this  third  stage  of  his 
life  occur  alike  his  most  noble  and  his  most 
questionable  acts,  viz.,  the  refusal  of  the 
monarchy  on  theocratic  grounds,  and  the 
irregular  consecration  of  a  jewelled  ephod 
formed  out  of  the  rich  spoils  of  IMidian  which 
proved  to  the  Israelites  a  temptation  to 
idolatry,  although  it  was  doubtless  intended 
for  use  in  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 

Gil'ead.  i.  A  mountainous  region  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  Jordan,  on  the  north  by 
Bashan,  on  the  cast  by  the  Arabian  plateau, 
and  on  the  south  by  Aloab  and  Ammon  (Gen. 
xxxi.  21  ;  Deut.  iii.  12-17).  It  is  sometimes 
called  "Mount  Gilead"  (Gen.  xxxi.  25),  some- 
times "the  land  of  Gilead"  (Num.  xxxii.  i)'; 
and  sometimes  simply  "Gilead"  (Ps.  Ix.  7; 
Gen.  xxxvii.  25)  ;  but  a  comparison  of  the  sev- 
eral passages  shows  that  they  all  mean  the 


same  thing.  The  name  Gilead,  as  is  usual  in 
Palestine,  describes  the  physical  aspect  of  the 
country.  It  signifies  "a  hard  rocky  region." 
The  statements  in  Gen.  xxxi.  48,  are  not  op- 
posed to  this  etymology.  The  old  name  of  the 
district  was  Gilead,  but  by  a  slight  change  in 
the  pronunciation,  the  radical  letters  being  re- 


Gilead. 

tained,  the  meaning  was  made  beautifully  ap- 
plicable to  the  "heap  of  stones"  Jacob  and 
Laban  had  built  up — "the  heap  of  witness." 
Those  acquainted  with  the  modern  Arabs  and 
their  literature  will  see  how  intensely  such  a 
play  upon  the  word  would  be  appreciated  by 
them.  The  mountains  of  Gilead  have  a  real 
elevation  of  from  two  to  three  thousand  feet ; 
but  their  apparent  elevation  on  the  western 
side  is  much  greater,  owing  to  the  depression 
of  the  Jordan  valley,  which  averages  about 
1000  feet.    Their  outline  is  singularly  uniform, 


Mountains  of  Gilboa. 

resembling  a  massive  wall  running  along  the 
horizon.  The  name  Galaad  occurs  several 
times  in  the  history  of  the  Maccabees  (i 
Mace.  V.  9,  sq.).  2.  Possibly  the  name  of  a 
mountain  west  of  the  Jordan,  near  Jezreel 
(Judg.  vii.  3). 
Gil'gal.    The  site  of  the  first  camp  of  the 


141 


GIRDLE 


GOD 


Israelites  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan,  the  place 
at  which  they  passed  the  first  night  after 
crossing  the  river,  and  where  the  twelve 
stones  were  set  up  vvhich  had  been  taken  from 
the  bed  of  the  stream  (Josh.  iv.  19,  20,  comp. 
3)  ;  where  also  they  kept  their  first  passover 
in  the  land  of  Canaan  (v.  10).  It  was  in  the 
"end  of  the  east  of  Jericho"  (A.  V.  "in  the 
east  border  of  Jericho")  apparently  on  a 
hillock  or  rising  ground  (v.  3,  comp.  9),  in  the 
Arboth-Jericho  (A.  V.  "the  plains"),  that  is, 
the  hot  depressed  district  of  the  Ghor  which 
lay  between  the  town  and  the  Jordan  (v.  10). 

Girdle,  an  essential  article  of  dress  in  the 
East,  and  worn  both  by  men  and  women.  The 
common  girdle  was  made  of  leather  (2  K.  i. 
8;  Matt.  iii.  4),  like  that  worn  by  the  Bedouins 
of  the  present  day.  A  finer  girdle  was  made 
of  linen  (Jer.  xiii.  i  ;  Ez.  xvi.  10),  embroidered 
with  silk,  and  sometimes  with  gold  and  silver 
thread  (Dan.  x.  5;  Rev.  i.  13,  xv.  6),  and  fre- 
quently studded  with  gold  and  precious  stones 
or  pearls.  The  girdle  of  women  was  generally 
looser  than  that  of  the  men,  and  was  worn 
about  the  hips,  except  when  they  were  actively 
engaged  (Prov.  xxxi.  17).  The  military  girdle 
was  worn  about  the  waist ;  the  sword  or  dag- 
ger was  suspended  from  it  (Judg.  iii.  16;  2 
Sam.  XX.  8;  Ps.  xlv.  3).  Hence  girding  up  the 
loins  denotes  preparation  for  battle  or  for 
active  exertion.  They  were  used  as  pockets, 
as  among  the  Arabs  still,  and  as  purses,  one 
end  of  the  girdle  being  folded  back  for  the 
purpose  (Matt.  x.  9;  Mark  vi.  8). 

Glass.  The  Heb.  word  occurs  only  in  Job 
xxviii.  17,  where  in  A.  V.  it  is  rendered  "crys- 
tal." In  spite  of  the  absence  of  specific  allu- 
sion to  glass  in  the  sacred  writings,  the 
Hebrews  must  have  been  aware  of  the  inven- 
tion. From  paintings  representing  the  process 
of  glass-blowing  which  have  been  discovered 
at  Beni-hassan,  and  in  tombs  at  other  places, 
we  know  that  the  invention  is  at  least  as  re- 
mote as  the  age  of  Osirtasen  the  first  (perhaps 
a  contemporary  of  Joseph),  3500  years  ago. 
Fragments  too  of  wine-vases  as  old  as  the 
Exodus  have  been  discovered  in  Egypt.  The 
art  was  also  known  to  the  ancient  Assyrians. 
In  the  N.  T.  glass  is  alluded  to  as  an  emblem 
of  brightness  (Rev.  iv.  6,  xv.  2,  xxi.  18). 

Gleaning.  The  gleaning  of  fruit  trees,  as 
well  as  of  corn  fields,  was  reserved  for  the 
poor.  [Corner.] 

Goad  (Judg.  iii.  31;  i  Sam.  xiii.  21).  But 
the  Hebrew  word  in  the  latter  passage  proba- 
bly means  the  point  of  the  plough-share.  The 
former  word  does  probabJy  refer  to  the  goad, 
the  long  handle  of  which  might  be  used  as  a 
formidable  weapon.    The  instrument,  as  still 


used  in  the  countries  of  Southern  Europe  and 
Western  Asia,  consists  of  a  rod  about  eight 
feet  long,  brought  to  a  sharp  point  and  some- 
times cased  with  iron  at  the  head. 

Goat.  There  appear  to  be  two  or  three 
varieties  of  the  common  goat  at  present  bred 
in  Palestine  and  Syria,  but  whether  they  are 
identical  with  those  which  were  reared  by  the 
ancient  Hebrews  it  is  not  possible  to  say.  The 
most  marked  varieties  are  the  Syrian  goat,  and 
the  Angora  goat,  with  fine  long  hair.  As  to 
the  "wild  goats"  (i  Sam.  xxiv.  2;  Job  xxxix. 
I,  and  Ps.  civ.  18)  it  is  not  at  all  improbable 
that  some  species  of  ibex  is  denoted. 
Goat,  Scape.  [Atonement,  Day  of.] 
God.  Throughout  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
two  chief  names  are  used  for  the  one  true 
divine  Being — Elohim,  commonly  translated 
God  in  our  version,  and  Jehovah,  translated 


Syrian  Goat. 


Lord.  Elohim'  is  the  plural  of  Eloah  (in 
Arabic  Allah),  a  form  which  occurs  only  in 
poetry  and  a  few  passages  of  later  Hebrew 
(Neh.  ix.  17;  2  Chr.  xxxii.  15).  It  is  also 
formed  with  the  pronominal  suffixes,  as  Eloi. 
my  God,  with  the  dependent  genitive,  and 
with  an  epithet,  in  which  case  it  is  often  used 
in  the  short  form  El  (a  word  signifying 
strength),  as  in  El-Shaddai,  God  Almighty, 
the  name  by  which  God  was  specially  known 
to  the  patriarchs  (Gen.  xvii.  i,  xxviii.  3;  Ex. 
vi.  3).  The  etymology  is  uncertain,  but  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  the  primary  idea  is  that 
of  strength,  power  to  efifect ;  and  that  it  prop- 
erly describes  God  in  that  character  in  which 
He  is  exhibited  to  all  men  in  His  works,  as 
the  creator,  sustained,  and  supreme  governor 
of  the  world.  Hence  it  is  used  to  denote  any 
being  believed  in  and  worshipped  as  God ;  but 
in  the  sense  of  a  heathen  deity,  or  a  divine 


142 


OF  THE 


GOD 


GOD 


being  spoken  of  indefinitely,  the  singular  is 
most  often  used,  and  the  plural  is  employed, 
with  the  strict  idea  of  number,  for  the  col- 
lective objects  of  polytheistic  worship,  the 
gods,  the  gods  of  the  heathen.  It  is  also  used 
for  any  being  that  strikes  an  observer  as  god- 
like (i  Sam.  xxviii.  13),  and  for  kings,  judges, 
and  others  endowed  with  authority  from  God 
(Ps.  Ixxxii.  I,  6,  viii.  6,  xcvii.  7,  &c. ;  Ex. 
xxi.  6,  xxii.  7,  8).  The  short  form  El  is  used 
for  a  hero,  or  mighty  man,  as  Nebuchadnezzar 
(Ezek.  xxxi.  11),  a  sense  derived  at  once  from 
the  meaning  of  strength.  The  plural  form  of 
Elohim  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion.  The 
fanciful  idea,  that  it  referred  to  the  Trinity  of 
Persons  in  the  Godhead,  hardly  finds  now  a 
supporter  among  scholars.  It  is  either  what 
grammarians  call  the  plural  of  majesty,  or  it 
denotes  the  fulness  of  divine  strength,  the 
sum  of  the  powers  displayed  by  God.  Jehovah 
denotes  specifically  the  one  true  God,  whose 
people  the  Jews  were,  and  who  made  them  the 
guardians  of  His  truth.  The  name  is  never 
applied  to  a  false  god,  nor  to  any  other  being, 
except  One,  the  Angel-Jehovah,  who  is  there- 
by marked  as  one  with  God,  and  who  appears 
again  in  the  New  Covenant  as  "God  mani- 
fested in  the  flesh."  Thus  much  is  clear;  but 
all  else  is  beset  with  difficulties.  At  a  time 
too  early  to  be  traced,  the  Jews  abstained  from 
pronouncing  the  name,  for  fear  of  its  irrever- 
ent use.  The  custom  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  on  a  strained  interpretation  of  Lev. 
xxiv.  16;  and  the  phrase  there  used,  "The 
Name"  (Shema),  is  substituted  by  the  Rabbis 
for  the  unutterable  word.  They  also  call  it 
"the  name  of  four  letters,"  "the  great  and  ter- 
rible name,"  "the  peculiar  name,"  "the  sepa- 
rate -name."  In  reading  the  Scriptures,  they 
substituted  for  it  the  word  Adonai  (Lord). 
Our  translators  have,  however,  used  Jehovah 
in  four  passages  (Ex.  vi.  3;  Psalm  Ixxxiii.  18; 
Is.  xii.  2,  xxvi.  4),  and  in  the  compounds, 
Jehovah-Jireh,  Jehovah-Nissi,  and  Jehovah- 
Shalom  (Jehovah  shall  see,  Jehovah  is  my 
Banner,  Jehovah  is  Peace,  Gen.  xxii.  14 ;  Ex. 
xvii.  15;  Judges  vi.  24);  while  the  similar 
phrases  Jehovah-Tsidkenu  and  Jehovah-Sham- 
mah  are  translated,  "the  Lord  our  righteous- 
ness," and  "the  Lord  is  there"  (Jer.  xxiii.  6, 
xxxiii.  16;  Ezek.  xlviii.  35).  In  one  passage 
the  abbreviated  form  Jah  is  retained  (Psalm 
Ixviii.  4).  The  substitution  of  the  word  Lord 
is  most  unhappy ;  for,  while  it  in  no  way  repre- 
sents the  meaning  of  the  sacred  name,  the 
mind  has  constantly  to  guard  against  a  con- 
fusion with  its  lower  uses,  and  above  all,  the 
direct  personal  bearing  of  the  name  on  the 
revelation  of  God  through  the  whole  course  of 


Jewish  history  is  kept  injuriously  out  of  sight. 
The  key  to  the  meaning  of  the  name  is  un- 
questionably given  in  God's  revelation  of 
Himself  to  Moses  by  the  phrase  "I  am  that  I 
am,"  in  connection  with  the  statement,  that 
He  was  now  first  revealed  by  his  name  Jeho- 
vah (Ex.  iii.  14,  vi.  3).  Without  entering  here 
upon  questions  of  Hebrew  philology,  we  must 
be  content  to  take  as  established  the  etymo- 
logical connection  of  the  name  Jehovah  with 
the  Hebrew  substantive  verb,  with  the  in- 
ference that  it  expresses  the  essential,  eternal, 
unchangeable  Being  of  Jehovah.  But  more, 
it  is  not  the  expression  only,  or  chiefly,  of  an 
absolute  truth  :  it  is  a  practical  revelation  of 
God,  in  His  essential,  unchangeable  relation 
to  His  chosen  people,  the  basis  of  His  Cove- 
nant. This  is  both  implied  on  the  occasion  on 
which  it  is  revealed  to  Moses,  and  in  the 
fifteenth  verse  of  Ex.^,  iii.  And  here  we  find 
the  solution  of  a  difficulty  raised  by  Ex.  vi.  3, 
as  if  it  meant  that  the  name  Jehovah  had  not 
been  known  to  the  patriarchs.  There  is 
abundant  evidence  to  the  contrary.  As  early 
as  the  time  of  Seth,  "men  began  to  call  on  the 
name  of  Jehovah"  (Gen.  iv.  25).  The  name  is 
used  by  the  patriarchs  themselves  (Gen.  xviii. 
14;  xxiv.  40;  xxvi.  28;  xxviii.  21).  It  is  the 
basis  of  titles,  like  Jehovah-Jireh,  and  of 
proper  names,  like  Moriah  and  Jochebed.  In- 
deed, the  same  reasoning  would  prove  that  the 
patriarchs  did  not  know  God  as  Elohim,  but 
exclusively  as  El-Shaddai.  But,  in  fact,  the 
word  name  is  used  here,  as  elsewhere,  for  the 
attributes  of  God.  He  was  about,  for  the 
first  time,  fully  to  reveal  that  aspect  of  His 
character  which  the  name  implied.  [Jehovah.] 
Gold,  the  most  valuable  of  metals,  from  its 
color,  lustre,  weight,  ductility,  and  other  use- 
ful properties.  Hence  i.t  is  used  as  an  emblem 
of  purity  (Job  xxiii.  10)  and  nobility  (Lam.  iv. 
i).  Gold  was  known  from  the  very  earliest 
times  (Gen.  ii.  11).  It  was  at  first  chiefly 
used  for  ornaments,  &c.  (Gen.  xxiv.  22). 
Coined  money  was  not  known  to  the  ancients 
till  a  comparatively  late  period  and  on  the 
Egyptian  tombs  gold  is  represented  as  being 
weighed  in  rings  for  commercial  purposes. 
(Comp.  Gen.  xliii.  21).  Gold  was  extremely 
abundant  in  ancient  times  (i  Chr.  xxii.  14;  2 
Chr.  i.  15,  ix.  9;  Nah.  ii.  9;  Dan.  iii.  i)  ;  but 
this  did  not  depreciate  its  value,  because  of 
the  enormous  quantities  consumed  by  the 
wealthy  in  furniture,  &c.  (l  K.  vi.  22,  x. 
passim;  Cant.  iii.  9,  10;  Esth.  i.  6;  Jer.  x.  9). 
The  chief  countries  mentioned  as  producing 
gold  are  Arabia,  Sheba,  and  Ophir  (i  K.  ix. 
28,  x.  i;  Job  xxviii.  16).  Other  gold-bearing 
countries  were  Uphaz  (Jer.  x.  9;  Dan.  x.  5) 


143 


GOLGOTHA 


GOSPELS 


and  Parvahn  (2  Chr.  iii.  6).  Metallurgic 
processes  are  mentioned  in  Ps.  Ixvi.  10;  Prov. 
xvii.  3,  xxvii.  21 ;  and  in  Is.  xlvi.  6,  the  trade 
of  goldsmith  (cf.  Judg.  xvii.  4)  is  alluded  to  in 
connection  with  the  overlaying  of  idols  with 
gold-lcaf. 

Gorgotha,  the  Hebrew  name  of  the  spot  at 
which  our  Lord  was  crucified  (Matt,  xxvii. 
33;  Mark  xv.  22;  John  xix.  17).  By  these  three 
Evangelists  it  is  interpreted  to  mean  the 
"place  of  a  skull."  St.  Luke's  words  are  really 
as  follows — "the  place  which  is  called  'a 
skull'  " — not,  as  in  the  other  Gospels,  "of  a 
skull,"  thus  employing  the  Greek  term  exactly 
as  they  do  the  Hebrew  one.  Two  explanations 
of  the  name  are  given:  (i)  that  it  was  a  spot 
where  executions  ordinarily  took  place,  and 
therefore  abounded  in  skulls.  Or  (2)  it  may 
come  from  the  look  or  form  of  the  spot  itself, 
bald,  round,  and  skull-like,  and  therefore  a 
mound  or  hillock,  in  accordance  with  the  com- 
mon phrase — for  which  there  is  no  direct 
authority — "Mount  Calvary."  Whichever  of 
these  is  the  correct  explanation,  Golgotha 
seems  to  have  been  a  known  spot. 

Goli'ath,  a  famous  giant  of  Gath,  who 
"morning  and  evening  for  forty  days"  defied 
the  armies  of  Israel  (i  Sam.  xvii.).  His  height 
was  "six  cubits  and  a  span,"  which,  taking  the 
cubit  at  21  inches,  would  make  him  10^  feet 
high.  The  scene  of  his  combat  with  David 
was  the  Valley  of  the  Terebinth,  between 
Shochoh  and  Arekah,  probably  among  the 
western  passes  of  Benjamin,  although  a  con- 
fused modern  tradition  has  given  the  name  of 
Ain  Jahlood  (spring  of  Goliath)  to  the  spring 
of  Harod  (Judg.  vii.  i).  In  2  Sani.  xxi.  19,  we 
find  that  another  Goliath  of  Gath  was  slain  by 
Elhanan,  also  a  Bethlehemite. 

Gomor'rah,  in  the  N.  T.  written  Gomor'rha, 
one  of  the  five  "cities  of  the  plain,"  or  "vale 
of  Siddim,"  that  under  their  respective  kings 
joined  battle  there  with  Chedorlaomer  (Gen. 
xiv.  2-8)  and  his  allies,  by  whom  they  were 
discomfited  till  Abraham  came  to  the  rescue. 
Four  out  of  the  five  were  afterwards  destroyed 
by  the  Lord  with  fire  from  heaven  (Gen.  xix. 
23-29).  One  of  them  only,  Zoar  or  Bela,  which 
was  its  original  name,  was  spared  at  the  re- 
quest of  Lot,  in  order  that  he  might  take 
refuge  there.  Of  these  Gomorrah  seems  to 
have  been  only  second  to  Sodom  in  import- 
ance, as  well  as  in  the  wickedness  that  led  to 
their  overthrow.  What  that  atrocity  was  may 
be  gathered  from  Gen.  xix.  4-8.  Their  geo- 
graphical position  is  discussed  under  Sodom. 

Gopher  Wood.  Only  once  in  Gen.  vi.  14. 
Two  principal  conjectures  have  been  pro- 
posed:— I.  That  the  "trees  of  Gopher"  are  any 


trees  of  the  resinous  kind,  such  as  pine,  fir, 
&c.    2.  That  Gopher  is  cypress. 

Go'shen,  the  name  of  a  part  of  Egypt  where 
the  Israelites  dwelt  for  the  whole  period  of 
their  sojourn  in  that  country.  The  results  of 
an  examination  of  Biblical  evidence  are  that 
the  land  of  Goshen  lay  between  the  eastern 
part  of  the  ancient  Delta  and  the  western 
border  of  Palestine,  that  it  was  scarcely  a  part 
of  Egypt  Proper,  was  inhabited  by  other  for- 
eigners besides  the  Israelites;  that  it  was  a 
pasture  land,  especially  suited  to  a  shepherd- 
people,  and  sufficient  for  the  Israelites,  who 
there  prospered,  and  were  separate  from  the 
main  body  of  the  Egyptians. 

Gospels.  The  name  Gospel  (from  god  and 
spell,  Angl.  Sax.  good  message  or  news)  is  ap- 
plied to  the  four  inspired  histories  of  the  life 
and  teaching  of  Christ  contained  in  the  New 
Testament,  of  which  separate  accounts  are 
given  in  their  place.  They  were  all  composed 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  first  century: 
those  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark  some  years 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem ;  that  of 
St.  Luke  probably  about  A.  D.  64;  and  that  of 
St.  John  towards  the  close  of  tlie  century.  Be- 
fore the  end  of  the  second  century,  there  is 
abundant  evidence  that  the  four  Gospels,  as 
one  collection,  were  generally  used  and  ac- 
cepted. As  a  matter  of  literary  history,  noth- 
ing can  be  better  established  than  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  Gospels.  On  comparing  these  four 
books  one  with  another,  a  peculiar  difficulty 
claims  attention,  which  has  had  much  to  do 
with  the  controversy  as  to  their  genuineness. 
In  the  fourth  Gospel  the  narrative  coincides 
with  that  of  the  other  three  in  a  few  passages 
only.  Putting  aside  the  account  of  the  Pas- 
sion, there  are  only  three  facts  which  John 
relates  in  common  with  the  other  Evangelists. 
Two  of  these  are,  the  feeding  of  the  five  thou- 
sand, and  the  storm  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (ch. 
vi.).  The  third  is  the  anointing  of  His  feet  by 
Mary.  Whilst  the  others  present  the  life  of 
Jesus  in  Galilee,  John  follows  him  into  Judaea ; 
nor  should  we  know,  but  for  him,  that  our 
Lord  had  journeyed  to  Jerusalem  at  the  pre- 
scribed feasts.  The  received  explanation  is 
the  only  satisfactory  one,  namely,  that  John, 
writing  last,  at  the  close  of  the  first  century, 
had  seen  the  other  Gospels,  and  purposely 
abstained  from  writing  anew  what  they  had 
sufficiently  recorded. — In  the  other  three  Gos- 
pels there  is  a  great  amount  of  agreement.  If 
we  suppose  the  history  that  they  contain  to 
be  divided  into  sections,  in  42  of  these  all  the 
three  narratives  coincide,  12  more  are  given  by 
Matthew  and  Mark  only,  5  by  Mark  and  Luke 
only,  and  14  by  Matthew  and  Luke.   To  these 


144 


GOSPELS 


GOVERNOR 


must  be  added  5  peculiar  to  Matthew,  2  to 
Mark,  and  9  to  Luke;  and  the  enumeration  is 
complete.  But  this  applies  only  to  general 
coincidence  as  to  the  facts  narrated:  the 
amount .  of  verbal  coincidence,  that  is,  the 
passages  either  verbally  the  same,  or  coin- 
ciding in  the  use  of  many  of  the  same  words, 
is  much  smaller.  Various  theories  have  been 
proposed  to  account  for  this  phenomenon,  (i.) 
The  first  and  most  obvious  suggestion  would 
be,  that  the  narrators  made  use  of  each  other's 
work.  Accordingly  many  have  endeavored  to 
ascertain  which  Gospel  is  to  be  regarded  as 
the  first ;  which  is  copied  from  the  first ;  and 
which  is  the  last,  and  copied  from  the  other 
two.  But  the  theory  in  its  crude  form  is  in 
itself  most  improbable ;  and  the  wonder  is  that 
so  much  time  and  learning  have  been  devoted 
to  it.  It  assumes  that  an  Evangelist  has  taken 
up  the  work  of  his  predecessor,  and,  without 
substantial  alteration,  has  made  a  few  changes 
in  form,  a  few  additions  and  retrenchments, 
and  then  has  allowed  the  whole  to  go  forth 
under  his  name.  (2.)  The  supposition  of  a 
common  original  from  which  the  three  Gos- 
pels were  drawn,  each  with  more  or  less  modi- 
fication, would  naturally  occur  to  those  who 
rejected  the  notion  that  the  Evangelists  had 
copied  from  each  other.  But  if  all  the  Evangel- 
ists had  agreed  to  draw  from  a  common 
original,  it  must  have  been  widely  if  not  uni- 
versally accepted  in  the  Church ;  and  yet  there 
is  no  record  of  its  existence.  If  the  work  was 
of  high  authority,  it  would  have  been  pre- 
served, or  at  least  mentioned;  if  of  lower 
authority,  it  could  not  have  become  the  basis 
of  three  canonical  Gospels.  (3.)  There  is 
another  supposition  to  account  for  these  facts. 
It  is  probable  that  none  of  the  Gospels  was 
written  until  many  years  after  the  day  of 
Pentecost  on  which  the  Holy  Spirit  descended 
on  the  assembled  disciples.  From  that  day 
commenced  at  Jerusalem  the  work  of  preach- 
ing the  Gospel  and  converting  the  world.  Now 
their  preaching  must  have  been,  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  in  great  part  historical ;  it 
must  have  been  based  upon  an  account  of  the 
life  and  acts  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  Nor  is  there 
anything  unnatural  in  the  supposition  that  the 
Apostles  intentionally  uttered  their  witness  in 
the  same  order,  and  even,  for  the  most  part, 
in  the  same  form  of  words.  It  is  supposed, 
then,  that  the  portions  of  the  three  Gospels 
which  harmonize  most  exactly  owe  their 
agreement  to  the  fact  that  the  apostolic 
preaching  had  already  clothed  itself  in  a  set- 
tled or  usual  form  of  words,  to  which  the 
writers  inclined  to  conform  without  feeling 
bound  to  do  so ;  and  the  differences  which 


occur,  often  in  the  closest  proximity  to  the 
harmonies,  arise  from  the  feeling  of  inde- 
pendence with  which  each  wrote  what  he  had 
seen  and  heard,  or,  in  the  case  of  Mark  and 
Luke,  what  apostolic  witnesses  had  told  him. 

Gourd.  The -plant  which  afforded  shade  to 
the  prophet  Jonah  before  Nineveh,  is  the 
castor-oil  plant,  which,  formerly  a  native  of 
Asia,  is  now  naturalized  in  America,  Africa, 
and  the  south  of  Europe.  This  plant  varies 
considerably  in  size,  being  in  India  a  tree,  but 
in  England  seldom  attaining  a  greater  height 
than  three  or  four  feet.  The  leaves  are  large 
and  palmate,  with  serrated  lobes,  and  would 
form  an  excellent  shelter  for  the  sun-stricken 
prophet.  The  seeds  contain  the  oil  so  well 
known  under  the  name  of  "castor-oil,"  which 
has  for  ages  been  in  high  repute  as  a  medicine. 
2.  With  regard  to  the  "wild  gourds"  of  2  K. 
iv.  39,  which  one  of  "the  sons  of  the  prophets" 


Wild  Gourd. 

gathered  ignorantly,  supposing  them  to  be 
good  for  food,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is 
a  species  of  the  gourd  tribe,  which  contains 
some  plants  of  a  very  bitter  and  dangerous 
character.  As  several  kinds,  such  as  melons, 
pumpkins,  &c.,  are  favorite  articles  of  refresh- 
ing food  amongst  the  Orientals,  we  can  easily 
understand  the  cause  of  the  mistake. 

Governor.  In  the  Auth.  Ver.  this  one 
English  word  is  the  representative  of  no  less 
than  ten  Hebrew  and  four  Greek  words,  i. 
The  chief  of  a  tribe  or  family.  2.  A  ruler  in 
his  capacity  of  lawgiver  and  dispenser  of  jus- 
tice. 3.  A  ruler  considered  especially  as  hav- 
ing power  over  the  property  and  persons  of 
his  subjects  (Josh.  xii.  2;  Ps.  cv.  20;  Gen. 
xxiv.  2).  The  "governors  of  the  people,"  in 
2  Chr.  xxiii.  20,  appear  to  have  been  the  king's 
body-guard  (cf.  2  K.  xi.  19).  4.  A  prominent 
personage,  whatever  his  capacity.    It  is  ap- 


14.S 


GRAPE 


GROVE 


plied  to  a  king  as  the  military  and  civil  chief 
of  his  people  (2  Sam.  v.  2,  vi.  21 ;  i  Chr.  xxix. 
22),  to  the  general  of  an  army  (2  Chr.  xxxii. 
21),  and  to  the  head  of  a  tribe  (2  Chr.  xix.  11). 
It  denotes  an  ofificer  of  high  rank  in  the  palace, 
the  lord  high  chamberlain  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  7). 
It  is  applied  in  i  K.  x.  15  to  the  petty  chieftains 
who  were  tributary  to  Solomon  (2  Chr.  ix. 
14)  ;  to  the  military  commander  of  the  Syrians 
(i  K.  XX.  24),  the  Assyrians  (2  K.  xviii.  24, 
xxiii.  6),  the  Chaldeans  (Jer.  li.  23),  and  the 
Medes  (Jer.  li.  38).  Under  the  Persian  vice- 
roys, during  the  Babylonian  captivity,  the 
land  of  the  Hebrews  appears  to  have  been 
portioned  out  among  "governors"  inferior  in 
rank  to  the  satraps  (Ezr.  viii.  36),  like  the 
other  provinces  which  were  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  Persian  king  (Neh.  ii.  7,  9).  It 
is  impossible  to  determine  the  precise  limits 
of  their  authority,  or  the  functions  which  they 
had  to  perform.  It  appears  from  Ezr.  vi.  8 
that  these  governors  were  intrusted  with  the 
collection  of  the  king's  taxes ;  and  from  Neh. 
v.  18,  xii.  26,  that  they  were  supported  by  a 
contribution  levied  upon  the  people,  which 
was  technically  termed  "the  bread  of  the  gov- 
ernor" (comp.  Ezr.  iv.  14).  They  were  proba- 
bly assisted  in  discharging  their  official  duties 
by  a  council  (Ezr.  iv.  7,  vi.  6).  The  "governor" 
beyond  the  river  had  a  judgment-seat  at  Jeru- 
salem, from  which  probably  he  administered 
justice  when  making  a  progress  through  his 
province  (Neh.  iii.  7). 
Grape.  [Vine.] 

Grass.  This  is  the  ordinary  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  word  (i  K.  xviii.  5  ;  Job  xl.  5 ;  Ps.  civ. 
14;  Is.  XV.  6).  As  the  herbage  rapidly  fades 
under  the  parching  heat  of  the  sun  of  Pales- 
tine, it  has  afforded  to  the  sacred  writers  an 
image  of  the  fleeting  nature  of  human  fortunes 
(Job  viii.  12;  Ps.  xxxvii.  2),  and  also  of  the 
brevity  of  human  life  (Is.  xl.  6,  7;  Ps.  xc.  5). 

Grasshopper.  [Locust.] 

Grave.  [Burial.] 

Greece,  Greeks,  Grecians.  The  histories  of 
Greece  and  Palestine  are  little  connected  with 
each  other.  In  Gen.  x.  2-5  Moses  mentions  the 
descendants  of  Javan  as  peopling  the  isles  of 
the  Gentiles ;  and  when  the  Hebrews  came 
into  contact  with  the  lonians  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  recognized  them  as  the  long-lost  islanders 
of  the  western  migration,  it  was  natural  that 
they  should  mark  the  similarity  of  sound  be- 
tween Javan  and  lones.  Accordingly  the  O. 
T.  word  which  is  Grecia,  in  A.  V.  Greece, 
Greeks,  &c.,  is  in  Hebrew  Javan  (Joel  iii.  6; 
Dan.  viii.  21)  :  the  Hebrew,  however,  is  some- 
times retained  (Is.  Ixvi.  19;  Ez.  xxvii.  13).  The 
Greeks  and  Hebrews  met  for  the  first  time  in 


the  slave-market.  The  medium  of  communica- 
tion seems  to  have  been  the  Tyrian  slave-mer- 
chants. About  B.  C.  800  Joel  speaks  of  the 
Tyrians  as  selling  the  children  of  Judah  to  the 
Grecians  (Joel  iii.  6)  ;  and  in  Ez.  xxvii.  13  the 
Greeks  are  mentioned  as  bartering  their 
brazen  vessels  for  slaves.  Prophetical  notice 
of  Greece  occurs  in  Dan.  viii.  21,  &c.,  where 
the  history  of  Alexander  and  his  successors  is 
rapidly  sketched.  Zechariah  (ix.  13)  foretells 
the  triumphs  of  the  Maccabees  against  the 
Graeco-Syrian  empire,  while  Isaiah  looks  for- 
ward to  the  conversion  of  the  Greeks  amongst 
other  Gentiles,  through  the  instrumentality  of 
Jewish  missionaries  (Ixvi.  19).  In  i  Mace.  xii. 
5-23  we  have  an  account  of  an  embassy  and 
letter  sent  by  the  Lacedaemonians  to  the  Jews. 
The  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  transac- 
tion is  the  claim  which  the  Lacedaemonians 
prefer  to  kindred  with  the  Jews,  and  which 
Areus  professes  to  establish  by  reference  to  a 
book.  The  name  of  the  country,  Greece,  oc- 
curs once  in  N.  T.  (Acts  xx.  2),  as  opposed  to 
Macedonia.  [Gentiles.] 
Grinding.  [Mill.] 

Grove.  A  word  used  in  the  A.  V.,  with  two 
exceptions,  to  translate  the  mysterious 
Hebrew  term  Asherah,  which  is  not  a  grove, 
but  probably  an  idol  or  image  of  some  kind. 
It  is  also  probable  that  there  was  a  con- 
nection between  this  symbol  or  image, 
whatever  it  was,  and  the  sacred  symbolic  tree, 
the  representation  of  which  occurs  so  fre- 
quently on  Assyrian  sculptures.  2.  The  two 
exceptions  noticed  above  are  Gen.  xxi. 
33.,  and  I  Sam.  xxii.  6  (margin).  In  the 
religions  of  the  ancient  heathen  world 
groves  play  a  prominent  part.  In  the  old  times 
altars  only  were  erected  to  the  gods.  It  was 
thought  wrong  to  shut  up  the  gods  within 
walls,  and  hence  trees  were  the  first  temples; 
and  from  the  earliest  times  groves  are  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  religious  worship' 
(Gen.  xii.  6,  7,  xiii.  18;  Deut.  xi.  30;  A.  V. 
"plain").  The  groves  were  generally  found 
connected  with  temples,  and  often  had  the 
right  of  affording  an  asylum.  Some  have  sup- 
posed that  even  the  Jewish  Temple  had  an 
enclosure  planted  with  palm  and  cedar  (Ps. 
xcii.  12,  13)  and  olive  (Ps.  Iii.  8),  as  the 
mosque  which  stands  on  its  site  now  has. 
This  is  more  than  doubtful ;  but  we  know  that 
a  celebrated  oak  stood  by  the  -sanctuary  at 
Shechem  (Josh.  xxiv.  26;  Judg.  ix.  6).  There 
are  in  Scripture  many  memorable  trees :  e.  g. 
Allon-bachuth  (Gen.  xxxv.  8),  the  tamarisk 
in  Gibeah  (i  Sam.  xxii.  6),  the  terebinth  in 
Shechem  (J^'sh.  xxiv.  26)  under  which  the  law 
was  set  up,  the  palm-tree  of  Deborah  (Judg. 
46 


THE  \mm 

OF  THE 
ftm^ff-r^iTv  ftp  nim^H 


GUEST 


HAIR 


iv.  5),  the  terebinth  of  enchantments  (Judg. 
ix.  37),  the  terebinth  of  wanderers  (Judg.  iv. 
11),  and  others  (i  Sam.  xiv.  2,  x.  3,  sometimes 
"plain"  in  A.  V.).^  This  observation  of  par- 
ticular trees  was  among  the  heathen  extended 
to  a  regular  worship  of  them. 
Guest.  [Hospitality.] 
• 

H. 

Hab'akkuk,  the  eighth  in  order  of  the  minor 
prophets.  Of  the  facts  of  the  prophet's  life  we 
have  no  certain  information.  He  probably  de- 
livered his  prophecy  about  the  12th  or  13th 
year  of  Josiah  (B.  C.  630  or  629).  The  prophet 
commences  by  announcing  his  office  and  im- 
portant mission  (i.  i).  He  bewails  the  corrup- 
tion and  social  disorganization  by  which  he  is 
surrounded,  and  cries  to  Jehovah  for  help  (i. 
2-4).  Next  follows  the  reply  of  the  Deity, 
threatening  swift  vengeance  (i.  5-1 1).  The 
prophet,  transferring  himself  to  the  near 
future  foreshadowed  in  the  divine  threaten- 
ings,  sees  the  rapacity  and  boastful  impiety  of 
the  Chaldean  hosts,  but,  confident  that  God 
has  only  employed  them  as  the  instruments 
of  correction,  assumes  (ii.  l)  an  attitude  of 
hopeful  expectancy,  and  waits  to  see  the  issue. 
He  receives  the  divine  command  to  write  in 
an  enduring  form  the  vision  of  God's  retribu- 
tive justice,  as  revealed  to  his  prophetic  eye 
(ii.  2,  3).  The  doom  of  the  Chaldeans  is  first 
foretold  in  general  terms  (ii.  4-6),  and  the  an- 
nouncement is  followed  by  a  series  of  de- 
nunciations pronounced  upon  them  by  the 
nations  who  had  suffered  from  their  oppres- 
sion (ii.  6-20).  The  strophical  arrangement  of 
these  "woes"  is  a  remarkable  feature  of  the 
prophecy.  The  whole  concludes  with  the  mag- 
nificent Psalm  in  chap,  iii.,  a  composition  un- 
rivalled for  boldness  of  conception,  sublimity 
of  thought,  and  majesty  of  diction. 

Ha'gar  (flight),  an  Egyptian  woman,  the 
handmaid,  or  slave,  of  Sarah  (Gen.  xvi.  i), 
whom  the  latter  gave  as  a  concubine  to  Abra- 
ham, after  he  had  dwelt  ten  years  in  the  land 
of  Canaati  and  had  no  children  by  Sarah  (xvi. 
2  and  3).  That  she  was  a  bond-woman  is 
stated  both  in  the  O.  T.  and  in  the  N.  T.,  in 
the  latter  as  part  of  her  typical  character.  It 
is  recorded  that  "when  she  saw  that  she  had 
conceived,  her  mistress  was  despised  in  her 
eyes"  (4),  and  Sarah,  with  the  anger,  we  may 
suppose,  of  a  free  woman  rather  than  of  a  wife, 
reproached  Abraham  for  the  results  of  her 
own  act.  Hagar  fled,  turning  her  steps  to- 
wards her  native  land  through  the  great  wil- 
derness traversed  by  the  Egyptian  road.  By 
the  fountain  in  the  way'  to  Shur,  the  angel  of 


the  Lord  found  her,  charged  her  to  return  and 
submit  herself  under  the  hands  of  her  mis- 
tress, and  delivered  the  remarkable  prophecy 
respecting  her  unborn  child  recorded  in  ver. 
10-12.  On  her  return,  she  gave  birth  to 
Ishmael,  and  Abraham  was  then  eighty-six 
years  old.  Mention  is  not  again  made  of 
Hagar  in  the  history  of  Abraham  until  the 
feast  at  the  weaning  of  Isaac,  when  "Sarah 
saw  the  son  of  Hagar  the  Egyptian,  which 
she  had  borne  unto  Abraham,  mocking;"  and 
in  exact  sequence  with  the  first  flight  of 
Hagar,  we  now  read  of_  her  expulsion.  The 
verisimilitude,  oriental  exactness,  and  simple 
beauty  of  this  story  are  internal  evidences  at- 
testing its  truth,  apart  from  all  other  evidence. 
The  name  of  Hagar  occurs  elsewhere  only 
when  she  takes  a  wife  to  Ishmael  (xxi.  21)  ; 
and  in  the  genealogy  (xxv.  12).  St.  Paul  re- 
fers to  her  as  the  type  of  the  old  covenant, 
likening  her  to  Mount  Sinai,  the  Mount  of  the 
Law  (Gal.  iv.  22  seqq.). 

Hag'gai,  the  tenth  in  order  of  the  Minor 
Prophets,  and  first  of  those  who  prophesied 
after  the  Captivity.  With  regard  to  his  tribe 
and  parentage  both  history  and  tradition  are 
alike  silent. 


Beards,  Egyptian   (top  row)  ;  of  Other  Nations  (bottom 
row). 

Hair.  The  Hebrews  were  fully  alive  to  the 
importance  of  the  hair  as  an  element  of  per- 
sonal beauty,  whether  as  seen  in  the  "curled 
locks,  black  as  a  raven,"  of  youth  (Cant.  v. 
11),  or  in  the  "crown  of  glory"  that  encircled 
the  head  of  old  age  (Prov.  xvi.  31).  Long  hair 
was  admired  in  the  case  of  young  men ;  it  is 
especially  noticed  in  the  description  of  Absa- 
lom's person  (2  Sam.  xiv.  26).  The  care  re- 
quisite to  keep  the  hair  in  order  in  such  cases 
must  have  been  very  great,  and  hence  the 
practice  of  wearing  long  hair  was  unusual,  and 
only  resorted  to  as  an  act  of  religious  ob- 
servance. In  times  of  affliction  the  hair  was 
altogether  cut  ofif  (Is.  iii.  17,  24,  xv.  2;  Jer.  vii. 
29).  Tearing  the  hair  (Ezr.  ix.  3)  and  letting 
it  go  dishevelled  were  similar  tokens  of  grief. 
The  usual  and  favorite  color  of  the  hair  was 
black  (Cant.  v.  il),  as  is  indicated  in  the  com- 


147 


HALL 


HANDICRAFT 


parisons  to  a  "flock  of  goats"  and  the  "tents 
of  Kedar"  (Cant.  iv.  i,  i.  5)  :  a  similar  hue  is 
probably  intended  by  the  purple  of  Cant.  vii. 
5.  The  approach  of  age  was  marked  by  a 
sprinkling  (Hos.  vii.  9)  of  gray  hairs,  which 
soon  overspread  the  whole  head  (Gen.  xlii.  38, 
xliv.  29;  I  K.  ii.  6,  9;  Prov.  xvi.  31,  xx.  29). 
Pure  white  hair  was  deemed  characteristic  of 
the  Divine  Majesty  (Dan.  vii.  9;  Rev.  i.  14). 
The  chief  beauty  of  the  hair  consisted  in  curls, 
whether  of  a  natural  or  artificial  character. 
With  regard  to  the  mode  of  dressing  the  hair, 
we  have  no  very  precise  information ;  the 
terms  used  are  of  a  general  character,  as  of 
Jezebel  (2  K.  ix.  30),  of  Judith  (x.  3).  The 
terms  used  in  the  N.  T.  (i  Tim.  ii.  9 ;  i  Pet. 
iii.  3)  are  also  of  a  general  character.  The  ar- 
rangement of  Samson's  hair  into  seven  locks, 
or  more  properly  braids  (Judg.  xvi.  13,  19)  in- 
volves the  practice  of  plaiting,  which  was  also 
familiar  to  the  Egyptians  and  Greeks.  The 
locks  were  probably  kept  in  their  place  by  a 
fillet,  as  in  Egypt.  The  Hebrews,  like  other 
nations  of  antiquity,  anointed  the  hair  pro- 
fusely with  ointments,  which  were  generally 
compounded  of  various  aromatic  ingredients 
(Ruth  iii.  3;  2  Sam.  xiv.  2;  Ps.  xxiii.  5,  xlv.  7, 
xcii.  10;  Eccl.  ix.  8;  Is.  iii.  24)  ;  more  especially 
on  occasion  of  festivities  or  hospitality  (Matt, 
vi.  17,  xxvi.  7;  Luke  vii.  46).  It  appears  to 
have  been  the  custom  of  the  Jews  in  our 
Saviour's  time  to  swear  by  the  hair  (Matt.  v. 
36),  much  as  the  Egyptian  women  still  swear 
by  the  side-lock,  and  the  men  by  their  beards. 

Hall,  used  of  the  court  of  the  high-priest's 
house  (Luke  xxii.  55).  In  Matt,  xxvii.  27,  and 
Mark  xv.  16,  "hall"  is  synonymous  with  "prae- 
torium,"  which  in  John  xviii.  28  is  in  A.  V. 
"judgment-hall." 

Hallelujah.  [Alleluia.] 

Ham  (hot;  sunburnt),  i.  The  name  of  one 
of  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  apparently  the  sec- 
ond in  age.  It  probably  signifies  "warm"  or 
"hot."  This  meaning  is  confirmed  by  that  of 
the  Egyptian  word  Kem  (Egypt),  the 
Egyptian  equivalent  of  Ham,  which  signifies 
"black,"  probably  implying  warmth  as  well 
as  blackness.  Of  the  history  of  Ham  nothing 
is  related  except  his  irreverence  to  his  father, 
and  the  curse  which  that  patriarch  pro- 
nounced. The  sons  of  Ham  are  stated  to  have 
been  "Cush  and  Mizraim  and  Phut  and 
Canaan"  (Gen.'x.  6;  comp.  i  Chr.  i.  8).  The 
name  of  Ham  alone,  of  the  three  sons  of  Noah, 
is  known  to  have  been  given  to  a  country. 
Egypt  is  recognized  as  the  "land  of  Ham"  in 
the  Bible  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  51,  cv.  23,  cvi.  22).  The 
three  most  illustrious  Hamite  nations — the 
Cushitcs,  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  Egyptians 


— were  greatly  mixed  with  foreign  peoples. 
There  are  some  common  characteristics,  how- 
ever, which  appear  to  connect  the  different 
branches  of  the  Hamite  family,  and  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  children  of  Japheth 
and  Shem.  Their  architecture  has  a  solid 
grandeur  that  we  look  for  in  vain  elsewhere. 

Handicraft.  (Acts  xviii.  3,  xix.  25 ;  Rev. 
xviii.  22).  In  the  present  article  brief  notices 
only  can  be  given  of  such  handicraft  trades  as 
are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  i.  The  prepara- 
tion of  iron  for  use  either  in  war,  in  agricul- 
ture, or  for  domestic  purposes,  was  doubtless 
one  of  the  earliest  applications  of  labor ;  and 
together  with  iron,  working  in  brass,  or  rather 
copper  alloyed  with  tin,  bronze,  is  mentioned 
in  the  same  passage  as  practised  in  antedi- 
luvian times  (Gen.  iv.  22).  In  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Tabernacle,  copper,  but  no  iron,  ap* 
pears  to  have  been  used,  though  the  use  of 
iron  was  at  the  same  period  well  known  to  the 


Carpenter's  Shop  at  Nazareth. 

Jews,  both  from  their  own  use  of  it  and  from 
their  Egyptian  education,  whilst  the  Canaanite 
inhabitants  of  Palestine  and  Syria  were  in  full 
possession  of  its  use  both  for  warlike  and  do- 
mestic purposes  (Ex.  xx.  25,  xxv.  3,  xxvii.  19; 
Num.  XXXV.  16;  Deut.  iii.  11,  iv.  20,  viii.  9; 
Josh.  viii.  31,  xvii.  16,  18).  After  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Jews  in  Canaan,  the  occupa- 
tion of  a  smith  became  recognized  as  a  distinct 
employment  (l  Sam.  xiii.  19).  The  smith's 
work  and  its  results  are  often  mentioned  in 
Scripture  (2  Sam.  xii.  31;  i  K.  vi.  7;  2  Chr. 
xxvi.  14;  Is.  xliv.  12,  liv.  16).  The  worker  in 
gold  and  silver  must  have  found  employment 
l)Oth  among  the  Hebrews  and  the  neighboring 
nations  in  very  early  times,  as  appears  from 
the  ornaments  sent  by  Abraham  to  Rebekah 
(Gen.  xxiv.  22,  53,  xxxv.  4,  xxxviii.  18;  Deut. 
vii.  23).  But  whatever  skill  the  Hebrews  pos- 
sessed it  is  quite  clear  that  they  must  have 


148 


THE  imm 

OF  THE 


HANDICRAFT 


HANDICRAFT 


learned  much  from  Egypt  and  its  "iron  fur- 
naces," both  in  metal-work  and  in  the  arts  of 
setting  and  polishing  precious  stones.  Various 
processes  of  the  goldsmith's  work  are  illus- 
trated by  Egyptian  monuments.  After  the 
conquest  frequent  notices  are  found  both  of 
moulded  and  wrought  metal,  including  solder- 
ing, which  last  had  long  been  known  in  Egypt ; 
but  the  Phoenicians  appear  to  have  possessed 
greater  skill  than  the  Jews  in  these  arts,  at- 
least  in  Solomon's  time  (Judg.  viii.  24,  27,  xvii. 
4;  I  K.  vii.  13,  45,  46;  Is.  xli.  7;  Wisd.  xv.  4; 
Ecclus.  xxxviii.  28;  Bar.  vi.  50,  55,  57).  2. 
The  work  of  the  carpenter  is  often  mentioned 
in  Scripture  (Gen.  vi.  14;  xxxvii. ;  Is.  xliv.  12). 
In  the  palace  built  by  David  for  himself  the 
workmen  employed  were  chiefly  Phoenicians 
sent  by  Hiram  (2  Sam.  v.  11;  i  Chr.  xiv.  i), 
as  most  probably  were  those,  or  at  least  the 
principal  of  those,  who  were  employed  by 
Solomon  in  his  works  (i  K.  v.  6).  But  in  the 
repairs  of  the  Temple,  executed  under  Joash 
king  of  Judah,  and  also  in  the  rebuilding 
under  Zerubbabel,  no  mentibn  is  made  of  for- 
eign workmen,  though  in  the  latter  case  the 
timber  is  expressly  said  to  have  been  brought 


Egyptian  Blow-pipe,   and   small   Fireplace   with   Check  to 
confine  and  reflect  the  heat. 

by  sea  to  Joppa  by  Zidoriians  (2  K.  xii.  11; 
2  Chr.  xxiv.  12;  Ezra  iii.  7).  That  the  Jewish 
carpenters  must  have  been  able  to  carve  with 
some  skill  is  evident  from  Is.  xli.  7,  xliv.  13.  In 
the  N.  T.  the  occupation  of  a  carpenter  is 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Joseph  the  hus- 
band of  the  Virgin  ^lary,  and  ascribed  to  our 
Lord  himself  by  way  of  reproach  (Mark  vi.  3; 
Matt.  xiii.  55).  3.  The  masons  employed  by 
David  and  Solomon,  at  least  the  chief  of  them, 
were  Phoenicians  (i  K.  v.  18;  Ez.  xxvii.  9). 
The  large  stones*  used  in  Solomon's  Temple 
are  said  by  Josephus  to  have  been  fitted  to- 
gether exactly  without  either  mortar  or 
clamps,  but  the  foundation  stones  to  have 
been  fastened  with  lead.  For  ordinary  build- 
ing, mortar  was  used ;  sometimes,  perhaps, 
bitumen,  as  was  the  case  at  Babylon  (Gen. 
xi.  3).  The  lirne,  clay,  and  straw  of  which 
mortar  is  generally  composed  in  the  East,  re- 
quire it  to  be  very  carefully  mixe*d  and  united 


so  as  to  resist  wet.  The  wall  "daubed  with 
untempered  mortar"  of  Ezekiel  (xiii.  10)  was 
perhaps  a  sort  of  cob-wall  of  mud  or  clay 
without  lime,  which  would  give  way  under 
heavy  rain.  The  use  of  whitewash  on  tombs 
is  remarked  by  our  Lord  (Matt,  xxiii.  27). 
Houses  infected  with  leprosy  were  required 
by  the  Law  to  be  re-plastered  (Lev.  xiv.  40- 
45).  4.  Akin  to  the  craft  of  the  carpenter  is 
that-  of  ship  and  boat-building,  which  must 
have  been  exercised  to  some  extent  for  the 
fishing-vessels  on  the  lake  of  Gennesaret  (Matt, 
viii.  23;  ix.  I  ;  John  xxi.  3,  8).  Soloman  built, 
at  Ezion-Geber,  ships  for  his  foreign  trade, 
which  were  manned  by  Phoenician  crews,  an 
experiment  which  Jehosnapjiat  endeavored  in 
vain  to  renew  (i  K.  ix.  26,  27,  xxii.  48;  2  Chr. 
XX.  36,  37).  5.  The  perfumes  used  in  the  re- 
ligious services,  and  in  later  times  in  the 
funeral  rites  of  monarchs,  imply  knowledge 
and  practice  in  the  art  of  the  "apothecaries," 
who  appear  to  have  formed  a  guild  or  asso- 
ciation (Ex.  XXX.  25,  35;  Neh.  iii.  8;  2  Chr. 
xvi.  14;  Eccl,  vii.  i,  x.  i;  Ecclus.  xxxviii.  8). 
6.  The  arts  of  spinning  and  weaving  both 
wckdI  and  linen  were  carried  on  in  early  times, 
as  they  are  still  usually  among  the  Bedouins, 
by  women.  One  of  the  excellences  attributed 
to  the  good  housewife  is  her  skill  and  industry 
in  these  arts  (Ex.  xxxv.  25,  26;  Lev.  xix.  19; 
Deut.  xxii.  11 ;  2  K.  xxiii.  7;  Ez.  xvi.  16;  Prov. 
xxxi.  13,  24).  The  loom  with  its  beam  (i 
Sam.  xvii.  7),  pin  (Judg.  xvi.  14),  and  shuttle 
(Job  vii.  6),  was  perhaps  introduced  later,  but 
as  early  as  David's  time  (i  Sam.  xvii.  7). 
Together  with  weaving  we  read  also  of  em- 
broidery, in  which  gold  and  silver  threads 
were  interwoven  with  the  body  of  the  stuff, 
sometimes  in  figure  patterns,  or  with  precious 
stones  set  in  the  needle-work  (Ex.  xxvi.  i, 

xxviii,  4,  xxxix.  6-13).  7.  Besides  these  arts, 
those  of  dyeing  and  of  dressing  cloth  were 
practised  in  Palestine,  and  those  also  of  tan- 
ning and  dressing  leather  (Josh.  ii.  15-18;  2  K. 
i.  8;  Matt.  iii.  4;  Acts  ix.  43).  Shoemakers, 
barbers,  and  tailors  are  mentioned  in  the 
Mishna  (Pesach,  iv.  6)  ;  the  barber,  or  his 
occupation,  by  Ezekiel  (v.  i;  Lev.  xiv.  8; 
Num.  vi.  5),  and  the  tailor,  plasterers,  glaziers, 
and  glass  vessels,  painters,  and  goldworkers 
are  mentioned  in  the  Mishna  (Chel.  viii.  9, 

xxix.  3,  4,  XXX.  i).  Tent-makers  are  noticed 
in  the  Acts  (xviii.  3),  and  frequent  allusion  is 
made  to  the  trade  of  the  potters.  8.  Bakers 
are  noticed  in  Scripture  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21 ;  Hos. 
vii.  4)  ;  and  the  well-known  valley  Tyropoeon 
probably  derived  its  name  from  the  occupation 
of  the  cheese-makers,  its  inhabitans.  Butch- 
ers, not  Jewish,  are  spoken  of  i  Cor.  x.  25. 

49 


HANDKERCHIEF 


HAWK 


Handkerchief,    Napkin,   Apron.    The  two 

former  of  these  terms,  as  used  in  the  A.  V. 
The  sudarium  is  noticed  in  the  N.  T.  as  a 
wrapper  to  fold  up  money  (Luke  xix.  20)  — 
as  a  cloth  bound  about  the  head  of  a  corpse 
(John  xi.  44,  XX.  7) — and  lastly  as  an  article 
of  dress  that  could  be  easily  removed  (Acts 
xix.  12),  probably  a  handkerchief  worn  on  the 
head  like  the  keffish  of  the  Bedouins. 

Hanging,  Hangings,  (i.)  The  "hanging" 
was  a  curtain  or  "covering"  to  close  an  en- 
trance; one  was  placed  before  the  door -of  the 
Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  36,  37,  xxxix.  38).  (2.) 
The  "hangings"  were  used  for  covering  the 
walls  of  the  court  of  the  Tabernacle,  just  as 
tapestry  was  in  modern  times  (Ex.  xxvii.  9, 
XXXV.  17,  xxxviii.  9;  Num.  iii.  26,  iv.  26). 

Hare  occurs  only  in  Lev.  xi.  6  and  Deut. 
xiv.  7,  amongst  the  animals  disallowed  as 
food  by  the  Mosaic  law.  It  was  erroneously 
thought  by  the  ancient  Jews  to  have  chewed 
the  cud.    They  were  no  doubt  misled  by  the 


Hare  of  Mount  Sinai. 


habit  these  animals  have  of  moving  the  jaw 
about. 

Ha'reth,  The  Forest  of,  in  which  David 
took  refuge,  after,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
prophet  Gad,  he  had  quitted  the  "hold"  or 
fastness  of  the  cave  of  Adullam  (i  Sam. 
xxii.  5). 

Harlot.  That  this  class  of  persons  existed 
in  the  earliest  states  of  society  is  clear  from 
Gen.  xxxviii.  15.  Rahab  (Josh.  ii.  i)  is  said 
by  the  Chaldee  paraph.,  to  have  been  an  inn- 
keeper, but  if  there  were  such  persons,  con- 
sidering what  we  know  of  Canaanitish  morals 
(Lev.  xviii.  27),  we  may  conclude  that  they 
would,  if  women,  have  been  of  this  class.  The 
"harlots"  are  classed  with  "publicans,"  as 
those  who  lay  under  the  ban  of  society  in  the 
N.  T.  (Matt.  xxi.  32). 

Harp.  Heb,  Kinnor.  The  Kinnor  was  the  na- 
tional instrument  of  the  Hebrews,  and  was  well 
known  throughout  Asia.  Moses  assigns  its  in- 
vention to  the  antediluvian  period  (Gen.  iv. 

1 


21).  Josephus  records  that  the  kinnor  had 
ten  strings,  and  that  it  was  played  on  with 
the  plectrum ;  but  this  is  in  contradiction  to 
what  is  set  forth  in  the  ist  book  of  Sainuel 
(xvi.  23,  xviii.  10),  that  David  played  on  the 
kinnor  with  his  hand.    Probably  there  was  a 


Egyptian  Harp. 

smaller  and  a  larger  kinnor,  and  these  may 
have  been  played  in  dif¥erent  ways  (i  Sam. 
X.  5). 

Harrow.  The  word  so  rendered  (2  Sam. 
xii.  31)  I  Chr.  XX.  3,  is  probably  a  threshing- 
fnachine.  The  verb  rendered  "to  harrow"  (Is. 
xxviii.  24;  Job  xxxix.  10;  Hos.  x.  ll)  ex- 
presses apparently  the  breaking  of  the  clods, 
and  is  so  far  analogous  to  our  harrowing,  but 
whether  done  by  any  such  machine  as  we 
call  a  "harrow,"  is  very  doubtful. 

Hart.  The  hart  is  reckoned  among  the 
clean  animals  (Deut.  xii.  15,  xiv.  5,  xv.  22), 
and  seems,  from  the  passages  quoted,  as  well 


Tlie  Hart. 

as  from  i  K.  iv.  23,  to  have  been  commonly 
killed  for  food.  The  Heb.  masc.  noun  ayyal 
denotes,  there  can  be  doubt, .  soine  species  of 
Cervidae  (deer  tribe),  either  the  Dama  vul- 
garis, fallow-deer,  or  the  Cervus  Barbarus,  the 
Barbary  deer. 

Hawk,  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew  nets 


HAY 


HEAVEN 


(Lev.  xi.  i6;  Deut.  xiv.  15;  Job  xxxix.  26). 
The  word  is  doubtless  generic,  as  appears 
from  the  expression  in  Deut.  and  Lev.  "after 
his  kind,"  and  includes  various  species  of  the 
Falconidae.  \\'ith  respect  to  the  passage  in 
Job  (1.  c),  which  appears  to  allude  to  the 
migratory  habits  of  hawks,  it  is  curious'  to 
observe  that  of  the  ten  or  twelve  lesser  rap- 
tors of  Palestine,  nearly  all  are  summer 
migrants.  The  kestrel  remains  all  the  year, 
but  the  others  are  as  migrants  from  the  south. 

Hay  (Heb.  chatsir),  the  rendering  of  the 
A.  V.  in  Prov.  xxvii.  25,  and  Is.  xv.  6,  of  the 
above-named  Heb.  term,  which  occurs  fre- 
quently in  the  O.  T.,  and  denotes  "grass"  of 
any  kind.  Harmer,  quoting  from  a  MS.  paper 
of  Sir  J.  Chardin,  states  that  hay  is  not  made 
anj-where  in  the  East,  and  that  the  "hay"  of 
the  A.  V.  is  therefore  an  error  of  translation. 
It  is  quite  probable  that  the  modern  Orientals 
do  not  make  hay  in  our  sense  of  the  term ;  but 
it  is  certain  that  the  ancients  did  mow  their 


Kestrel  or  Ilawk. 

grass,  and  probably  made  use  of  the  dry  ma- 
terial. See  Ps.  xxxvii.  2.  We  may  remark 
that  there  is  an  express  Hebrew  term  for  "dry 
grass"  or  "hay,"  viz.  chashash,  which,  in  the 
only  two  places  where  the  word  occurs  (Is. 
v.  24,  xxxiii.  II)  is  rendered  "chaf?"  in 
the  A.  V. 

Haz'ael,  (whom  God  sees)  a  king  of 
Damascus,  who  reigned  from  about  B.  C. 
886  to  B.  C.  840.  He  appears  to  have 
been  previously  a  person  in  a  high  position  at 
the  court  of  Benhadad,  and  was  sent  by  his 
master  to  Elisha,  to  inquire  if  he  would  re- 
cover from  the  malady  under  which  he  was 
suffering.  Elisha's  answer  led  to  the  murder 
of  Benhadad  by  his  ambitious  servant,  who 
forthwith  mounted  the  throne  (2  K.  viii.  7-15). 
He   was   soon    engaged   in   hostilities  with 


Ahaziah  king  of  Judah,  and  Jehoram  king  of 
Israel,  for  the  possession  of  the  city  of 
Ramoth-Gilead  (ibid.  viii.  28).  Towards  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Jehu,  Hazacl  led  the 
Syrians  against  the  Israelites  (about  B.  C. 
860),  whom  he  "smote  in  all  their  coasts" 
(2  K.  X.  32),  thus  accomplishing  the  prophecy 
of  Elisha  (ibid.  viii.  12).  At  the  close  of  his 
life,  having  taken  Gath  (ibid.  xii.  17 ;  comp. 
Am.  vi.  2),  he  proceeded  to  attack  Jerusalem 
(2  Chr.  xxiv.  24),  and  was  about  to  assault 
the  city,  when  Joash  bribed  him  to  retire 
(2  K.  xii.  18).  Hazael  appears  to  have  died 
about  the  year  B.  C.  840  (ibid.  xiii.  24),  hav- 
ing reigned  46  years. 

Hazel.  The  Hebrew  term  luz  occurs  only 
in  Gen.  xxx.  37.  Authorities  are  divided  be- 
tween the  hazel  and  the  almond  tree,  as  rep- 
resenting the  luz.  The  latter  is  most  prob- 
ably correct. 

Head-dress.  The  Hebrews  do  not 'appear 
to  have  regarded  a  covering  for  the  head  as 
an  essential  article  of  dress.  The  earliest  no- 
tice we  have  of  such  a  thing  is  in  connec- 
tion with  the  sacerdotal  vestments  (Ex.  xxviii. 
40).  We  may  infer  that  it  was  not  ordinarily 
worn  in  the  mosaic  age.  Even  in  after  times 
it  seems  to  have  been  reserved  especially  for 
purposes  of  ornament ;  thus  the  Tsaniph  is 
noticed  as  being  worn  by  nobles  (Job  xxix. 
14),  ladies  (Is.  iii.  23),  and  kings  (Is.  Ixii.  3), 
while  the  Peer  was  an  article  of  holiday  dress 
(Is.  Ixi.  3,  A.  V.  "beauty;"  Ez.  xxiv.  17,  23), 
and  was  worn  at  weddings  (Is.  Ixi.  10).  The 
ordinary  head-dress  of  the  Bedouin  consists 
of  the  Keffish,  a  square  handkerchief,  gen- 
erally of  red  and  yellow  cotton,  or  cotton  and 
silk,  folded  so  that  three  of  the  corners  hang 
down  over  the  back  and  shoulders,  leaving  the 
face  exposed,  and  bound  round  the  head  by  a 
cord.  It  is  not  improbable  that  a  similar  cov- 
ering was  used  by  the  Hebrews  on  certain 
occasions.  The  Assyrian  head-dress  is  de- 
scribed in  Ez.  xxiii.  15,  under  the 
terms  "exceeding  in  dyed  attire."  The  word 
rendered  "hats"  in  Dan.  iii.  21,  properly  ap- 
plies to  a  cloak. 

Hearth.  One  way  of  baking  much  prac- 
tised in  the  East  is  to  place  the  dough  on  an 
iron  plate,  either  laid  on,  or  supporting  on 
legs  above  the  vessel  sunk  in  the  ground, 
which  forms  the  oven.  The  cakes  baked  "on 
the  hearth"  (Gen.  xviii.  6)  were  probably 
baked  in  the  existing  Bedouin  manner,  on  hot 
stones  covered  with  ashes.  The  "hearth"  of 
king  Jehoiakim's  winter  palace  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
23)  was  possibly  a  pan  or  brazier  of  charcoal. 

Heathen.  [Gentiles.] 

Heaven.    There  are   four   Hebrew  words 


151 


HEBREW 


HEBRON* 


thus  rendered  in  the  O.  T.,  which  we  may 
brielly  notice.  I,  Raki'a  (A.  V.  firmament). 
[Firmament.]  2.  Shamayim.  This  is  the 
word  used  in  the  expression  "the  heaven  and 
the  earth,"  or  "the  upper  and  lower  regions" 
(Gen.  i.  i).  3.  Marom,  used  for  heaven  in 
Ps.  xviii.  16;  Jer.  xxv.  30;  Is.  xxiv.  18.  Prop- 
erly speaking  it  means  a  mountain,  as  in  Ps. 
cii.  19;  Ez.  xvii.  23.  4.  Shechakim,  "expanses" 
with  reference  to  the  extent  of. heaven  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  26;  Job.  xxxv.  5).  St.  Paul's  expres- 
sion "third  heaven"  (2  Cor.  xii.  2)  has  led  to 
much  conjecture.  Grotius  said  that  the  Jews 
divided  the.  heaven  into  three  parts,- -viz.,  I, 
the  air  or  atmosphere,  where  clouds  gather; 
2,  the  firmament,  in  which  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  are  fixed ;  3,  the  upper  heaven,  the  abode 
of  God  and  his  angels. 

He'brew.  This  word  first  occurs  as  given 
to  Abraham  by  the  Canaanites  (Gen.  xiv.  13) 
because  he  had  crossed  the  Euphrates.  The 
term  Israelite  was  used  by  the  Jews  of  them- 
selves among  themselves,  the  term  Hebrew 
was  the  name  by  which  they  were  known  to 
foreigners.  The  latter  was  accepted  by  the 
Jews  in  their  external  relations ;  and  after  the 
general  substitution  of  the  word  Jew,  it  still 
found  a  place  in  that  marked  and  special  fea- 
ture of  national  contradistinction,  the  lan- 
guage. All  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament 
are  written  in  the  Hebrew  language,  with  the 
exception  of  the  following  passages — Dan.  ii. 
4-vii. ;  Ez.  iv.  8-vi.  18,  and  vii.  12-26;  Jer.  x. 
II— which  are  in  Chaldee.  Both  Hebrew  and 
Chaldee  are  sister  dialects  of  a  great  family 
of  languages,  to  which  the  name  of  Semitic  is 
usually  given,  from  the  real  or  supposed 
descent  of  the  people  speaking  them  from  the 
patriarch  Shem. 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the.  There  has  been 
a  wide  difference  of  opinion  respecting  the 
authorship  of  this  Epistle.  The  superscrip- 
tion, the  ordinary  source  of  information,  is 
wanting;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
at  first,  everywhere,  except  in  North  Africa, 
St.  Paul  was  regarded  as  an  author.  Clement 
of  Alexandria  ascribed  to  St.  Luke  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Epistle  into  Greek  from  a 
Hebrew  original  of  St.  Paul.  Origen  believed 
that  the  thoughts  were  St.  Paul's,  the  lan- 
guage and  composition  St.  Luke's  or  Clem- 
ent's of  Rome.  Tertullian  names  Barnabas  as 
the  reputed  author  according  to  the  North 
African  tradition.  Luther's  conjecture  that 
Apollos  was  the  author  has  been  adopted  by 
many.  The  Epistle  was  probably  addressed 
to  the  Jews  in  Jerusalem  and  Palestine.  The 
argument  of  the  Epistle  is  such  as  could  be 
used  with  most  effect  to  a  church  consisting 


exclusively  of  Jews  by  birth,  personally 
familiar  with  and  attached  to  the  Temple- 
service.  It  was  evidently  written  before  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  A.  D.  10.  The 
whole  argument,  and  specially  the  passages 
viii.  4  and  sq.,  ix.  6  and  sq.,  and  xiii.  10  and 
sq.,  imply  that  the  Temple  was  standing,  and 
that  its  usual  course  of  Divine  service  was 
carried  on  without  interruption.  The  date 
which  best  agrees  with  the  traditionary  ac- 
count of  the  authorship  and  destination  of  the 
Epistle  is  A.  D.  63,  about  the  end  of  St.  Paul's 
imprisonment  at  Rome,  or  a  year  after  Al- 
binus  succeeded  Festyus  as  Procurator.  With 
respect  to  the  scope  of  the  Epistle,  it  should 
be  recollected  that,  while  the  numerous  Chris- 
tian churches  scattered  throughout  Judaea 
(Acts  ix.  31 ;  Gal.  i.  22)  were  continually  ex- 
posed to  the  persecution  from  the  Jews  (i 
Thess.  ii.  14),  there  was  in  Jerusalem  one 
additional  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  pre- 
dominant oppressors  of  the  Christians.  The 
magnificent  national  Temple  might  be  shut 
against  the  Hebrew  Christian ;  and  even  if 
this  affliction  were  not  often  laid  upon  him, 
yet  there  was  a  secret  burden  which  he  bore 
within  him,  the  knowledge  that  the  end  of  all 
the  beauty  and  awfulness  of  Zion  was  rapidly 
approaching.  What  could  take  the  place  of 
the  Temple,  and  that  which  was  behind  the 
veil,  and  the  Levitical  sacrifices,  and  the  Holy 
City,  when  they  should  cease  to  exist?  What 
compensation  could  Christianity  offer  him  for 
the  loss  which  was  pressing  the  Hebrew 
Christian  more  and  more?  The  writer  of 
this  Epistle  meets  the  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians on  their  own  ground.  His  answer  is — 
"Your  new  faith  gives  you  Christ,  and,  in 
Christ,  all  you  seek,  all  your  fathers  sought. 
In  Christ  the  Son  of  God  you  have  an  all- 
sufficient  Mediator,  nearer  than  angels  to  the 
Father,  eminent  above  Moses  as  a  benefactor, 
more  sympathizing  and  more  prevailing  than 
the  High-priest  as  an  intercessor :  His  sab- 
bath awaits  you  in  heaven;  to  His  covenant 
the  old  was  intended  to  be  subservient;  His 
atonement  is  the  eternal  reality  of  which  sac- 
rifices are  but  the  passing  shadow;  His  city 
heavenly,  not  made  with  hands.  Having  Him, 
believe  in  Him  with  all  your  heart,  with  a 
faith  in  the  unseen  future,  strong  as  that  of 
the  saints  of  old,  patient  under  present,  and 
prepared  for  coming  woe,  full  of  energy  and 
hope,  and  holiness,  and  love."  Such  was  the 
teaching  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

He'bron.  A  city  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  54)  ; 
situated  among  the  mountains  (Josh.  xx.  7),  20 
Roman  miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
same  distance  north  of  Beersheba.    Hebron  is 


152 


HEIFER 


HELL 


one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  the  world 
still  existing;  and  in  this  respect  it  is  the  rival 
of  Damascus.  It  was  built,  says  a  sacred 
writer,  "seven  years,  before  Zoan  in  Egypt" 
(Xnm.  xiii.  22)  ;  and  was  a  well-known  town 
when  Abraham  entered  Canaan  3780  years 
ago  (Gen.  xiii.  18).  Its  original  name  was 
Kirjath-Arba  (Judg.  i.  10),  "the  city  of  Arba ;" 
so  called  from  Arba,  the  father  of  Anak,  and 
progenitor  of  the  giant  Anakim  (Josh.  xxi.  14, 
XV.  13,  14).  The  chief  interest  of  this  city 
arises  from  its  having  been  the  scene  of  some 
of  the  most  striking  events  in  the  lives  of  the 
patriarchs.  Sarah  died  at  Hebron ;  and  Abra- 
ham then  bought  from  Ephron  the  Hittite  the 
field  and  cave  of  ]\Iachpelah,  to  serve  as  a 
family  tomb  (Gen.  xxiii.  2-20).  The  cave  is 
still  there ;  and  the  massive  walls  of  the 
Haram  or  mosque,  within  which  it  lies,  fo^m 
the  most  remarkable  object  in  the  whole  city. 


Hebron. 

Abraham  is  called  by  Mohammedans  el- 
Khulil,  "the  Friend,"  i.  e.  of  God,  and  this  is 
the  modern  name  of  Hebron.  Hebron  now 
contains  about  5000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
some  50  families  are  Jews.  It  is  picturesquely 
situated  in  a  narrow  valley,  surrounded  by 
rocky  hills.  About  a  mile  from  the  town,  up 
the  valley,  is  one  of  the  largest  oak-trees  in 
Palestine.  This,  say  some,  is  the  very  tree 
beneath  which  Abraham  pitched  his  tent,  and 
it  still  bears  the  name. 

Heifer,  The  Hebrew  language  has  no  ex- 
pression that  exactly  corresponds  to  our 
heifer.  The  heifer  or  young  cow  was  not 
commonly  used  for  ploughing,  but  only  for 
treading  out  the  corn  (Hos.  x.  11;  but  see 
Judg.  xiv.  18),  when  it  ran  about  without  any 
head-stall  (Deut.  xxv.  4)  ;  hence  the  expres- 


sion an  "unbroken  heifer"  (Hos.  iv.  16;  A.  V. 
"backsliding"),  to  which  Israel  is  compared. 

Heir.  The  Hebrew  institutions  relative  to 
inheritance  were  of  a  very  simple  character. 
Under  the  Patriarchal  system  the  property 
was  divided  among  the  sons  of  the  legitimate 
wives  (Gen.  xxi.  10,  xxiv.  36,  xxv.  5),  a  larger 
portion  being  assigned  to  one,  generally  the 
eldest,  on  whom  devolved  the  duty  of  main- 
taining the  females  of  the  family.  The  sons 
of  concubines  were  portioned  off  with  presents 
(Gen.  xxv.  6).  At  a  later  period  the  exclusion 
of  the  sons  of  concubines  was  rigidly  enforced 
(Judg.  xi.  I,  ff).  Daughters  had  no  share  in 
the  patrimony  (Gen.  xxi.  14),  but  received  a 
marriage  portion.  The  Mosaic  law  regulated 
the  succession  to  real  property  thus:  it  was 
to  be  divided  among  the  sons,  the  eldest  re- 
ceiving a  double  portion  (Deut.  xxi.  17),  the 
others  equal  shares ;  if  there  were  no  sons,  it 
went  to  the  daughters  (Num.  xxvii.  8),  on  the 
condition  that  they  did  not  marry  out  of  their 
own  tribe  (Num.  xxxvi.  6,  ff. ;  Tob.  vi.  12,  vii. 
13),  otherwise  the  patrimony  was  forfeited. 
If  there  were  no  daughters,  it  went  to  the 
brother  of  the  deceased ;  if  no  brother,  to  the 
paternal  uncle ;  and,  failing  these,  to  the  next 
of  kin  (Num.  xxvii.  9-1 1). 

Hell.  This  is  the  word  generally  and  un- 
fortunately used  by  our  translators  to  render 
the  Hebrew  Sheol.  It  would  perhaps  have 
been  better  to  retain  the  Hebrew  word  Sheol, 
or  else  render  it  always  by  "the  grave"  or 
"the  pit."  It  is  deep  (Job  xi.  8)  and  dark 
(Job  xi.  21,  22)  in  the  centre  of  the  earth 
(Num.  xvi.  30;  Deut.  xxxii.  22),  having  within 
it  depths  on  depths  (Prov.  ix.  18),  and  fas- 
tened with  gates  (Is.  xxxviii.  10)  and  bars 
(Job.  xvii.  16).  In  this  cavernous  realm  are 
the  souls  of  dead  men,  the  Rephaim  and  ill 
spirits  (Ps.  Ixxxvi.  13,  Ixxxix.  48;  Prov.  xxiii. 
14;  Ez.  xxxi.  17,  xxxii.  21).  It  is  clear  that 
in  many  passages  of  the  O.  T.  Sheol  can  only 
mean  "the  grave,"  and  is  so  rendered  in  the 
A.  V.  (see,  for  example,  Gen.  xxxvii.  35,  xiii. 
38;  I  Sam.  ii.  6;  Job  xiv.  13).  In  other  pass- 
ages, however,  it  seems  to  involve  a  notion  of 
punishment,  and  is  therefore  rendered  in  the 
A.  V.  by  the  word  "Hell."  But  in  many  cases 
this  translation  misleads  the  reader.  It  is 
obvious,  for  instance,  that  Job  xi.  8 ;  Ps. 
cxxxix.  8;  Am.  ix.  2  (where  "hell"  is  used  as 
the  antithesis  of  "heaven"),  merely  illustrate 
the  Jewish  notions  of  the  locality  of  Shoel  in 
the  bowels  of  the  earth.  In  the  N.  T.  the 
word  Hades,  like  Shoel,  sometimes  means 
merely  "the  grave"  (Rev.  xx.  13;  Acts  ii.  31; 
I  Cor.  XV.  55),  or  in  general  "the  unseen 
world."    It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  creeds 


153 


HELMET 


HERMON 


say  of  our  Lord,  "He  went  down  into  hell," 
meaning  the  state  of  the  dead  in  general,  with- 
out any  restriction  of  happiness  or  misery,  a 
doctrine  certainly,  though  only  virtually,  ex- 
pressed in  Scripture  (Eph.  iv.  9;  Acts  ii.  25- 
31).  Elsewhere  in  the  N.  T.  Hades  is  used  of 
a  place  of  torment  (Luke  xvi.  23;  2  Pet.  ii.  4; 
Matt.  xi.  23,  &c.  Consequently  it  has  been 
the  prevalent,  almost  the  universal,  notion 
that  Hades  is  an  intermediate  state  between 
death  and  resurrection,  divided  into  two  parts, 
one  the  abode  of  the  blessed,  and  the  other  of 
the  lost.  In  holding  this  view,  main  reliance 
is  placed  on  the  parable  of  Dives  and  Lazarus ; 
but  it  is  impossible  to  ground  the  proof  of  an 
important  theological  doctrine  on  a  passage 
which  confessedly  abounds  in  Jewish  meta- 
phors. The  word  most  frequently  used  in  the 
N.  T.  for  the  place  of  future  punishment  is 
Gehenna  or  Gehenna  of  fire.  [Gehenna.] 
Helmet.  [Arms.] 

Hem  of  Garment.  The  importance  which 
the  later  Jews,  especially  the  Pharisees  (Matt, 
xxiii.  5),  attached  to  the  hem  or  fringe  of 
their  garments  was  founded  upon  the  regula- 
tion in  Num.  xv.  38,  39,  which  gave  a  sym- 
bolical meaning  to  it. 

Hemlock.  The  Hebrew  rosh  is  rendered 
"hemlock"  in  two  passages  (Hos.  x.  4;  Am. 
vi.  12),  but  elsewhere  "gall."  [Gall.] 

Hen,  The  hen  is  nowhere  noticed  in  the 
Bible  except  in  Matt,  xxiii.  37;  Luke  xiii.  34. 
That  a  bird  so  common  in  Palestine  should 
receive  such  slight  notice,  is  certainly  singu- 
lar. 

Herald.  The  only  notice  of  this  officer  in 
the  O.  T.  occurs  in  Dan.  iii.  4.  The  term 
"herald,"  might  be  substituted  for  "preacher" 
in  I  Tim.  ii.  7 ;  2  Tim.  i.  11 ;  2  Pet.  ii.  5. 

Herd,  Herdsman.  The  herd  was  greatly  re- 
garded both  in  the  patriarchal  and  Mosaic 
period.  The  ox  was  the  most  precious  stock 
next  to  the  horse  and  mule.  The  herd  yielded 
the  most  esteemed  sacrifice  (Num.  vii.  3;  Ps. 
Ixix.  31 ;  Is.  Ixvi.  3)  ;  also  flesh  meat,  and  milk, 
chiefly  converted,  probably,  into  butter  and 
cheese  (Deut.  xxx.  ii.  14;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29). 
The  full-grown  ox  is  hardly  ever  slaughtered 
in  Syria ;  but,  both  for  sacrificial  and  convivial 
purposes,  the  young  animal  was  preferred 
(Ex.  xxix.  i).  The  agricultural  and  general 
usefulness  of  the  ox,  in  ploughing,  threshing, 
and  as  a  beast  of  burden  (i  Chr.  xii.  40;  Is. 
xlvi.  i),  made  such  a  slaughtering  seem  waste- 
ful. Herdsmen,  &c.,  in  Egypt  were  a  low, 
perhaps  the  lowest  caste ;  but  of  the  abun- 
dance of  cattle  in  Egypt,  and  of  the  care  there 
bestowed  on  them,  there  is  no  doubt  (Gen. 
xlvii.  6,  17;  Ex.  ix.  4,  20).    So  the  plague  of 


hail  was  sent  to  smite  especially  the  cattle 
(Ps.  Ixxviii.  48),  the  first-born  of  which  also 
were  smitten  (Ex.  xii.  29).  The  Israelites  de- 
parting stipulated  for  (Ex.  x.  26)  and  took 
"much  cattle"  with  them  (xii.  38).  Cattle 
formed  thus  one  of  the  traditions  of  the 
Israelitish  nation  in  its  greatest  period,  and 
became  almost  a  part  of  that  greatness.  The 
occupation  of  herdsman  was  honorable  in 
early  times  (Gen.  xlvii.  6;  i  Sam.  xi.  5 ;  i  Chr. 
xxvii.  29,  xxviii.  i).  Saul  himself  resumed  it 
in  the  interval  of  his  cares  as  king ;  also  Doeg 
was  certainly  high  in  his  confidence  (i  Sam. 
xxi.  7).  Pharaoh  made  some  of  Joseph's 
brethren  "rulers  over  his  cattle."  David's 
herd-master  were  among  his  chief  officers  of 
state.  The  prophet  Amos  at  first  followed 
this  occupation  (Am.  i.  i,  vii.  14). 

He'rmon,  a  mountain  on  the  northeastern 
border  of  Palestine  (Deut.  iii.  8,  Josh.  xii.  i), 
over  against  Lebanon  (Josh.  xi.  17),  adjoining 


Mount  Hermon. 

the  plateau  of  Basban  (i  Chr.  v.  23).  It 
stands  at  the  southern  end,  and  is  the  cul- 
minating point  of  the  anti-Libanus  range ;  it 
towers  high  above  the  ancient  border  city  of 
Dan  and  the  fountains  of  the  Jordan,  and  is 
the  most  conspicuous  and  beautiful  mountain 
in  Palestine  or  Syria.  This  mountain  was  the 
great  landmark  of  the  Israelites.  It  was  as- 
sociated with  their  northern  border  almost  as 
intimately  as  the  sea  was  with  the  western. 
Hermon  has  three  summits,  situated  like  the 
angles  of  a  triangle,  and  about  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  from  each  other.  This  may  account  for 
the  expression  in  Ps.  xlii.  7  (6),  "I  will  re- 
member thee  from  the  land  of  the  Jordan  and 
the  Hermons."  In  two  passages  of  Scripture 
this  mountain  is  called  Baal-hermon  (Judg. 
iii.  3;  I  Chr.  v.  23),  possibly  because  Baal  was 
there  worshipped.  The  height  of  Hermon  has 
never  been  measured,  though  it  has  often  been 

54 


1 


HEROD 


HERODIANS 


estimated.  It  may  safely  be  reckoned  at 
10,000  feet.  ■ 

Herod  (hero-like).  This  family,  though  of 
Idumaean  origin,  and  thus  aliens  by  race, 
were  Jews  in  faith.  I.  Herod  the  Great  was 
the  second  son  of  Antipater,  an  Idumaean, 
who  was  appointed  Procurator  of  Judaea  by 
Julius  Caesar,  B.  C.  47.  At  the  time  of  his 
father's  elevation,  though  only  fifteen  years 
old,  he  received  the  government  of  Galilee, 
and  shortly  afterwards  that  of  Coele-Syria. 
When  Antony  came  to  Syria,  B.  C.  41,  he  ap- 
pointed Herod  and  his  elder  brother  Phasael 


Coin  of  Herod  Antipas. 

tetrarchs  of  Judaea.  Herod  was  forced  to 
abandon  Judaea  next  year  by  an  invasion  of 
the  Parthians,  who  supported  the  claims  of 
Antigonus,  the  representative  of  the  Asmo- 
naean  dynasty,  and  fled  to  Rome  (B.  C.  40). 
At  Rome  he  was  well  received  by  Anthony 
and  Octavian,  and  was  appointed  by  the  sen- 
ate king  of  Judaea  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
(Hasmonean  line.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  by  the  help  of  the  Romans,  he  took 
Jerusalem  (B.  C.  37),  and  completely  estab- 
lished his  authority  throughout  his  dominions. 
The  terrible  acts  of  bloodshed  which  Herod 
perpetrated  in  his  own  family  were  accom- 
panied by  others  among  his  subjects  equally 
terrible,  from  the  number  who  fell  victims  to 
them.  According  to  the  well-known  story, 
he  ordered  the  nobles  whom  he  had  called  to 
him  in  his  last  moments  to  be  executed  im- 
mediately after  his  decease,  that  so  at  least 
his  death  might  be  attended  by  universal 
mourning.    It  was  at  the  time  of  his  fatal 


Coin  of  Herod  Agrippa  I. 

illness  that  he  must  have  caused  the 
slaughter  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem 
(Matt.  ii.  16-18).  He  adorned  Jerusalem 
with  many  splendid  monuments  of  his  taste 
and  magnificence.  The  Temple,  which  he 
rebuilt  with  scrupulous  care,  was  the 
greatest  of  those  works.  The  restoration  was 
begun  B.  C.  20,  and  the  Temple  itself  was 
completed  in  a  year  and  a  half.  But  fresh 
additions  were  constantly  made  in  succeeding 
years,  so  that  it  was  said  that  the  Temple  was 

I 


"built  in  forty  and  six  years"  (John  ii.  20), 
a  phrase  which  expresses  the  whole  period 
from  the  commencement  of  Herod's  work  to 
the  completion  of  the  latest  addition  then 
made.  II.  Herod  Antipas  was  the  son  of 
Herod  the  Great  by  Malthace,  a  Samaritan. 
He  first  married  a  daughter  of  Aretas,  "king 
of  Arabia  Petraea,"  but  after  some  time  he 
made  overtures  of  marriage  to  Herodias,  the 
wife  of  his  half-brother  Herod  Philip.  Aretas, 
indignant  at  the  insult  of¥ered  to  his  daughter, 
found  a  pretext  for  invading  the  territory  of 
Herod,  and  defeated  him  with  great  loss.  This 
defeat,  according  to  the  famous  passage  in 
Josephus,  was  attributed  by  many  to  the  mur- 
der of  John  the  Baptist,  which  had  been  com- 
mitted by  Antipas  shortly  before,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Herodias  (Matt.  xiv.  4,  f¥. ;  Mark 
vi.  17,  ff. ;  Luke  iii.  19).  At  a  later  time  the 
ambition  of  Herodias  proved  the  cause  of  her 
husband's  ruin.  She  urged  him  to  go  to  Rome 
to  gain  the  title  of  king  (cf.  Mark  vi.  14)  ;  but 
he  was  opposed  at  the  court  of  Caligula  by 
the  emissaries  of  Agrippa,  and  condemned  to 
perpetual  banishment  at  Lugdunum,  A.  D.  39. 


Coin  of  Titus  and  Herod  Agrippa  II. 

Herodias  voluntarily  shared  his  punishment, 
and  he  died  in  exile.  Pilate  took  occasion 
from  our  Lord's  residence  in  Galilee  to  send 
Him  for  examination  (Luke  xxiii.  6,  fif.)  to 
Herod  Antipas,  who  came  up  to  Jerusalem  to 
celebrate  the  Passover.  The  city  of  Tiberias, 
which  Antipas  founded  and  named  in  honor 
of  the  emperor,  was  the  most  conspicuous 
monument  of  his  long  reign. 

Hero'dians.  In  the  account  which  is  given 
by  St.  Matthew  (xxii.  15,  f¥.)  and  St.  Mark 
(xii.  13,  ff.)  of  the  last  efforts  made  by  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  Jews  to  obtain  from  our 
Lord  Himself  the  materials  for  His  accusa- 
tion, a  party  under  the  name  of  Herodians  is 
represented  as  acting  in  concert  with  the 
Pharisees  (Matt.  xxii.  16;  Mark  xii.  13;  comp. 
also  iii.  6,  viii.  15).  There  were  probably 
many  who  saw  in  the  power  of  the  Herodian 
family  the  pledge  of  the  preservation  of  their 
national  existence  in  the  face  of  Roman  am- 
bition. Two  distinct  classes  might  thus  unite 
in  supporting  what  was  a  domestic  tyranny 
as  contrasted  with  absolute  dependence  on 
Rome:  those  who  saw  in  the  Herods  a  pro- 

55 


I 

1 


HERODIAS 


HEZEKIAH 


tection  against  direct  heathen  rule,  and  those 
who  were  inclined  to  look  with  satisfaction 
upon  such  a  compromise  between  the  ancient 
faith  and  heathen  civilization,  as  Herod  the 
Great  and  his  successors  had  endeavored  to 
realize,  as  the  true  and  highest  consummation 
of  Jewish  hopes. 

Hero'dias,  daughter  of  Aristobulus,  one  of 
the  sons  of  Mariamme  and  Herod  the  Great, 
and  consequently  sister  of  Agrippa  I.  She 
first  married  Herod  Philip  I. ;  then  she  eloped 
from  him  to  marry  Herod  Antipas,  her  step- 
uncle,  who  had  been  long  married  to,  and 
was  still  living  with,  the  daughter  of  Aeneas 
or  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia.  The  consequences 
both  of  the  crime,  and  of  the  reproof  which 
it  incurred,  are  well  known.  Aretas  made  war 
upon  Herod  for  the  injury  done  to  his  daugh- 
ter, and  routed  him  with  the  loss  of  his  whole 
army.  The  head  of  John  the  Baptist  was 
granted  to  the  request  of  Herodias  (Matt.  xiv. 
8-1 1 ;  Mark  vi.  24-28).  According  to  Josephus 
the  execution  took  place  in  a  fortress  called 
Machaerus,  looking  down  upon  the  Dead  Sea 
from  the  south.  She  accompanied  Antipas 
into  exile  to  Lugdunum. 

Heron.  The  Hebrew  anaphah  appears  as 
the  name  of  an  unclean  bird  in  Lev.  xi.  19, 
Deut.  xiv.  18.  It  was  probably  a  generic  name 
for  a  well-known  class  of  birds.  The  only 
point  on  which  any  two  commentators  seem 
to  agree  is,  that  it  is  not  the  heron.  On  ety- 
mological grounds,  Gesenius  considers  the 
name  applicable  to  some  irritable  bird,  per- 
haps the  goose. 

Hezeki'ah  I.  (the  might  of  Jehovah). 
Twelfth  king  of  Judah,  son  of  the  apostate 
Ahaz  and  Abi  (or  Abijah),  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  age  of  25  B,  C.  726.  Hezekiah 
was  one  of  the  three  most  perfect  kings  of 
Judah  (2  K.  xviiir  5;  Ecclus.  xlix.  4).  His 
first  act  was  to  purge,  and  repair,  and  reopen 
with  splendid  sacrifices  and  perfect  cere- 
monial, the  Temple.  A  still  more  decisive  act 
was  the  destruction  of  a  brazen  serpent,  said 
to  have  been  the  one  used  by  Moses  in  the 
miraculous  healing  of  the  Israelites  (Num. 
xxi.  9),  which  had  become  an  object  of  adora- 
tion. When  the  kingdom  of  Israel  had  fallen, 
Hezekiah  extended  his  pious  endeavors  to 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh ;  and  by  inviting  the 
scattered  inhabitants  to  a  peculiar  Passover, 
kindled  their  indignation  also  against  the 
idolatrous  practices  which  still  continued 
among  them.  This  Passover  was,  from  the 
necessities  of  the  case,  celebrated  at  an  un- 
usual, though  not  illegal  (Num.  ix.  10,  11) 
time ;  and  by  an  excess  of  Levitical  zeal  it 
was  continued  for  the  unprecedented  period 


of  fourteen  days  (2  Chr.  xxix.,  xxx.,  xxxi). 
At  the  head  of  a  repentant  and  united  people, 
Hezekiah  ventured  to  assume  the  aggressive 
against  the  Philistines;  and  in  a  series  of  vic- 
tories not  only  rewon  the  cities  which  his 
father  had  lost  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  18),  but  even 
dispossessed  them  of  their  own  cities,  except 
Gaza  (2  K.  xviii.  8)  and  Gath.  He  refused 
to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Assyria 
(2  K.  xviii.  7).  Instant  war  was  averted  by 
the  heroic  and  long-continued  resistance  of 
the  Tyrians  under  their  king  Eluloeus,  and 
Hezekiah  used  every  available  means  to 
strengthen  his  position,  and  render  his  capital 
impregnable  (2  K.  xx.  20;  2  Chr.  xxxii.  3-5,  30; 
Is.  xxii.  8-1 1,  xxxiii.  18).  It  was  probably  at 
this  dangerous  crisis  that  we  find  him  sick 
and  sending  for  Isaiah,  who  prophesies  death 
as  the  result  (2  K.  xx.  i).  God  had  compas- 
sion on  his  anguish,  and  heard  his  prayer. 
Isaiah  was  ordered  to  promise  the  king  im- 
mediate recovery,  and  a  fresh  lease  of  life, 
ratifying  the  promise  by  a  sign,  and  curing 
the  boil  by  a  plaster  of  figs.  Various  ambas- 
sadors came  with  letters  and  gifts  to  con- 
gratulate Hezekiah  on  his  recovery  (2  Chr. 
xxxii.  23),  and  among  them  an  embassy  from 
Merodach-Baladan  (or  Berodach,  2  K.  xx.  12), 
the  viceroy  of  Babylon.  Community  of  in- 
terest made  Hezekiah  receive  the  overtures 
of  Babylon  with  unconcealed  gratification ; 
and,  perhaps,  to  enhance  the  opinion  of  "his 
own  importance  as  an  ally,  he  displayed  to 
the  messengers  the  princely  treasures  which 
he  and  his  predecessors  had  accumulated.  If 
ostentation  were  his  motive  it  received  a  ter- 
rible rebuke,  and  he  was  informed  by  Isaiah 
that  from  the  then  tottering  and  subordinate 
province  of  Babylon,  and  not  from  the  mighty 
Assyria,  would  come  the  ruin  and  captivity 
of  Judah  (Is.  xxxix.  5).  Sargon  was  suc- 
ceeded (B.  C.  702)  by  his  son  Sennacherib, 
whose  two  invasions  occupy  the  greater  part 
of  the  Scripture  records  concerning  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah.  The  first  of  these  took  place 
in  the  third  year  of  Sennacherib  (B.  C.  702), 
and  occupies  only  three  verses  (2  K.  xviii. 
13-16),  though  the  route  of  the  advancing 
Assyrians  may  be  traced  in  Is.  x.  5,  xi.  Re- 
specting the  commencement  of  the  second  in- 
vasion we  have  full  details  in  2  K.  xviii.  17, 
sq. ;  2  Chr.  xxxii.  9,  sq. ;  Is.  xxxvi.  Senna- 
cherib sent  against  Jerusalem  an  army  under 
two  officers  and  his  cupbearer  the  orator  Rab- 
shakeh,  with  a  blasphemous  and  insulting 
summons  to  surrender.  Hezekiah's  ministers 
were  thrown  into  anguish  and  dismay,  but 
Isaiah  hurled  back  threatening  for  threatening 
with  unrivalled  eloquence  and  force,' promis- 


156 


THE  Ifp'-.fjy 
OF  THE 


HIGH  PLACES 


HIGH-PRIEST 


ing  to  disperse  the  enemy  (2  K.  xix.  6,  7). 
Accordingly  "that  night  the  Angel  of  the  Lord 
went  out  and  smote  in  the  camp  of  the  Assyri- 
ans 185,000  men."  Hezekiah  only  lived  to 
enjoy  for  about  one  year  more  his  well-earned 
peace  and  glory.  He  slept  with  his  fathers 
after  a  reign  of  twenty-nine  years,  in  the  56th 
year  of  his  age  (B.  C.  697).  2.  Son  of  Ne- 
ariah,  one  of  the  descendants  of  the  royal 
famil}^  of  Judah  (i  Chr.  iii.  23).  3.  The  same 
name,  though  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  Hizkiah, 
is  founded  in  Zeph.  i,  i.  4.  Ater-of-Hezekiah, 
[Ater.] 

High  Places.  From  the  earliest  times  it 
was  the  custom  among  all  nations  to  erect 
altars  and  places  of  worship  on  lofty  and  con- 
spicuous spots.  To  this  general  custom  we 
find  constant  allusion  in  the  Bible  (Is.  Ixv.  7 ; 
Jer.  iii.  6;  Ez.  vi.  13,  xviii.  6;  Hos.  iv.  13),  and 
it  is  especially  attributed  to  the  Moabites  (Is. 
XV.  2,  xvi.  12;  Jer.  xlviii.  35).  Even  Abraham 
built  an  altar  to  the  Lord  on  a  mountain  near 
Bethel  (xii.  7,  8;  cf.  xxii.  2-4,  xxxi.  54).  Not- 
withstanding this  it  was  implicitly  forbidden 
by  the  law  of  Moses  (Deut.  xii.  11-14),  which 
also  gave  the  strictest  injunction  to  destroy 
these  monuments  of  Canaanitish  idolatry 
(Lev.  xxvi.  30;  Num.  xxxiii.  52;  Deut.  xxxiii. 
29).  The  command  was  a  prospective  one, 
and  was  not  to  come  into  force  until  such  time 
as  the  tribes  were  settled  in  the  promised  land. 
Thus  we  find  that  both  Gideon  and  Manoah 
built  altars  on  high  places  by  Divine  command 
(Judg.  vi.  25,  26,  xiii.  16-23),  and  it  is  quite 
clear,  from  the  tone  of  the  'book  of  Judges 
that  the  law  on  the  subject  was  either  totally 
forgotten  or  practically  obsolete.  It  is  more 
surprising  to  find  this  law  absolutely  ignored 
at  a  much  later  period,  when  there  was  no 
intelligible  reason  for  its  violation — as  by 
Samuel  at  Mizpeh  (i  Sam.  vii.  10)  and  at 
Bethlehem  (xvi.  5)  ;  by  Saul  at  Gilgal  (xiii. 
9)  and  at  Ajalon  (?  xiv.  35)  ;  by  David  (i  Chr. 
xxi.  26)  ;  by  Elijah  on  Mount  Carmel  (i  K. 
xviii.  30)  ;  and  by  other  prophets  (i  Sam. 
x.  5).  The  explanations  which  are  given  are 
sufficiently  unsatisfactory ;  but  it  is  at  any 
rate  certain  that  the  worship  in  high  places 
was  organized  and  all  but  universal  through- 
out Judea,  not  only  during  (i  K.  iii.  2-4),  but 
even  after  the  time  of  Solomon.  At  last  Heze- 
kiah set  himself  in  good  earnest  to  the  sup- 
pression of  this  prevalent  corruption  (2  K. 
xviii.  4,  22),  both  in  Judah  and  Israel  (2  Chr. 
xxxi.  1),  although,  so  rapid  was  the  growth 
of  the  evil,  that  even  his  sweeping  reforma- 
tion required  to  be  finally  consummated  by 
Josiah  (2  K.  xxiii.),  and  that  too  in  Jerusalem 
and  its  immediate  neighborhood  (2  Chr.  xxiv. 


3).  After  the  time  of  Josiah  we  find  no  fur- 
ther mention  of  these  Jehovistic  high  places. 

High-priest,  i.  The  fir-st  distinct  separa- 
tion of  Aaron  to  the  office  of  the  priesthood, 
which  previously  belonged  to  the  first-born, 
was  that  recorded  Ex.  xxviii.  We  find  from 
the  very  first  the  following  characteristic  at- 
tributes of  Aaron  and  the  high-priests  his  suc- 
cessors, as  distinguished  from  the  other 
priests:  (i)  Aaron  alone  was  anointed  (Lev. 
viii.  12),  whence  one  of  the  distinctive  epi- 
thets of  the  high-priest  was  "the  anointed 
priest"  (Lev.  iv.  3,  5,  16,  xxi.  10;  see  Num. 
xxxv.  25).  This  appears  also  from  Ex.  xxix. 
29,  30.  The  anointing  of  the  sons  of  Aaron, 
i.  e.  the  common  priests,  seems  to  have  been 
confined  to  sprinkling  their  garments  with  the 
anointing  oil  (Ex.  xxix.  21,  xxviii.  41,  &c.). 
The  anointing  of  the  high-priest  is  alluded  to 
in  Ps.  cxxxiii.  2.  (2)  Aaron  had  peculiar 
functions.  To  him  alone  it  appertained, 
and  he  alone  was  permitted,  to  enter  the 
Holy  of  Holies,  which  he  did  once  a  year, 


High  Priest. 

on  the  great  day  of  atonement,  when  he 
sprinkled  the  blood  of  the  sin-ofifering  on  the 
mercy-seat,  and  burnt  incense  within  the  veil 
(Lev.  xvi.).  (3)  The  high-priest  had  a  pecu- 
liar place  in  the  law  of  the  manslayer,  and 
his  taking  sanctuary  in  the  cities  of  refuge. 
The  man-sjayer  might  not  leave  the  city  of 
refuge  during  the  lifetime  of  the  existing  high- 
priest  who  was  anointed  with  the  holy  oil 
(Num.  xxxv.  25,  28).  It  was  also  forbidden 
to  the  high-priest  to  follow  a  funeral,  or  rend 
his  clothes  for  the  dead,  according  to  the 
precedent  in  Lev.  x.  6.  The  Rabbins  speak 
very  frequently  of  one  second  in  dignity  to 
the  high-priest,  whom  they  call  the  Sagan, 
and  who  often  acted  in  the  high-priest's  room. 
He  is  the  same  who  in  the  O.  T.  is  called 
"the  second  priest"  (2  K.  xxiii.  4,  xxv.  18). 
Thus  too  it  is  explained  of  Annas  and  Caia- 
phas  (Luke  iii.  2),  that  Annas  was  Sagan. 


157 


HILLEL 


HITTITES 


Ananias  is  also  thought  by  some  to  have  been 
Sagan,  acting  for  the  high-priest  (Acts  xxiii. 
2). — It  does  not  appear  by  whose  authority 
the  high-priests  were  appointed  to  their  office 
before  there  were  kings  of  Israel.  But  as  we 
find  it  invariably  done  by  the  civil  power  in 
later  times,  it  is  probable,  that  in  the  times 
preceding  the  monarchy,  it  was  by  the  elders, 
or  Sanhedrim.  It  should  be  added,  that  the 
usual  age  for  entering  upon  the  functions  of 
the  priesthood,  according  to  2  Chr,  xxxi.  17, 
is  considered  to  have  been  20  years,  though  a 
priest  or  high-priest  was  not  actually  incapaci- 
tated if  he  had  attained  to  puberty.  Again, 
according  to  Lev.  xxi.,  no  one  that  had  a 
blemish  could  officiate  at  the  altar. 

Hil'lel,  a  native  of  Pirathon  in  Mount  Eph- 
raim,  father  of  Abdon,  one  of  the  judges  of 
Israel  (Judg.  xii.  13,  15). 

Hills.  The  structure  and  characteristics  of 
the  hills  of  Palestine  will  be  most  conveni- 
ently noticed  in  the  general  description  of  the 
features  of  the  country.  But  it  may  not  be 
unprofitable  to  call  attention  here  to  the  vari- 
ous Hebrew  terms  for  which  the  word  "hill" 
has  been  employed  in  the  Auth.  Version. 
I.  Gibeah,  from  a  root  which  seems  to  have 
the  force  of  curvature  or  humpishness.  A 
word  involving  this  idea  is  peculiarly  applic- 
able to  the  rounded  hills  of  Palestine.  2.  But 
our  translators  have  also  employed  the  same 
English  word  for  the  very  different  term  har, 
which  has  a  much  more  extended  sense  than 
gibeah,  meaning  a  whole  district  rather  than 
an  individual  eminence,  and  to  which  our  word 
"mountain"  answers  with  tolerable  accuracy. 
For  instance,  in  Ex.  xxiv.  4,  the  "hill"  is  the 
same  which  is  elsewhere  in  the  same  chapter 
(12,  13,  18,  &c.)  and  book  consistently  and 
accurately  rendered  "mount"  and  "mountain." 
"The  country  of  the  hills,"  in  Deut.  i.  7 ;  Josh, 
ix.  I,  X.  40,  xi.  16,  is  the  elevated  district  of 
Judah,  Benjamin  and  Ephraim,  which  is  cor- 
rectly called  "the  mountain"  in  the  earliest 
descriptions  of  Palestine  (Num.  xiii.  29),  and 
in  many  subsequent  passages.  3.  On  one  oc- 
casion the  word  Ma'aleh,  better  "ascent,"  is 
rendered  "hill"  (i  Sam.  ix.  11).  4.  In  the 
N.  T.  the  word  "hill"  is  employed  to  render 
the  Greek  word  Bouvos ;  but  on  one  occasion 
it  is  used  for  ogos,  elsewhere  "mountain,"  so 
as  to  obscure  the  connection  between  the  two 
parts  of  the  same  narrative  (Luke  ix.  37). 

Hind,  the  female  of  the  common  stag.  It 
is  frequently  noticed  in  the  poetical  parts  of 
Scripture  as  emblematic  of  activity  (Gen.  xlix. 
21  ;  2  Sam.  xxii.  34;  Ps.  xviii.  33;  Hab.  iii.  19), 
gentleness  (Prov.  v.  19),  feminine  modesty 
(Cant.  ii.  7,  iii.  5),  earnest  longing  (Ps.  xlii.  i), 


and  maternal  aflfection  (Jer.  xiv.  5).  Its  shy- 
ness and  remoteness  from  the  haunts  of  men 
are  also  alluded  to  (Job.  xxxix.  i),  and  its 
timidity,  causing  it  to  cast  its  young  at  the 
sound  of  thunder  (Ps.  xxix.  9). 

Hinge.  Both  ancient  Egyptian  and  mod- 
ern Oriental  doors  were  and  are  hung  by 
means  of  pivots  turning  in  sockets  both  on 
the  upper  and  lower  sides  (i  K.  vii.  50).-  In 
Syria,  and  especially  the  Hauran,  there  are 
many  ancient  doors  consisting  of  stone  slabs 
with  pivots  carved  out  of  the  same  piece,  in- 
serted in  sockets  above  and  below,  and  fixed 
during  the  building  of  the  house.  The  allu- 
sion in  Prov.  xxvi.  14  is  thus  clearly  explained. 

Hin'nom,  Valley  of,  otherwise  called  "the 
valley  of  the  son"  or  "children  of  Hinnom,"  a 
deep  and  narrow  ravine,  with  steep  rocky 
sides  to  the  S.  and  W.  of  Jerusalem,  separat- 
ing Mount  Zion  to  the  N.  from  the  "Hill  of 
Evil  Counsel,"  and  the  sloping  rocky  plateau 
of  the  "plain  of  Rephaim"  to  the  S.  The 
earliest  mention  of  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  is 
in  Josh.  XV.  8,  xviii.  16,  where  the  boundary- 
line  between  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benja- 
min is  described,  as  passing  along  the  bed  of 
the  ravine.  On  the  southern  brow,  overlook- 
ing the  valley  at  its  eastern  extremity,  Sol- 
omon erected  high  places  for  Molech  (l  K. 
xi.  7),  whose  horrid  rites  were  revived  from 
time  to  time  in  the  same  vicinity  by  the  later 
idolatrous  kings.  Ahaz  and  Manasseh  made 
their  children  "pass  through  the  fire"  in  this 
valley  (2  K.  xvi.  3 ;  2  Chr.  xxviii.  3,  xxxiii.  6)', 
and  the  fiendish  custom  of  infant  sacrifice  to 
the  fire-gods  seems  to  have  been  kept  up  in 
Tophet,  at  its  S.  E.  extremity,  for  a  consider- 
able period  (Jer.  vii.  31;  2  K.  xxx.  10).  To 
put  an  end  to  these  abominations  the  place 
was  polluted  by  Josiah,  who  rendered  it  cere- 
monially unclean  by  spreading  over  it  human 
bones,  and  other  corruptions  (2  K.  xxiii.  10, 
13,  14-;  2  Chr.  xxxiv.  4,  5),  from  which  time 
it  appears  to  have  become  the  common  cess- 
pool of  the  city,  into  which  its  sewage  was 
conducted,  to  be  carried  ofif  by  the  waters  of 
the  Kidron,  as  well  as  a  lay-stall,  where  all  its 
solid  filth  was  collected.  From  its  ceremonial 
defilement,  and  from  the  detested  and  abomin- 
able fire  of  Molech,  if  not  from  the  supposed 
ever-burning  funeral  piles,  the  later  Jews  ap- 
plied the  name  of  this  valley  Ge  Hinnom, 
Gehenna,  to  denote  the  place  of  eternal  tor- 
ment. In  this  sense  the  word  is  used  by 
our  Lord  (Matt.  v.  29,  x,  28,  xxiii.  15;  Mark 
ix.  43  ;  Luke  xii.  5). 

Hit'tites,  The,  the  nation  descended  from 
Cheth  (A.  V.  "Heth"),  the  second  son  of 
Canaan.   Abraham  bought  from  the  "Children 

58 


HIVITES 


HOR 


of  Heth,"  the  field  and  the  cave  of  Machpelah, 
belonging  to  Ephron  the  Hittite.  They  were 
then  settled  at  the  town  which  was  after- 
wards, under  its  new  name  of  Hebron,  to 
become  one  of  the  most  famous  cities  of  Pales- 
tine, then  bearing  the  name  of  Kirjath-arba 
(Gen.  xxiii.  19,  xxv.  9).  When  the  Israelites 
entered  the  Promised  Land,  we  find  the  Hit- 
tites  taking  their  part  against  the  invader,  in 
equal  alliance  with  the  other  Capaanite  tribes 
(Josh.  ix.  I,  xi.  3,  &c.).  Henceforward  the 
notices  of  the  Hittites  are  very  few  and  faint. 
We  meet  with  two  individuals,  both  attached 
to  the  person  of  David,  (i)  "Ahimelech  the 
Hittite"  (i  Sam.  xxvi.  6).  (2)  "Uriah  the 
Hittite,"  one  of  "the  thirty"  of  David's  body- 
guard (2  Sam.  xxiii.  39;  i  Chr.  xi.  41). 

Hivites,  The.  In  the  genealogical  tables  of 
Genesis,  "the  Hivite"  is  named  as  one  of  the 
descendants — the  sixth  in  order — of  Canaan, 
the  son  of  Ham  (Gen.  x.  17;  i  Chr.  i.  15).  We 
first  encounter  the  actual  people  of  the  Hivites 
at  the  time  of  Jacob's  return  to  Canaan. 
Shechem  was  then  in  their  possession,  Hamor 
the  Hivite  being  the  "prince  of  the  land" 
(Gen.  xxxiv.  2).  We  next  meet  with  the 
Hivites  during  the  conquest  of  Canaan  (Josh, 
ix.  7,  xi.  19).  The  main  body  of  the  Hivites 
were  at  this  time  living  on  the  northern  con- 
fines of  western  Palestine — "under  Hermon, 
in  the  land  of  Mizpeh"'  (Josh.  xi.  3) — "in 
Mount  Lebanon,  from  Mount  Baal-Hermon  to 
the  entering  of  Hamath"  (Judg.  iii.  3 ;  comp. 
2  Sam.  xxiv.  7). 

Holofer'nes,-  or,  more  correctly,  Olofernes, 
was,  according  to  the  book  of  Judith,  a  gen- 
eral of  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  the  Assyrians 
(Jud.  ii.  4),  who  was  slain  by  the  Jewish 
heroine  Judith  during  the  siege  of  Bethulia. 

Homer.  [Measures.] 

Honey.  The  Hebrew  dcbash,  in  the  first 
place,  applies  to  the  product  of  the  bee,  to 
which  we  exclusively  give  the  name  of  honey. 
All  travelers  agree  in  describing  Palestine  as 
a  land  "flowing  with  milk  and  honey"  (Ex. 
iii.  8)  ;  bees  being  abundant  even  in  the  re- 
mote parts  of  the  wilderness,  where  they  de- 
posit-^heir  honey  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks 
or  in  hollow  trees.  In  some  parts  of  northern 
Arabia  the  hills  are  so  well  stocked  with  bees, 
that  no  sooner  are  hives  placed  than  they  are 
occupied.  In  the  second  place  the  term  dehash 
applies  to  a  decoction  of  the  juice  of  the  grape, 
which  is  still  called  dibs,  and  which  forms  an 
article  of  commerce  in  the  East ;  it  was  this, 
and  not  ordinary  bee-honey,  which  Jacob  sent 
to  Joseph  (Gen.  xliii.  11),  and  which  the 
Tyrians  purchased  from  Palestine  (Ez.  xxvii. 
17).   A  third  kind  has  been  described  by  some 


writers  as  "vegetable"  honey,  by  which  is 
meant  the  exudations  of  certain  trees  and 
shrubs,  found  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  or  the 
stunted  oaks  of  Luristan  and  Mesopotamia. 
The  honey  which  Jonathan  ate  in  the  wood  (i 
Sam.  xiv.  25),  and  the  "wild  honey"  which 
supported  John  the  Baptist  (Matt.  iii.  4),  have 
been  referred  to  this  species.  But  it  was  prob- 
ably the  honey  of  the  wild  bees. 

Hook,  Hooks.  Various  kinds  of  hooks  are 
noticed  in  the  Bible,  of  which  the  following 
are  the  most  important:  i.  Fishing  hooks 
(Am.  iv.  2;  Job  xli.  2;  Is.  xix.  8;  Hab.  i.  15). 
2.  Properly  a  ring  (A.  V.  "thorn"),  placed 
through  the  mouth  of  a  large  fish  and  attached 
by  a  cord  to  a  stake  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing it  alive  in  the  water  (Job  xli.  2)  ;  the  word 
meaning  the  cord  is  rendered  "hook"  in  the 
A.  V.  3.  A  ring,  such  as  in  our  country  is 
placed  through  the  nose  of  a  bull,  and  similarly 
used  in  the  East  for  leading  about  lions  (Ez. 
xix.  4,  where  the  A.  V.  has  "with  chains"). 


Flesh-Hooks. 

camels,  and  other  animals.  A  similar  method 
was  adopted  for  leading  prisoners,  as  in  the 
case  of  Manasseh,  who  was  led  with  rings  (2 
Chr.  xxxiii.  11;  A.  V.  "in  the  thorns").  An 
illustration  of  this  practice  is  found  in  a  bass- 
relief  discovered  at  Khorsabad  (Layard,  ii. 
376).  4.  The  hooks  of  the  pillars  of  the  Taber- 
nacle. (Ex.  xxvi.  32,  37,  xxvii.  10,  fif.,  xxxviii. 
13,  fif.  5.  A  vine-dresser's  pruning-hook  (Is.  ii. 
4,  xviii.  5;  Mic.  iv.  3  ;  Joel  iii.  10).  6.  A  flesh- 
hook  for  getting  up  the  joints  of  meat  out  of 
the  boiling-pot  (Ex.  xxvii.  3;  I  Sam.  ii.  13,  14). 
7.  Probably  "hooks"  used  for  the  purpose  of 
hanging  up  animals  to  flay  them  (Ez.  xl.  43). 

Hor,  Mount,  i.  The  mountain  on  which 
Aaron  died  (Num.  xx.  25,  27).  The  word  Hor 
is  probably  an  archaic  form  of  Har,  the  usual 
Hebrew  term  for  "mountain."  It  was  "on  the 
boundary  line"  (Num.  xx.  23)  or  "at  the  edge" 
(xxxiii.  37)  of  the  land  of  Edom.  It  was  the 
halting-place  of  the  people  next  after  Kadesh 
(xx.  22,  xxxiii.  37),  and  they  quitted  it  for 
Zalmonah  (xxxiii.  41)  in  the  road  to  the  Red 
Sea  (xxi.  4).  It  was  during  the  encampment 
at  Kadesh  that  Aaron  was  gathered  to  his 
fathers.    It  is  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of 


159 


HORN 


HORSE 


the  great  valley  of  the  Arabah,  the  highest  and 
most  conspicuous  of  the  whole  range  of  the 
sandstone  mountains  of  Edom,  having  close 
beneath  it  on  its  eastern  side  the  mysterious 
city  of  Petra.  The  tradition  has  existed  from 
the  earliest  date.  It  is  now  the  Jebel  Nebi- 
Hariin,  "the  mountain  of  the  Prophet  Aaron." 
Its  height  is  4800  feet  above  the  Mediter- 
ranean, that  is  to  say,  about  1700  feet  above 
the  town  of  Petra,  4000  above  the  level  of  the 
Arabah,  and  more  than  6000  above  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  mountain  is  marked  far  and  near 
by  its  double  top,  which  rises  like  a  huge 
castellated  building  from  a  lower  base,  and  is 
surmounted  by  a  circular  dome  of  the  tomb 
of  Aaron,  a  distinct  white  spot  on  the  dark 
red  surface  of  the  mountain.  The  chief  inter- 
est of  Mount  Hor  consists  in  the  prospect 
from  its  summit — the  last  view  of  Aaron — that 
view  which  was  to  him  what  Pisgah  was  tO' 
his  brother.  2.  A  mountain,  entirely  distinct 
from  the  preceding,  named  in  Num.  xxxiv.  7, 
8,  only,  as  one  of  the  marks  of  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  land  which  the  children  of 
Israel  were  about  to  conquer.  This  "Mount 
Hor"  is  the  great  chain  of  Lebanon  itself. 

I^orn.  The  word  "horn"  is  often  used  meta- 
phorically to  signify  strength  and  honor.  Of 
strength  the  horn  of  the  unicorn  was  the  most 


/  Mount  Hor. 

frequent  representative  (Deut.  xxxiii.  17,  &c.), 
but  not  always;  comp.  i  K.  xxii.  11,  where 
probably  horns  of  iron,  worn  defiantly  and 
symbolically  on  the  head,  are  intended.  Among 
the  Druses  upon  Mount  Lebanon  the  married 
women  wear  silver  horns  on  their  heads.  In 
the  sense  of  honor,  the  word  horn  stands  for 
the  abstract  (my  horn,  Job  xvi.  15;  all  the 
horns  of  Israel,  Lam.  ii.  3),  and  so  for  the 
supreme  authority.  It  also  stands  for  the  con- 
crete, whence  it  comes  to  mean  king,  kingdom 


(Dan.  viii.  2,  &c. ;  Zech.  i,  18).  Out  of  either 
or  both  of  these  two  last  metaphors  sprang  the 
idea  of  representing  gods  with  horns. 

Hornet.  In  Scripture  the  hornet  is  referred 
to  only  as  the  means  which  Jehovah  employed 
for  the  extirpation  of  the  Canaanites  (Ex. 
xxiii.  28;  Deut.  vii.  20;  Josh.  xxiv.  12;  Wisd. 
xii.  8).  Some  commentators  regard  the  word 
as  used  in  its  literal  sense,  but  it  more  proba- 
bly expresses  under  a  vivid  image  the  con- 
sternation with  which  Jehovah  would  inspire 


Horns  worn  as  Head-ornaments. 

the  enemies  of  the  Israelites,  as  declared  in 
Deut.  ii.  25,  Josh.  ii.  11. 

Horse.  The  most  striking  feature  in  the 
Biblical  notices  of  the  horse  is  the  exclusive 
application  of  it  to  warlike  operations ;  in  no 
instance  is  that  useful  animal  employed  for 
the  purpose  of  ordinary  locomotion  or  agri- 
culture, if  we  except  Is.  xxviii.  28,  where  we 
learn  that  horses  (A.  V.  "horsemen")  were 
employed  in  threshing,  not,  however,  in  that 
case  put  in  the  gears,  but  simply  driven  about 
wildly  over  the  strewed  grain.  The  animated 
description  of  the  horse  in  Job  xxxix.  19-25  ap- 
plies solely  to  the  war-horse.  The  Hebrews 
in  the  patriarchal  age,  as  a  pastoral  race,  did 
not  stand  in  need  of  the  services  of  the  horse, 
and  for  a  long  period  after  their  settlement  in 
Canaan  they  dispensed  with  it,  partly  in  con- 
sequence of  the  hilly  nature  of  the  country, 
which  only  admitted  of  the  use  of  chariots  in 
certain  localities  (Judg.  i.  19),  arud  partly  in 
consequence  of  the  .prohibition  in  Deut.  xvii. 
16,  which  would  be  held  to  apply  at  all  periods. 
David  first  established  a  force  of  cavalry  and 
chariots  after  the  defeat  of  Hadadezer  (2  Sam. 
viii.  4).  But  the  great  supply  of  horses  was 
subsequently  ef¥ected  by  Solomon  through  his 
connection  with  Egypt  (i  K.  iv.  26).  Solomon 
also  establish-ed  a  very  active  trade  in  horses, 
which  were  brought  by  dealers  out  of  Egypt 
and  resold  at  a  profit  to  the  Hittites,  who  lived 
between  Palestine  and  the  Euphrates  (i  K.  x. 
60 


1 


HOSANNA 


HOUR 


28,  29).  In  the  countries  adjacent  to  Pales- 
tine, the  use  of  the  horse  was  much  more  fre- 
quent. It  was  introduced  into  Egj'^pt  proba- 
bl}^  by  the  Hyksos,  as  it  is  not  represented  on 
the  monuments  before  the  i8th  dynasty.  The 
Jewish  kings  sought  the  assistance  of  the 
Egj'ptians  against  the  Assyrians  in  this  re- 
spect (Is,  xxxi.  I,  xxxvi.  8;  Ez.  xvii.  15).  But 
the  cavalry  of  the  Assyrians  and  other  eastern 
nations  was  regarded  as  most  formidable;  the 
horses  themselves  were  highly  bred,  as  the 
Assyrian  sculptures  still  testify,  and  fully 
merited  the  praise  bestowed  on  them  by 
Habakkuk  (i.  8).  With  regard  to  the  trap- 
pings and  management  of  the  horse  we  have 
little  information ;  the  bridle  was  placed  over 
the  horse's  nose  (Is.  xxx.  28),  and  a  bit  or  curb 
is  also  mentioned  (2  K.  xix.  28 ;  Ps.  xxxii.  9 ; 
Prov.  xxvi.  3 ;  Is.  xxxvii.  29 ;  in  the  A.  V.  it 
is  incorrectly  given  "bridle,"  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Ps.  xxxii.).  The  harness  of  the  Assyrian 
horses  was  profusely  decorated,  the  bits  being 
gilt  (i  Esdr.  iii.  6),  and  the  bridle  adorned 
with  tassels ;  on  the  neck  was  a  collar  ter- 
minating in  a  bell,  as  described  by  Zechariah 
(xiv.  20).  Saddles  were  not  used  until  a  late 
period.  The  horses  were  not  shod,  and  there- 
fore hoofs  as  hard  "as  flint"  (Is.  v.  28)  were 
regarded  as  a  great  merit.  The  chariot-horses 
were  covered  with  embroidered  trappings  (Ez. 
xxvii.  20).  Horses  and  chariots  were  vised 
also  in  idolatrous  processions,  as  noticed  in 
regard  to  the  sun  (2  K.  xxiii.  11). 

Hosan'na  ("Save;  we  pray"),  the  cry  of  the 
multitudes  as  they  thronged  in  our  Lord's 
triumphal  procession  into  Jerusalem  (Matt, 
xxi.  9,  15;  ^Mark  xi.  9,  10;  John  xii.  13).  The 
Psalm  from  which  it  was  taken,  the  11 8th,  was 
one  with  which  they  were  familiar  from  being 
accustomed  to  recite  the  25th  and  26th  verses 
at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  On  that  occasion 
the  Hallel,  consisting  of  Psalms  cxiii.-cxviii., 
was  chanted  by  one  of  the  priests,  and  at  cer- 
tain intervals  the  multitudes  joined  in  the  re- 
sponses, waving  their  branches  of  willow  and 
palm,  and  shouting  as  they  waved  them,  Hal- 
lelujah, or  Hosanna,  or  "O  Lord,  I  beseech 
thee,  send  now  prosperity"  (Ps.  cxviii.  25). 

Hose'a  (salvation),  son  of  Beeri,  and  first  of 
the  Minor  Prophets.  The  title  of  the  book 
gives  for  the  beginning  of  Hosea's  ministry  the 
reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  but  limits  this 
vague  definition  by  reference  to  Jeroboam  II., 
king  of  Israel;  it  therefore  yields  a  date  not 
later  than  B.  C.  783.  The  pictures  of  social 
and  political  life  which  Hosea  draws  so  forci- 
bly are  rather  applicable  to  the  interregnum 
which  followed  the  death  of  Jeroboam  (782- 
772),  and  to  the  reign  of  the  succeeding  kings. 


It  seems  almost  certain  that  very  few  of  his 
prophecies  were  written  until  after  the  death 
of  Jeroboam  (783),  and  probably  the  life,  or 
rather  the  prophetic  career,  of  Hosea  extended 
from  784  to  725,  a  period  of  fifty-nine  years. 
The  prophecies  of  Hosea  were  delivered  in  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  The  prophecies  were 
probably  collected  by  Hosea  himself  towards 
the  end  of  his  career. 

Hospitality.  Hospitality  was  regarded  by 
most  nations  of  the  ancient  world  as  one  of  the 
chief  virtues.  Among  the  Arabs  we  find  the 
best  illustrations  of  the  old  Bible  narratives, 
and  among  them  see  traits  that  might  beseem 
their  ancestor  Abraham.  The  laws  respecting 
strangers  (Lev.  xix.  33,  34)  and  the  poor  (Lev. 
xxv.  14,  seq. ;  Deut.  xv.  7),  and  concerning  re- 
demption (Lev.  xxv.  23,  seqq.),  &c.,  are  framed 
in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  hospitality ; 
and  the  strength  of  the  national  feeling  regard- 
ing it  is  shown  in  the  incidental  mentions  of 
its  practice.  In  the  Law,  compassion  to 
strangers  is  constantly  enforced  by  the  words 
"for  ye  were  strangers  in  the  land  of  Egypt" 
(Lev.  xix.  34).  And  before  the  Law,  Abra- 
ham's entertainment  of  the  angels  (Gen.  xviii. 
I,  seqq.)  and  Lot's  (xix.  i),  are  in  exact  agree- 
ment with  its  precepts,  and  with  modern  usage 
(comp.  Ex.  ii.  20;  Judg.  xiii.  15,  xix.  17,  20, 
21).  In  the  N.  T.  hospitality  is  yet  more 
markedly  enjoined ;  and  in  the  more  civilized 
state  of  society  which  then  prevailed,  its  exer- 
cise became  more  a  social  virtue  than  a  neces- 
sity of  patriarchal  life.  The  good  Samaritan 
stands  for  all  ages  as  an  example  of  Christian 
hospitality,  embodying  the  command  to  love 
one's  neighbor  as  himself. 

Hour.  The  ancient  Hebrews  were  probably 
unacquainted  with  the  division  of  the  natural 
day  into  24  parts;  but  they  afterwards  par- 
celled out  the  period  between  sunrise  and  sun- 
set into  a  series  of  divisions  distinguished  by 
the  sun's  course.  The  early  Jews  appear  to 
have  divided  the  day  into  four  parts  (Neh.  ix. 
3),  and  the  night  into  three  watches  (Judg. 
vii.  19),  and  even  in  the  N.  T.  we  find  a  trace 
of  this  division  in  Matt.  xx.  1-5.  The  Greeks 
adopted  the  division  of  the  day  into  12  hours 
from  the  Babylonians.  At  what  period  the 
Jews  became  first  acquainted  with  this  way  of 
reckoning  time  is  unknown,  but  it  is  generally 
supposed  that  they  too  learnt  it  from  the 
Babylonians  during  the  captivity.  In  what- 
ever way  originated,  it  was  known  to  the 
Egyptians  at  a  very  early  period.  They  had 
12  hours  of  the  day  and  of  the  night.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  hours,  viz.  (i.)  the  astronomi- 
cal or  equinoctial  hour,  i.  e.  the  24th  part  of  a 
civil  day,  and  (2.)  the  natural  hour,  i-.  e.  the 


161 


HOUSE 


HOUSE 


I2th  part  of  the  natural  day,  or  of  the  time 
between  sunrise  and  sunset.  These  are  the 
hours  meant  in  the  N.  T.  (John  xi.  9,  &c.), 
and  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  per- 
petually vary  in  length,  so  as  to  be  very  dif- 
ferent at  different  times  of  the  year.  For  the 
purposes  of  prayer  the  old  division  of  the  day 
into  4  portions  was  continued  in  the  Temple 
service,  as  we  see  from  Acts  ii.  15,  iii.  i,  x.  9. 


XJpper  Room. 

House.  The  houses  of  the  rural  poor  in 
Egypt,  as  well  as  in  most  parts  of  Syria, 
Arabia,  and  Persia,  are  for  the  most  part  mere 
huts  of  mud,  or  sunburnt  bricks.  In  some 
parts  of  Palestine  and  Arabia  stone  is  used, 
and  in  certain  districts  caves  in  the  rock  are 
used  as  dwellings  (Amos  v.  11).  The  houses 
are  usually  of  one  story  only,  viz.,  the  ground 
floor,  and  often  contain  only  one  apartment. 
Sometimes  a  small  court  for  the  cattle  is  at- 
tached ;  and  in  some  cases    the    cattle  are 


Court  of  an  Eastern  House. 

housed  in  the  same  building,  or  the  people  live 
on  a  raised  platform,  and  the  cattle  round 
them  on  the  ground  (i  Sam.  xxviii.  24).  The 
windows  are  small  apertures  high  up  in  the 
walls,  sometimes  grated  with  wood.  The  roofs 
are  commonly  but  not  always  flat,  and  are 
usually  formed  of  a  plaster  of  mud  and  straw 
laid  upon  boughs  or  rafters ;  and  upon  the  flat 
roofs,  tents  or  "booths"  of  boughs  or  rushes 

I 


are  often  raised  to  be  used  as  sleeping-places 
in  summer.  The  difference  between  the  poor- 
est houses  and  those  of  the  class  next  above 
them  is  greater  than  between  these  and  the 
houses  of  the  first  rank.  The  prevailing  plan 
of  Eastern  houses  of  this  class  presents,  as, 
was  the  case  in  ancient  Egypt,  a  front  of  wall, 
whose  blank  and  mean  appearance  is  usually 
relieved  only  by  the  door  and  a  few  latticed 
and  projecting  windows.  Within  this  is  a 
court  or  courts  with  apartments  opening  into 
them.  Over  the  door  is  a  projecting  window 
with  a  lattice  more  or  less  elaborately 
wrought,  which,  except  in  times  of  public  cele- 
brations, is  usually  closed  (2  K.  ix.  30).  An 
awning  is  sometimes  drawn  over  the  court, 
and  the  floor  strewed  with  carpets  on  festive 
occasions.  The  stairs  to  the  upper  apartments 
are  in  Syria  usually  in  a  corner  of  the  court. 
Around  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  court  is  a 
veranda,  often  nine  or  ten   feet   deep,  over 


Outer  Staircase  of  an  Eastern  House. 

which,  when  there  is  more  than  one  floor,  runs 
a  second  gallery  of  like  depth  with  a 
balustrade.  Bearing  in  mind  that  the  recep- 
tion room  is  raised  above  the  level  of  the  court, 
we  may,  in  explaining  the  circumstances  of 
the  miracle  of  the  paralytic  (Mark  ii.  3;  Luke 
V.  18),  suppose,  I,  either  that  our  Lord  was 
standing  under  the  veranda,  and  the  people  in 
front  in  the  court.  The  bearers  of  the  sick 
man  ascended  the  stairs  to  the  roof  of  the 
house,  and  taking  off  a  portion  of  the  boarded 
covering  of  the  veranda,  or  removing  the  awn- 
ing, in  the  former  case  let  down  the  bed 
through  the  veranda  roof,  or  in  the  latter, 
down  by  way  of  the  roof,  and  deposited  it  be- 
fore the  Saviour.  2.  Another  explanation  pre- 
sents itself  in  considering  the  room  where  the 
company  were  assembled  as  the  "upper  room," 
and  the  roof  opened  for  the  bed  to  be  the  true 
roof  of  the  house.  3.  And  one  still  more  sim- 
ple is  found  in  regarding  the  house  as  one  of 
the  rude  dwellings  now  to  be  seen  near  the 
62 


HOUSE 


HUR 


Sea  of  Galilee,  a  mere  room  lo  or  12  feet  high, 
and  as  many  or  more  square,  with  no  opening 
except  the  door.  The  roof,  used  as  a  sleeping- 
place,  is  reached  by  a  ladder  from  the  outside, 
and  the  bearers  of  the  paralytic,  unable  to  ap- 
proach the  door,  would  thus  have  ascended  the 
roof,  and  having  uncovered  it,  let  him  down 
into  the  room  where  our  Lord  was.  When 
there  is  no  second  floor,  but  more  than  one 
court,  the  women's  apartments,  hareem, 
harem,  or  haram,  are  usually  in  the  second 
court ;  otherv*-ise  they  form  a  separate  building 
within  the  general  enclosure,  or  are  above  on 
the  first  floor.  When  there  is  an  upper  story, 
the  Ka'ah  forms  the  most  important  apart- 
ment, and  thus  probably  answers  to  the  "upper 
room,"  which  was  often  the  "guest-chamber" 
(Luke  xxii.  12;  Acts  i.  13,  ix.  37,  xx.  8).  The 
windows  of  the  upper  rooms  often  project  one 
or  two  feet,  and  form  a  kiosk  or  latticed  cham- 
ber. Such  may  have  been  "the  chamber  in 
the  wall"  (2  K.  iv.  10,  11).  The  "lattice," 
through  which  Ahaziah  fell,  perhaps  belonged 
to  an  upper  chamber  of  this  kind  (2  K.  i.  2), 


Eastern  Battlemented  House. 

as  also  the  "third  loft,"  from  which  Eutychus 
fell  (Acts  xx.  9;  comp.  Jer.  xxii.  13).  There 
are  usually  no  special  bedrooms  in  Eastern 
houses.  The  outer  doors  are  closed  with  a 
wooden  lock,  but  in  some  cases  the  apartments 
are  divided  from  each  other  by  curtains  only. 
There  are  no  chimneys,  but  fire  is  made  when 
required  with  charcoal  in  a  chafing-dish  ;  or  a 
fire  of  wood  might  be  kindled  in  the  open  court 
of  the  house  (Luke  xxii.  55).  Some  houses  in 
Cairo  have  an  apartment,  open  in  front  to  the 
court,  with  two  or  more  arches,  and  a  railing; 
and  a  pillar  to  support  the  wall  above.  It  was 
in  a  chamber  of  this  kind,  probably  one  of  the 
largest  size  to  be  found  in  a  palace,  that  our 
Lord  was  being  arraigned  before  the  high- 
priest,  at  the  time  when  the  denial  of  Him  by 
St.  Peter  took  place.    He  "turned  and  looked" 


on  Peter  as  he  stood  by  the  fire  in  the  court 
(Luke  xxii.  56,  61;  John  xviii.  24),  whilst  He 
himself  was  in  the  "hall  of  judgment."  In  no 
point  do  Oriental  domestic  habits  differ  more 
from  European  than  in  the  use  of  the  roof.  Its 
flat  surface  is  made  useful  for  various  house- 
hold purposes,  as  drying  corn,  hanging  up 
linen,  and  preparing  figs  and  raisins.  The 
roofs  are  used  as  places  of  recreation  in  the 
evening,  and  often  as  sleeping-places  at  night 
(2  Sam.  xi.  2,  xvi.  22;  Dan.  iv.  29;  i  Sam.  ix. 
25,  26;  Job  xxvii.  18;  Prov.  xxi.  9).  They  were 
also  used  as  places  for  devotion,  and  even 
idolatrous  worship  (Jer.  xxxii.  29,  xix.  13 ;  2  K. 
xxiii.  12;  Zeph.  i.  5;  Acts  x.  9).  At  the  time 
of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  booths  were 
erected  by  the  Jews  on  the  tops  of  their 
houses.  Protection  of  the  roof  by  parapets 
was  enjoined  by  the  law  (Deut.  xxii.  8).  Spe- 
cial apartments  were  devoted  in  larger  houses 
to  winter  and  summer  uses  (Jer.  xxxvi.  22; 
Am.  iii.  15).  The  ivory  house  of  Ahab  was 
probably  a  palace  largely  ornamented  with  in- 
laid ivory.  The  circumstance  of  Samson's 
pulling  down  the  house  by  means  of  the  pil- 
lars, may  be  explained  by  the  fact  of  the  com- 
pany being  assembled  on  tiers  of  balconies 
above  each  other,  supported  by  central  pillars 
on  the  basement ;  when  these  were  pulled 
down  the  whole  of  the  upper  floors  would  fall 
also  (Judg.  xvi.  26). 

Hunting.  Hunting,  as  a  matter  of  necessity, 
whether  for -the  extermination  of  dangerous 
beasts,  or  for  procuring  sustenance,  betokens 
a  rude  and  semi-civilized  state ;  as  an  amuse- 
ment, it  betokens  an  advanced  state.  The 
Hebrews,  as  a  pastoral  and  agricultural  people, 
were  not  given  to  the  sports  of  the  field;  the 
density  of  the  population,  the  earnestness  of 
their  character,  and  the  tenddVicy  of  their  ritual 
regulations,  particularly  those  affecting  food, 
all  combined  to  discourage  the  practice  of 
hunting.  The  manner  of  catching  animals  was 
either  by  digging  a  pitfall,  or  secondly  by  a 
trap,  which  was  set  under  ground  (Job  xviii. 
10),  in  the  run  of  the  animal  (Prov.  xxii.  5), 
and  caught  it  by  the  leg  (Job.  xviii.  9)  ;  or 
lastly  by  the  use  of  the  net,  of  which  there 
were  various  kinds,  as  for  the  gazelle  (Is.  li. 
20,  -A.  V.  "wild  bull")  and  other  animals  of 
that  class. 

Hur.  I.  A  man  who  is  mentioned  with 
Moses  and  Aaron  on  the  occasion  of  the  battle 
with  Amalek  at  Rcphidim  (Ex.  xvii.  10),  when 
with  Aaron  he  stayed  up  the  hands  of  Moses 
(12),  He  is  mentioned  again  in  xxiv.  14,  as 
being,  with  Aaron,  left  in  charge  of  the  people 
by  Moses  during  his  ascent  of  Sinai.  The  Jew- 
ish tradition  is  that  he  was  the  husband  of 

63 


HUSBAND 


IDOL 


Miriam.   2.  The  "son  of  Hur" — Ben-Hur — was 
commissariat  officer  for  Solomon   in  Mount 
Ephraim  (i  K.  iv.  8). 
Husband.  [Marriage.] 

Husks.  The  word  rendered  in  the  A.  V. 
"husks"  (Luke  XV.  16)  describes  really  the  fruit 
of  a  particular  kind  of  tree.  This  tree  is  very 
commonly  met  with  in  Syria  and  Egypt ;  it 
produces  pods,  shaped  like  a  horn,  varying  in 
length  from  6  to  10  inches,  and  about  a  finger's 
breadth,  or  rather  more. 

Hyaena.  Authorities  are  at  variance  as  to 
whether  the  term  tzabvi'a  in  Jer.  xii.  9  means  a 
"hyaena,"  as  the  LXX.  has  it,  or  a  "speckled 
bird,"  as  in  the  A.  V.  The  only  other  instance 
in  which  it  occurs  is  as  a  proper  name,  Zeboim 
(i  Sam.  xiii.,  "the  valley  of  hyaenas,"  Aquila; 
Neh.  xi.  34).  The  hyaena  was  common  in 
ancient  as  in  modern  Egypt,  and  is  constantly 
depicted  upon  monuments ;  it  must  therefore 
have  been  well  known  to  the  Jews. 

Hymn.  Among  the  later  Jews  the  word 
hymn  was  more  or  less  vague  in  its  applica- 
tion, and  capable  of  being  used  as  occasion 
should  arise.  To  Christians  the  Hymn  has 
always  been  something  dififerent  from  the 
Psalm ;  a  different  conception  in  thought,  a 
different  type  in  composition.  There  is  some 
dispute  about  the  hymn  sung  by  our  Lord  and 
his  Apostles  on  the  occasion  of  the  Last  Sup- 


Husks  of  Swine. 

per ;  but  even  supposing  it  to  have  been  the 
Hallel,  or  Paschal  Hymn,  consisting  of  Pss. 
cxiii.-cxviii.,  it  is  obvious  that  the  word  hymn 
is  in  this  case  applied  not  to  an  individual 
psalm,  but  to  a  number  of  psalms  chanted  suc- 
cessively, and  all  together  forming  a  kind  of 
devotional  exercise  which  is  not  unaptly  called 
a  hymn.  In  the  jail  at  Philippi,  Paul  and  Silas 
"sang  hymns"  (A.  V.  "praises")  unto  God, 
and  so  loud  was  their  song  that  their  fellow- 
prisoners  heard  them.    This  must  have  been 


what  we  mean  by  singing,  and  not  merely  reci- 
tation. It  was  in  fact  a  veritable  singing  of 
hymns.  And  it  is  remarkable  that  the  noun 
hymn  is  only  used  in  reference  to  the  services 
of  the  Greeks,  and  in  the  same  passages  is 
clearly  distinguished  from,  the  psalm  (Eph.  v. 
19,  Col.  iii.  16),  "psalms,"  and  hymns,  and 
spiritual  songs." 

Hyssop.  (Heb.  czob.)  The  ezob  was  used 
to  sprinkle  the  doorposts  of  the  Israelites  in 
Egypt  with  the  blood  of  the  paschal  lamb  (Ex. 


Hysena. 

xii.  22)  ;  it  was  employed  in  the  purification  of 
lepers  and  lepious  houses  (Lev.  xiv.  4,  51), 
and  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  red  heifer  (Num. 
xix.  6).  In  consequence  of  its  detergent  quali- 
ties, or  from  its  being  associated  with  the 
purificatory  services,  the  Psalmist  makes  use 
of  the  expression,  "purge  me  with  ezob"  (Ps. 
li.  7).  It  is  described  in  i  K.  iv.  33  as  growing 
on  or  near  walls.  Bochart  decides  in  favor  of 
marjoram,  or  some  plant  Jike  it,  and  to  this 
conclusion,  it  must  be  admitted,  all  ancient 
tradition  points. 


Idol,  Image.  No  less  than  twenty-one  dif- 
ferent Hebrew  words  have  been  rendered  in 
the  A.  V.  either  by  idol  or  image,  including  a 
class  of  abstract  terms,  which,  with  a  deep 
moral  significance,  express  the  degradation  as- 
sociated with  it,  and  stand  out  as  a  protest  of 
the  language  against  the  enormities  of  idolatry. 
Such  are,  i.  Aven,  rendered  elsewhere 
"nought,"  "vanity,"  "iniquity,"  "wickedness," 
"sorrow,"  &c.,  and  once  only  "idol"  (Is.  Ixvi. 
3).  2.  Elil  is  thought  by  some  to  have  a  sense 
akin  to  that  of  "falsehood."  In  strong  con- 
trast with  Jehovah  it  appears  in.  Ps.  xc.  5, 

64 


IDOL 


IDOLATRY 


xcvii.  7.  3.  £mah,  "horror,"  or  "terror,"  and 
hence  an  object  of  horror  or  terror  (Jer.  1.  38), 
in  reference  either  to  the  hideousness  of  the 
idols  or  to  the  gross  character  of  their  worship. 
4.  Bosheth,  "shame,"  or  "shameful  thing"  (A. 
V.  Jer.  xi.  13;  Hos.  ix.  10),  applied  to  Baal  or 
Baal-Peor,  as  characterizing  the  obscenity  of 
his  worship,  &c.    Among  the  earliest  objects 


Egyptian  Idols. 

of  worship,  regarded  as  symbols  of  deity,  were, 
the  meteoric  stones  which  the  ancients  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  images  of  the  gods 
sent  down  from  heaven.  From  these  they 
transferred  their  regard  to  rough  unhewn 
blocks,  to  stone  columns  or  pillars  of  wood,  in 
which  the  divinity  worshipped  was  supposed 
to  dwell,  and  which  were  consecrated,  like  the 
sacred  stone  at  Delphi,  by  being  anointed  with 
oil,  and  crowned  with  wool  on  solemn  days. 
Such  customs  are  remarkable  illustrations  of 
the  solemn  consecration  by  Jacob  of  the  stone 
at  Bethel,  as  showing  the  religious  reverence 
with  which  these  memorials  were  regarded.  Of 


The  Idol  Juggernaut. 

the  forms  assumed  by  the  idolatrous  images 
we  have  not  many  traces  in  the  Bible.  Dagon, 
the  fish-god  of  the  Philistines,  was  a  human 
figure  terminating  in  a  fish;  and  that  the 
Syrian  deities  were  represented  in  later  times 
in  a  symbolical  human  shape  we  know  for  cer- 
tainty.  The  Hebrews  imitated  their  neighbors 


in  this  respect  as  in  others  (Is.  xliv.  13;  Wisd. 
xiii.  13).  When  the  process  of  adorning  the 
image  was  completed,  it  was  placed  in  a  tem- 
ple or  shrine  appointed  for  it  (Epist.  Jer.  12, 
19;  Wisd.  xiii.  15;  i  Cor.  viii.  10).  From  these 
temples  the  idols  were  sometimes  carried  in 
procession  (Epist.  Jer.  4,  26)  on  festival  days. 
Their  priests  were  maintained  from  the  idol 
treasury,  and  feasted  upon  the  meats  which 
were  appointed  for  the  idols'  use  (Bel  and  the. 
Dragon,  3,  13). 

Idolatry,  strictly  speaking,  denotes  the  wor- 
ship of  deity  in  a  visible  form,  whether  the 
images  to  which  homage  is  paid  are  symbolical 
representations  of  the  true  God  or  of  the  false 
divinities  which  have  been  made  the  objects 
of  worship  in  His  stead.  The  first  undoubted 
allusion  to  idolatry  or  idolatrous  customs  in 


The  Hindoo  Idol  Pulliar. 

the  Bible  is  in  the  account  of  Rachel's  stealing 
her  father's  teraphim  (Gen.  xxxi.  19),  a  relic 
of  the  worship  of  other  gods,  whom  the  an- 
cestors of  the  Israelites  served  "on  the  other 
side  of  the  river,  in  old  time"  (Josh.  xxiv.  2). 
These  he  consulted  as  oracles  (Gen.  xxx.  27, 
A.  V.  "learned  by  experience"),  though  with- 
out entirely  losing  sight  of  the  God  of  Abra- 
ham and  the  God  of  Nahor,  to  whom  he  ap- 
pealed when  occasion  offered  (Gen.  xxxi.  53), 
while  he  was  ready,  in  the  presence  of  Jacob, 
to  acknowledge  the  benefits  conferred  upon 
him  by  Jehovah  (Gen.  xxx.  27).  Such,  indeed, 
was  the  character  of  most  of  "the  idolatrous 
worship  of  the  Israelites.  Like  the  Cuthean 
colonists  in  Samaria,  who  "feared  Jehovah  and 
served  their  own  gods"  (2  K.  xvii.  33),  they 
blended  in  a  strange  manner  a  theoretical  be- 
lief in  the  true  God  with  the  external  reverence 
which  they  were  led  to  pay  to  the  idols  of  the 
nations  by  whom  they  were  surrounded.  Dur- 


165 


IDOLATRY 


IMMANUEL 


ing  their  long  residence  in  Egypt,  the  country 
of  symbolism,  they  defiled  themselves  with  the 
idols  of  the  land,  and  it  was  long  before  the 
taint  was  removed  (Josh.  xxiv.  14;  Ez.  xx.  7). 
To  these  gods  Moses,  as  the  herald  of  Jehovah, 
flung  down  the  gauntlet  of  defiance,  and  the 
plagues  of  Egypt  smote  their  symbols  (Num. 
xxxiii.  4).  Yet,  with  the  memory  of  their  de- 
liverance fresh  in  their  minds,  their  leader 
absent,  the  Israelites  clamored  for  some  visi- 
ble shape  in  which  they  might  worship  the 
God  who  had  brought  them  out  of  Egypt  (Ex. 
xxxii.).  Aaron  lent  himself  to  the  popular 
cry,  and  chose  as  the  symbol  of  deity  one  with 
which  they  had  long  been  familiar — the  calf — 
embodiment  of  Apis,  and  emblem  of  the  pro- 
ductive power  of  nature.  For  a  while  the  erec- 
tion of  the  tabernacle,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  worship  which  accompanied  it,  satisfied 
that  craving  for  an  outward  sign  which  the 
Israelites  constantly  exhibited.  Under  Samuel's 
administration  a  fast  was  held,  and  purificatory 
rites  performed,  to  mark  the  public  renuncia- 
tion of  idolatry  (i  Sam.  vii.  3-6).  But  in  the 
reign  of  Solomon  all  this  was  forgotten.  Each 
of  his  many  foreign  wives  brought  with  her 
the  gods  of  her  own  nation;  and  the  gods  of 
Amnion,  Moab,  and  Zidon  were  openly  wor- 
shipped. Rehoboam,  the  son  of  an  Ammonite 
mother,  perpetuated  the  worst  features  of 
Solomon's  idolatry  (i  K.  xiv.  22-24)  ;  and  in 
his  feign  was  made  the  great  schism  in  the 
national  religion;  ,when  Jeroboam,  fresh  from 
his  recollections  of  the  Apis  worship  of  Egypt, 
erected  golden  calves  at  Bethel  and  at  Dan, 
and  by  this  crafty  state-policy  severed  forever 
the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  ( i  K.  xii.  26- 
33).  The  successors  of  Jeroboam  followed  in 
his  steps,  till  Ahab,  who  married  a  Zidonian 
princess,  at  her  instigation  (i  K.  xxi.  25)  built 
a  temple  and  altar  to  Baal,  and  revived  all  the 
abominations  of  the  Amorites  (i  K.  xxi.  26). 
Compared  with  the  worship  of  Baal,  the  wor- 
ship of  the  calves  was  a  venial  offence,  proba- 
bly because  it  was  morally  less  detestable  and 
also  less  anti-national  (i  K.  xii.  28;  2  K.  x. 
28-31).  Henceforth  Baal-worship  became  so 
completely  identified  with  the  northern  king- 
dom that  it  is  described  as  walking  in  the  way 
or  statutes  of  the  kings  of  Israel  (2  K.  xvi.  3, 
xvii.  8),  as  distinguished  from  the  sin  of 
Jeroboam.  The  conquest  of  the  ten  tribes  by 
Shalmaneser  was  for  them  the  last  scene  of 
the  drama  of  abominations  which  had  been  en- 
acted uninterruptedly  for  upwards  of  250 
years.  The  first  act  of  Hezekiah  on  ascending 
the  throne  was  the  restoration  and  purifica- 
tion of  the  temple,  which  had  been  dismantled 
and  closed  during  the  latter  part  of  his  father's 


life  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  24,  xxix.  3).  The  icono- 
clastic spirit  was  not  confined  to  Judah  and 
Benjamin,  but  spread  throughout  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  i),  and  to  all  ex- 
ternal appearance  idolatry  was  extirpated.  But 
the  reform  extended  little  below  the  surface 
(Is.  xxix.  13).  With  the  death  of  Josiah  ended 
the  last  effort  to  revive  among  the  people  a 
purer  ritual,  if  not  a  purer  faith.  The  lamp 
of  David,  which  had  long  shed  but  a  strug- 
gling ray,  flickered  for  a  while  and  then  went 
out  in  the  darkness  of  Babylonian  captivity. 
But  foreign  exile  was  powerless  to  eradicate 
the  deep  inbred  tendency  to  idolatry.  One  of 
the  first  difficulties  with  which  Ezra  had  to 
contend  was  the  haste  with  which  his  country- 
men took  them  foreign  wives  of  the  people  of 
the  land,  and  followed  them  in  all  their 
abominations  (Ezr.  ix.).  The  conquests  of 
Alexander  in  Asia  caused  Greek  influence  to 
be  extensively  felt,  and  Greek  idolatry  to  be 
first  tolerated,  and  then  practised,  by  the  Jews 
(i  Mace.  i.  43-50,  54).  The  attempt  of  Antio- 
chus  to  establish  this  form  of  worship  was 
vigorously  resisted  by  Mattathias  (i  Mace.  ii. 
23-26).  The  erection  of  synagogues  has  been 
assigned  as  a  reason  for  the  comparative  pur- 
ity of  the  Jewish  worship  after  the  captivity, 
while  another  cause  has  been  discovered  in 
the  hatred  for  images  acquired  by  the  Jews 
in  their  intercourse  with  the  Persians.  If  one 
main  object  of  the  Hebrew  polity  was  to  teach 
the  unity  of  God,  the  extermination  of  idolatry 
was  but  a  subordinate  end.  Jehovah,  the  God 
of  the  Israelites,  was  the  civil  head  of  the 
State.  He  was  the  theocratic  king  of  the  peo- 
ple, who  had  delivered  them  from  bondage, 
and  to  whom  they  had  taken  a  willing  oath  of 
allegiance.  Idolatry,  therefore,  to  an  Israelite 
was  a  state  ofifence  (i  Sam.  xv.  23),  a  political 
crime  of  the  gravest  character,  high  treason 
against  the  majesty  of  his  king.  But  it  was 
much  more  than  all  this.  While  the  idolatry 
of  foreign  nations  is  stigmatized  merely  as  an 
abomination  in  the  sight  of  God,  which  called 
for  his  vengeance,  the  sin  of  the  Israelites  is 
regarded  as  of  more  glal-ing  enormity  and 
greater  moral  guilt.  In  the  figurative  language 
of  the  prophets,  the  relation  between  Jehovah 
and  his  people  is  represented  as  a  marriage 
bond  (Is.  liv.  5;  Jer.  iii.  14),  and  the  worship 
of  false  gods  with  all  its  accompaniments  (Lev. 
XX.  56)  becomes  then  the  greatest  of  social 
wrongs  (Hos.  ii. ;  Jer.  iii.,  &c.).  The  first  and 
second  commandments  are  directed  against 
idolatry  of  every  form. 

Imman'uel,  that  is,  God  with  us,  the 
symbolical  name  given  by  the  prophet  Isaiah 
to  the  child  who  was  announced  to  Ahaz  and 


166 


INCENSE 


INN 


the  people  of  Judah,  as  the  sign  which  God 
would  give  of  their  deliverance  from  their 
enemies  (Is.  vii.  14).  It  is  applied  by  the 
Apostle  Matthew  to  the  Messiah,  born  of  the 
Virgin  (Matt.  i.  23).  It  would  therefore  ap- 
pear that  the  immediate  reference  of  the 
prophet  was  to  some  contemporary  occur- 
rence, but  that  his  words  received  their  true 
and  full  accomplishment  in  the  birth  of  the 
Messiah. 

Incense.  The  incense  employed  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  tabernacle  was  compotmded  of  the 
perfumes  stacte,  onycha,  galbanum,  and  pure 
frankincense.  All  incense  which  was  not  made 
of  these  ingredients  was  forbidden  to  be 
oflfered  (Ex.  xxx.  9).  Aaron,  as  high-priest, 
was  originally  appointed  to  offer  incense,  but 
in  the  daily  service  of  the  second  temple  the 
office  devolved  upon  the  inferior  priests,  from 


Altar  of  Incense. 

among  whom  one  was  chosen  by  lot  (Luke  i. 
9),  each  morning  and  evening.  The  times  of 
offering  incense  were  specified  in  the  instruc- 
tions first  given  to  Moses  (Ex.  xxx.  7,  8).  The 
morning  incense  was  offered  when  the  lamps 
were  trimmed  in  the  Holy  place,  and  before 
the  sacrifice,  when  the  watchman  set  for  the 
purpose  announced  the  break  of  day.  When 
the  lamps  were  lighted  "between  the  even- 
ings," after  the  evening  sacrifice  and  before 
the  drink-offerings  were  offered,  incense  was 
again  burnt  on  the  golden  altar,  which  "be- 
longed to  the  oracle"  (i  K.  vi.  22),  and  stood 
before  the  veil  which  separated  the  Holy  place 
from  the  Holy  of  Holies,  the  throne  of  God 
(Rev.  viii.  4).  When  the  priest  entered  the 
Holy  place  with  the  incense,  all  the  people 
were  removed  from  the  temple,  and  from  be- 
tween the  porch  and  the  altar  (cf.  Luke  i.  10). 
Profound  silence  was  observed  among  the  con- 


gregation who  were  praying  without  (cf.  Rev. 
viii.  i),  and  at  a  signal  from  the  prefect  the 
priest  cast  the  incense  on  the  fire,  and  bowing 
reverently  towards  the  Holy  of  Holies  retired 
slowly  backwards,  not  prolonging  his  prayer 
that  he  might  not  alarm  the  congregation,  or 
cause  them  to  fear  that  he  had  been  struck 
dead  for  offering  unvi^orthily  (Lev.  xvi.  13; 
Luke  i.  21).  On  the  day  of  atonement  the  ser- 
vice was  different.  The  offering  of  incense 
has  formed  a  part  of  the  religious  ceremonies 
of  most  ancient  nations.  It  was  an  element 
in  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  Isrealites  (Jer. 
xi.  12,  17,  xlviii.  35;  2  Chr.  xxxiv.  25).  Look- 
ing upon  incense  in  connection  with  the  other 
ceremonial  observances  of  the  Mosaic  ritual, 
it  would  rather  seem  to  be  symbolical,  not  of 
prayer  itself,  but  of  that  which  makes  prayer 
acceptable,  the  intercession  of  Christ.  In  Rev. 
viii.  3,  4,  the  incense  is  spoken  of  as  something 
distinct  from,  though  offered  with  the  prayers 
of  all  the  saints  (cf.  Luke  i.  10)  ;  and  in  Rev. 
v.  8  it  is  the  golden  vials,  and  not  the  odors  or 
incense,  which  are  said  to  be  the  prayers  of 
saints. 

India.  The  name  of  India  does  not  occur  in 
the  Bible  before  the  book  of  Esther,  where  it 
is  noticed  as  the  limit  of  the  territories  of 
Ahasuerus  in  the  east,  as  Ethiopia  was  in  the 
west  (i.  i;  viii.  9).  The  India  of  the  book  of 
Esther  is  not  the  peninsula  of  Hindostan,  but 
the  country  surrounding  the  Indus,  the 
Punjab,  and  perhaps  Scinde.  In  i  Mace.  viii. 
8,  India  is  reckoned  among  the  countries 
which  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  received 
out  of  the  former  possessions  of  Antiochus  the 
Great.  A  more  authentic  notice  of  the  coun- 
try occurs  in  i  Mace.  xi.  37.  But  though  the 
name  of  India  occurs  so  seldom,  the  people 
and  productions  of  that  country  must  have 
been  tolerably  well  known  to  the  Jews.  There 
is  undoubted  evidence  that  an  active  trade  was 
carried  on  .  between  India  and  Western  Asia. 
The  trade  opened  by  Solomon  with  Ophir 
through  the  Red  Sea  consisted  chiefly  of 
Indian  articles.  The  connection  thus  estab- 
lished with  India  led  to  the  opinion  that  the 
Indians  were  included  under  the  ethnological 
title  of  Cush  (Gen.  x.  6). 

Inheritance.  [Heir.] 

Ink,  Inkhorn.  [Writing.] 

Inn.  The  Hebrew  word  (malon)  thus 
rendered  literally  signifies  "a  lodging-place 
for  the  night."  Inns,  in  our  sense  of  the  term, 
were,  as  they  still  are,  unknown  in  the  East, 
where  hospitality  is  religiously  practised.  The 
khans,  or  caravanserais,  are  the  representatives 
of  European  inns,  and  these  were  established 
but  gradually.    It  is  doubtful  whether  there  is 

67 


IRON 


ISAAC 


any  allusion  to  them  in  the  Old  Testament. 
The  halting-place  of  a  caravan  was  selected 
originally  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  water 
or  pasture,  by  which  the  travellers  pitched 
their  tents,  and  passed  the  night.  Such  was 
imdoubtedly  the  "inn"  at  which  occurred  the 
incident  in  the  life  of  Moses,  narrated  in  Ex. 
iv.  24  (comp.  Gen.  xlii.  27).  On  the  more  fre- 
quented routes,  remote  from  towns  (Jer.  ix. 
2),  caravanserais  were  in  course  of  time 
erected,  often  at  the  expense  of  the  wealthy. 
The  following  description  of  one  of  those  on 
the  road  from  Bagdad  to  Babylon  will  sufifice 
for  all :  "It  is  a  large  and  substantial  square 
building,  in  the  distance  resembling  a  fortress, 
being  surrounded  with  a  lofty  wall,  and 
flanked  by  round  towers  to  defend  the  inmates 
in  case  of  attack.  Passing  through  a  strong 
gateway,  the  guest  enters  a  large  court,  the 
sides  of  which  are  divided  into  numerous 
arched  compartments,  open  in  front,  for  the 
accommodation  of  separate  parties,  and  for 
the  reception  of  goods.  In  the  centre  is  a 
spacious  raised  platform,  used  for  sleeping 
upon  at  night,  or  for  the  devotions  of  the  faith- 
ful during  the  day.  Between  the  outer  wall 
and  the  compartments  are  wide  vaulted  arcades, 
extending  round  the  entire  building,  where  the 
beasts  of  burden  are  placed.  Upon  the  roof 
of  the  arcades  is  an  excellent  terrace,  and  over 
the  gateway  an  elevated  tower  containing  two 
rooms — one  of  which  is  open  at  the  sides,  per- 
mitting the  occupants  to  enjoy  every  breath 
of  air  that  passes  across  the  heated  plain.  The 
terrace  is  tolerably  clean ;  but  the  court  and 
stabling  below  are  ankle-deep  in  chopped 
straw  and  filth."    (Loftus,  Chaldea,  p.  13.) 

Iron  is  mentioned  with  brass  as  the  earliest 
of  known  metals  (Gen.  iv.  22).  As  it  is  rarely 
found  in  its  native  state,  but  generally  in  com- 
bination with  oxygen,  the  knowledge  of  the 
art  of  forging  iron,  which  is  attributed  to  Tubal 
Cain,  argues  an  acquaintance  with  the  diffi- 
culties which  attend  the  smelting  of  this  metal. 
The  natural  wealth  of  the  soil  of  Canaan  is  in- 
dicated by  describing  it  as  "a  land  whose 
stones  are  iron"  (Deut.  viii.  9).  The  book  of 
Job  contains  passages  which  indicate  that  iron 
was  a  metal  well  known.  Of  the  manner  of 
procuring  it,  we  learn  that  "iron  is  taken  from 
dust"  (xxviii.  2).  The  "furnace  of  iron"  (Deut. 
iv.  28;  I  K.  viii.  51)  is  a  figure  which  vividly 
expresses  hard  bondage  as  represented  by  the 
severe  labor  which  attended  the  operation  of 
smelting.  Sheet-iron  was  used  for  cooking 
utensils  (Ez.  iv.  3;  cf.  Lev.  vii.  9).  That  it 
was  plentiful  in  the  time  of  David  appears 
from  I  Chr.  xxii.  3.  The  market  of  Tyre  was 
supplied  with  bright  or  polished  iron  by  the 


merchants  of  Dan  and  Javan  (Ez.  xxvii.  19). 
The  Chalybes  of  the  Pontus  were  celebrated 
as  workers  in  iron  in  very  ancient  times.  The 
produce  of  their  labor  is  supposed  to  be  alluded 
to  in  Jer.  xv.  12,  as  being  of  superior  quality. 
It  was  for  a  long  time  supposed  that  the 
Egyptians  were  ignorant  of  the  use  of  iron, 
and  that  the  allusions  in  the  Pentateuch  were 
anachronisms,  as  no  traces  of  it  have  been 
found  in  their  monuments;  but  in  the  -  sep- 
ulchres at  Thebes  butchers  are  represented  as 
sharpening  their  knives  on  a  round  bar  of 
metal  attached  to  their  aprons,  which  from  its 
blue  color  is  presumed  to  be  steel.  One  iron 
mine  only  has  been  discovered  in  Egypt,  which 
was  worked  by  the  ancients.  It  is  at  Ham- 
mami,  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea ;  the 
iron  found  by  Mr.  Burton  was  in  the  form  of 
specular  and  red  ore.  That  no  articles  of  iron 
should  have  been  found  is  readily  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  it  is  easily  destroyed  by 
moistUrre  and  exposure  to  the  air.  Specimens 
of  Assyrian  iron-work  overlaid  with  bronze 
were  discovered  by  Mr.  Layard,  and  are  now 
in  the  British  Museum.  Iron  weapons  of 
various  kinds  were  found  at  Nimroud,  but  fell 
to  pieces  on  exposure  to  the  air.  There  is  con- 
siderable doubt  whether  the  ancients  were 
acquainted  with  cast-iron.  The  rendering  given 
by  the  LXX.  of  Job  xl.  18  seems  to  imply  that 
some  method  nearly  like  that  of  casting  was 
known,  and  is  supported  by  a  passage  in 
Diodorus  (v.  13).  In  Ecclus.  xxxviii.  28-  we 
have  a  picture  of  the  interior  of  an  iron-smith's 
(Is.  xliv.  12)  workshop. 

I'saac  (laughter),  the  son  whom  Sarah,  in 
accordance  \vith  the  Divine  promise,  bore  to 
Abraham,  in  the  hundredth  year  of  his  age,  at 
Gerar  (B.  C.  1897).  In  his  infancy  he  became 
the  object  of  Ishmael's  jealousy;  and  in  his 
youth  the  victim,  in  intention,  of  Abraham's 
great  sacrificial  act  of  faith.  When  forty  years 
old  he  married  Rebekah  his  cousin,  by  whom, 
when  he  was  sixty,  he  had  two  sons,  Esau  and 
Jacob.  In  his  seventy-fifth  year  he  and  his 
brother  Ishmae.l  buried  their  father  Abraham 
in  the  cave  of  Machpelah.  From  this  abode  by 
the  well  Lahai-roi,  in  the  South  Country,  Isaac 
was  driven  by  a  famine  to  Gerar.  Here  he 
acquired  great  wealth  by  his  flocks,  but  was  re- 
peatedly dispossessed  by  the  Philistines  of  the 
wells  which  he  sank  at  convenient  stations.  At 
Beersheba  Jehovah  appeared  to  him  by  night 
and  blessed  him,  and  he  built  an  altar  there: 
there,  too,  like  Abraham,  he  received  a  visit 
from  the  Philistine  king  Abimelech,  with 
whom  he  made  a  covenant  of  peace.  After  the 
deceit  by  which  Jacob  acquired  his  father's 
blessing,  Isaac  sent  his  son  to  seek  a  wife  in 
68 


THE  FRONT  OF  THE   HOLY  SEI'ULCHUE.  JERUSALEM.     FROM   A  PHOTOGRAPH. 


ISAIAH 


ISAIAH 


Padanaram ;  and  all  that  we  know  of  him  dur- 
ing the  last  forty-three  years  of  his  life  is,  that 
he  saw  that  son,  with  a  large  and  prosperous 
family,  return  to  him  at  Hebron  (xxxv.  27)  be- 
fore he  died  there  at  the  age, of  180  years.-  He 
was  buried  by  his  two  sons  in  the  cave  of 
Machpelah.  In  the  N.  T.  reference  is  made 
to  the  oflfering  of  Isaac  (Heb.  xi.  17 ;  and  James 
ii.  21)  and  to  his  blessing  his  sons  (Heb. 
xi.  20).  In  reference  to  the  offering  up  of 
Isaac  by  Abraham,  the  primary  doctrines 
taught  are  those  of  sacrifice  and  substitution, 
as  the  means  appointed  by  God  for  taking 
away  sin ;  and,  as  co-ordinate  with  tHese,  the 
need  of  the  obedience  of  faith,  on  the  part  of 
man.  to  receive  the  benefit  (Heb.  xi.  17).  A 
confusion  is  often  made  between  Isaac  and  the 
victim  actually  offered.  Isaac  himself  is  gen- 
erally viewed  as  a  type  of  the  Son  of  God, 
offered  for  the  sins  of  men ;  but  Isaac,  himself 
one  of  the  sinful  race  for  whom  atonement 
was  to  be  made, — Isaac,  who  did  not  actually 
suffer  death, — was  no  fit  type  of  Him  who 
"was  slain,  the  just  for  the  unjust."  But  the 
animal,  not  of  the  human  race,  which  God  pro- 
vided and  Abraham  offered,  was  in  the  whole 
history  of  sacrifice  the  recognized  type  of  "the 
Lamb  of  God,  that  taketh  away  the  sins  of  the 
world."  Isaac  is  the  type  of  humanity  itself, 
devoted  to  death  for  sin,  and  submitting  to  the 
sentence. 

Isa'iah,  the  prophet,  son  of  Amoz.  The 
Hebrew  name,  our  shortened  form  of  which 
occurs  with  other  persons  [see  Jesaiah, 
Jeshaiah],  signifies  Salvation  of  Jahu  (a 
shortened  form  of  Jehovah).  He  prophesied 
concerning  Judah  and  Jerusalem  in  the  days  of 
Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of 
Judah  (Is.  i.  i).  Isaiah  must  have  been  an  old 
man  at  the  close  of  Hezekiah's  reign.  The 
ordinary  chronology  gives  758  B.  C.  for  the 
date  of  Jotham's  accession,  and  698  for  that  of 
Hezekiah's  death.  This  gives  us  a  period  of 
sixty  years.  And  since  his  ministry  com- 
menced before  Uzziah's  death  (how  long  we 
know  not),  supposing  him  to  have  been  no 
more  than  twenty  years  old  when  he  began  to 
prophesy,  he  would  have  been  eighty  or  ninety 
at  Manasseh's  accession.  Rabbinical  tradition 
says  that  Isaiah  was  sawn  asunder  in  a  trunk 
of  a  tree  by  order  of  Manasseh,  to  which  it  is 
supposed  that  reference  is  made  in  Hebrews 
xi.  37.  I.  Chs.  i.-v.  contain  Isaiah's  prophecies 
in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Jotham.  Ch.  i.  is 
very  general  in  its  contents.  Chs.  ii.-iv.  are 
one  prophesying, — the  leading  thought  of 
which  is,  that  the  present  prosperity  of  Judah 
should  be  destroyed  for  her  sins,  to  make  room 
for  the  real  glory  of  piety  and  virtue ;  while 


ch.  V.  forms  a  distinct  discourse,  whose  main 
purport  is  that  Israel,  God's  vineyard,  shall 
be  brought  to  desolation.  Ch.  vi.  describes  an 
ecstatic  vision  that  fell  upon  the  prophet  in 
the  year  of  Uzziah's  death.  Ch.  vi.,  vii.,  deliv- 
ered in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  when  he  was  threat- 
ened by  the  forces  of  Pekah,  king  of  Israel, 
and  Rezin,  king  of  Syria.  As  a  sign  that 
Judah  was  not  yet  to  perish,  he  announces  the 
birth  of  the  child  Immanuel,  who  should 
"know  to  refuse  the  evil  and  choose  the  good," 
before  the  land  of  the  two  hostile  kings  should 
be  left  desolate.  Ch.  viii.-ix.  7.  As  the  Assy- 
rian empire  began  more  and  more  to  threaten 
the  Plebrew  commonwealth  with  utter  over- 
throw, the  prediction  of  the  Messiah,  the  Re- 
storer of  Israel,  becomes  more  positive  and 
clear.  The  king  was  bent  upon  an  alliance 
with  Assyria.  This  Isaiah  steadfastly  opposes. 
— Ch.  ix.  8-x.  4  is  a  prophecy  delivered  at  this 
time  against  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (ix.  8-x.  4). 
Ch.  x.  5-xii.  6  is  one  of  the  most  highly 
wrought  passages  in  the  whole  book,  and  was 
probably  one  single  prophecy.  It  stands 
wholly  disconnected  with  the  preceding  in  the 
circumstances  which  if  presupposes ;  and  to 
what  period  to  assign  it  is  not  easy  to  de- 
termine. Ch.  xiii.-xxiii.  contain  chiefly  a  col- 
lection of  utterances,  each  of  which  is  styled 
a  "burden."  (a.)  The  first  (xiii.  i-xiv.  27)  is 
against  Babylon.  The  ode  of  triumph  (xiv. 
3-23)  in  this  burden  is  among  the  most  poeti- 
cal passages  in  all  literature,  (b.)  The  short 
and  pregnant  "burden"  against  Philistia  (xiv. 
29-32),  in  the  year  that  Ahaz  died,  was  oc- 
casioned by  the  revolt  of  the  Philistines  from 
Judah,  and  their  successful  inroad  recorded  in 
2  Chr.  xxviii.  18.  (c.)  The  "burden  of  Moab" 
(xv.,  xvi.)  is  remarkable  for  the  elegiac  strain 
in  which  the  prophet  bewails  the  disasters  of 
INIoab,  and  for  the  dramatic  character  of  xvi. 
1-6.  (d.)  Ch.  xvii.,  xviii.  This  prophecy  is 
headed  "the  burden  of  Damascus ;"  and  yet 
after  ver.  3  the  attention  is  withdrawn  'from 
Damascus  and  turned  to  Israel,  and  then  to 
Ethiopia,  (e.)  In  the  "burden  of  Egypt" 
(xix.)  the  prophet  prophesies  the  utter  help- 
lessness of  Egypt  under  God's  judgments, 
probably  to  counteract  the  tendency  which  led 
both  Judah  and  Israel  to  look  towards  Egypt 
for  succor  against  Assyria,  (f.)  In  the  midst 
o'f  these  "burdens"  stands  a  passage  which 
presents  Isaiah  in  a  new  aspect,  an  aspect  in 
which  he  appears  in  this  instance  only.  The 
more  emphatically  to  enforce  the  warning  al- 
ready conveyed  in  the  "burden  of  Egypt,' 
Isaiah  was  commanded  to  appear  in  the  streets 
and  temple  of  Jerusalem  stripped  of  his  sack- 
cloth mantle,  and  wearing  his  vest  only,  with 


[69 


ISAIAH 


ISHMAEL 


his  feet  also  bare,  (g.)  In  "the  burden  of  the 
desert  of  the  sea,"  a  poetical  designation  of 
Babylonia  (xxi.  i-io),  the  images  in  which  the 
fall  of  Babylon  is  indicated  are  sketched  with 
Aeschylean  grandeur,  (h.)  "The  burden  of 
Dumah,"  and  "of  Arabia"  (xxi.  11-17),  relate 
apparently  to  some  Assyrian  invasion,  (i.)  In 
"the  burden  of  the  valley  of  vision"  (xxii. 
1-14)  it  is  doubtless  Jerusalem  that  is  thus 
designated.  The  scene  presented  is  that  of 
Jerusalem  during  an  invasion,  (k.)  The 
passage  in  xxii.  15-25  is  singular  in  Isaiah  as  a 
prophesying  against  an  individual.  Shebna 
was  one  of  the  king's  highest  functionaries, 
and  seems  to  have  been  leader  of  a  party  op- 
posed to  Jehovah  (ver.  25).  (1.)  The  last 
"burden"  is  against  Tyre  (xxiii.).  Her  utter 
destruction  is  not  predicted  by  Isaiah  as  it 
afterwards  was  by  Ezekiel.  Ch.  xxiv.-xxvii. 
form  one  prophecy,  essentially  connected  with 
the  preceding  ten  "burdens"  (xiii.-xxiii.),  of 
which  it  is  in  efiFect  a  general  summary.  In 
xxv.,  after  commemorating  the  destruction  of 
all  oppressors,  the  prophet  gives  us  in  vers.  6-9 
a  most  glowing  description  of  Messianic  bless- 
ings. In  xxvi.,  vers.  12-18  describe  the  new 
happy  state  of  God's  people  as  God's  work 
wholly.  In  xxvii.  i,  "Leviathan  the  fleeing 
serpent  and  Leviathan  the  twisting  serpent, 
and  the  dragon  in  the  sea,"  are  perhaps 
Nineveh  and  Babylon — two  phases  of  the 
same  Asshur — and  Egypt  (comp.  ver.  13)  ;  all, 
however,  symbolizing  adverse  powers  of  evil. 
Ch.  xxiii.-xxxv.  predicts  the  Assyrian  invasion. 
The  prophet  protests  against  the  policy  of 
courting  the  help  of  Egypt  against  Assyria 
(xxx.  1-17,  xxxi.  1-3).  Ch.  xxxvii.-xxxix.  At 
length  the  season  so  often,  though  no  doubt 
obscurely  foretold,  arrived.  The  Assyrian  was 
near,  with  forces  apparently  irresistible.  In 
the  universal  consternation  which  ensued,  all 
the  hope  of  the  state  centered  upon  Isaiah  ;  the 
highest  functionaries  of  the  state — Shebna  too 
— wait  upon  him  in  the  name  of  their  sov- 
ereign. The  short  answer  which  Jehovah  gave 
through  him  was,  that  the  Assyrian  king 
should  hear  intelligence  which  should  send 
him  back  to  his  own  land,  there  to  perish.  How 
the  deliverance  was  to  be  effected,  Isaiah  was 
not  commissioned  to  tell ;  but  the  very  next 
night  (2  K.  xix.  35)  brought  the  appalling  ful- 
filment. II.  The  last  27  chapters  form  a 
separate  prophecy,  and  are  supposed  by  many 
critics  to  have  been  written  in  the  time  of  the 
Babylonian  captivity,  and  are  therefore 
ascribed  to  a  "later  Isaiah."  It  is  evident  that 
the  point  of  time  and  situation  from  which  the 
prophet  here  speaks  is  that  of  the  captivity  in 
Babylon  (comp.  e.  g.  Ixiv.  10,  11);  but  ihis 


may  be  adopted  on  a  principle  which  appears 
to  characterize  "vision,"  viz.,  that  the  prophet 
sees  the  future  as  if  present.  This  second  part 
falls  into  three  sections,  each,  as  it  happens, 
consisting  of  nine  chapters ;  the  two  first  end 
with  the  refrain,  "There  is  no  peace,  saith 
Jehovah  (or  "my  God"),  to  the  wicked;"  and 
the  third  with  the  same  thought  amplified,  (i.) 
The  first  section  (xl.-xlviii.)  has  for  its  main 
topic  the  comforting  assurance  of  the  deliver- 
ance from  Babylon  by  Koresh  (Cyrus)  who  is 
even  named  twice  (xli.  2,  3,  25,  xliv.  28,  xlv. 
1-4,  13,  xlvi.  II,  xlviii.  14,  15).  It  is  character- 
istic of  sacred  prophecy  in  general  that  the 
"vision"  of  a  great  deliverance  leads  the  seer 
to  glance  at  the  great  deliverance  to  come 
through  Jesus  Christ.  This  principle  of  asso- 
ciation prevails  in  the  second  part  taken  as  a 
whole ;  but  in  the  first  section,  taken  apart,  it 
appears  as  yet  imperfectly.  (2.)  The  second 
section  (xlix.-lvii.)  is  distinguished  from  the 
first  by  several  features.  The  person  of  Cyrus 
as  well  as  his  name,  and  the  specification  of 
Babylon,  disappear  altogether.  Return  from 
exile  is  indeed  spoken  of  repeatedly  and  at 
length  (xlix.  9-26,  li.  9,  Hi.  12,  Iv.  12,  13,  Ivii. 
14)  ;  but  in  such  general  terms  as  admit  of 
being  applied  to  the  spiritual  and  Messianic,  as 
well  as  to  the  literal  restoration.  (3.)  In  the 
third  section  (Iviii.-lxvi.),  as  Cyrus  nowhere 
appears,  so  neither  does  "Jehovah's  servant" 
occur  so  frequently  to  view  as  in  the  second. 
The  only  delineation  of  the  latter  is  in  Ixi.  1-3 
and  in  Ixiii.  1-6,  9.  He  no  longer  appears  as 
suffering,  but  only  as  saving  and  avenging 
Zion.  The  section  is  mainly  occupied  with 
various  practical  exhortations  founded  upon 
the  views  of  the  future  already  set  forth. 

Iscar'iot.    [Judas  Iscariot.] 

Ish'mael  (whom  god  hears).  The  son  of 
Abraham  by  Hagar  the  Egyptian,  his  con- 
cubine ;  born  when  Abraham  was  fourscore 
and  six  years  old  (Gen.  xvi.  15,  16).  Ishmael 
was  the  first-born  of  his  father.  He  was  born 
in  Abraham's  house,  when  he  dwelt  in  the 
plain  of  Mamre ;  and  on  the  institution  of  the 
covenant  of  circumcision,  Xvas  circumcised,  he 
being  then  thirteen  years  old  (xvii.  25).  With 
the  institution  of  the  covenant,  God  renewed 
his  promise  respecting  Ishmael.  He  does  not 
again  appear  in  the  narrative  until  the  wean- 
ing of  Isaac.  The  latter  was  born  when  Abra- 
ham was  a  hundred  years  old  (xxi.  5),  and  as 
the  weaning,  according  to  Eastern  usage, 
probably  took  place  when  the  child  was  be- 
tween two  and  three 'years  old,  Ishmael  him- 
self must  have  been  then  between  fifteen  and 
sixteen  years  of  age.  At  the  great  feast  made 
in  celebration  of  the  weaning,  "Sarah  saw  the 


170 


ISHMAELITE 


ISRAEL,  KINGDOM  OF 


son  of  Hagar  the  Egyptian,  which  she  had 
borne  unto  Abraham,  mocking,"  and  urged 
Abraham  to  cast  out  him  and  his  mother.  The 
patriarch,  comforted  by  God's  renewed  prom- 
ise that  of  Ishmael  He  would  make  a  nation, 
sent  them  both  away,  and  they  departed  and 
wandered  in  the  wilderness  of  Beersheba.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  wanderers  halted  by 
the  well,  or  at  once  continued  their  way  to  the 
"wilderness  of  Paran,"  where,  we  are  told  in 
the  next  verse  to  that  just  quoted,  he  dwelt, 
and  where  "his  mother  took  him  a  wife  out  of 
the  land  of  Egypt"  (Gen.  xxi.  9-21).  This  wife 
of  Ishmael  was  the  mother  of  his  twelve  sons, 
and  daughter.  Of  the  later  life  of  Ishmael  we 
know  little.  He  was  present  with  Isaac  at  the 
burial  of  Abraham.  He  died  at  the  age  of  137 
years  -  (xxv.  17,  18).  The  sons  of  Ishmael 
peopled  the  north  and  west  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula,  and  eventually  formed  the  chief 
element  of  the  Arab  nation.  Their  language, 
which  is  generally  acknowledged  to  have  been 
the  Arabic  commonly  so  called,  has  been 
adopted  with  insignificant  exceptions  through- 
out Arabia.  The  term  Ishmaelite  occurs  on 
three  occasions:  Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  27,  28; 
xxxix.  I  ;  Jifdg.  viii.  24 ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  6. 
Ishmaelite.  [Ishmael.] 

Isle.  Tlie  radical  sense  of  the  Hebrew  word 
seems  to  be  "habitable  places,"  as  opposed  to 
water,  and  in  this  sense  it  occurs  in  Is.  xlii.  15. 
Hence  it  means  secondarily  any  maritime  dis- 
trict, whether  belonging  to  a  continent  or  to 
an  island:  thus  it  is  used  of  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  (Is.  xx.  6,  xxiii.  2,  6),  and  of 
the  coasts  of  Elishah  (vEz.  xxvii.  7),  i.  e.  of 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor. 

Is'i^el.  I.  The  name  given  (Gen.  xxxii.  28) 
to  Jacob  after  his  wrestling  with  the  Angel 
(Hos.  xii.  4)  at  Peniel.  Gesenius  interprets 
Israel  "soldier  of  God."  2.  It  became  the  na- 
tional name  of  the  twelve  tribes  collectively. 
They  are  so  called  in  Ex,  iii.  16  and  after- 
wards. 3.  It  is  used  in  a  narrower  sense,  ex- 
cluding Judah,  in  i  Sam.  xi.  8 ;  2  Sam.  xx.  i; 
I  K.  xii.  16.  Thenceforth  it  was  assumed  and 
accepted  as  the  name  of  the  Northern  King- 
dom. 4.  After  the  Babylonian  captivity,  the 
returned  exiles  resumed  the  name  Israel  as 
the  designation  of  their  nation.  The  name 
Israel  is  also  used  to  denote  laymen,  as  distin- 
guished from  Priests,  Levites,  and  other  min- 
isters (Ezr.  vi.  16,  ix.  i,  x.  25;  Neh.  xi.  3,  &c.). 

Israel,  Kingdom  of.  i.  The  prophet  Ahijah 
of  Shiloh,  who  was  commissioned  in  the  lat- 
ter days  of  Solomon  to  announce  the  division 
of  the  kingdom,  left  one  tribe  (Judah)  to  the 
house  of  David,  and  assigned  ten  to  Jeroboam 
'/i  K.  xi.  31,  35).    These  were  probably  Jo- 

17 


seph  (=Ephraim  and  Manasseh),  Issachar, 
Zebulun,  Ashcr,  Naphtali,  Benjamin,  Dan, 
Simeon,  Gad,  and  Reuben';  Levi  being  inten- 
tionally omitted.  Eventually  the  greater  part 
of  Benjamin  and  probably  .  the  whole  of 
Simeon  and  Dan,  were  included  as  if  by  com- 
mon consent  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  With 
respect  to  the  conquests  of  David,  Moab  ap- 
pears to  have  been  attached  to  the  kingdom  of 
Israel  (2  K.  iii.  4;  so  much  of  Syria  as  re- 
mained subject  to  Solomon  (see  i  K.  xi.  24) 
would  probably  be  claimed  by  his  successor 
in  the  northern  kingdom ;  and  Ammon,  though 
connected  with  Rehoboam  as  his  mother's  na- 
tive land  (2  Chr.  xii.  13),  and  though  after- 
wards tributary  to  Judah  (2  Chr.  xxvii.  5),  was 
at  one  time  allied  (2  Chr.  xxi.  i),  we  know 
not  how  closely  or  how  early,  with  Moab.  The 
sea-coast  between  Accho  and  Japho  remained 
in  the  possession  of  Israel.  2.  The  population 
of  the  kingdom  is  not  expressly  stated ;  and 
in  drawing  any  inference  from  the  numbers 
of  fighting  men,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that 
the  numbers  in  the  Hebrew  text  are  strongly 
suspected  to  have  been  subjected  to  extensive, 
perhaps  systematic,  corruption.  Jeroboam 
brought  into  the  field  an  army  of  800,000  men 
(2  Chr.  xiii.  3).  If  in  B.  C.  957  there  were 
actually  under  arms  800,000  men  of  that  age 
in  Israel,  the  whole  population  may  perhaps 
have  amounted  to  at  least  three  millions  and  a 
half.  3.  Shechem  was  the  first  capital  of  the 
new  kingdom  (i  K.  xii.  25),  venerable  for  its 
traditions,  and  beautiful  in  its  situation.  Sub- 
sequently Tirzah  became  the  royaj  residence, 
if  not  the  capital,  of  Jeroboarn  (i  K.  xiv.  17) 
and  of  his  successors  (xv.  33,  xvi.  8,  17,  12). 
Samaria,  uniting  in  itself  the  qualities  of 
beauty  and  fertility,  and  a  commanding  posi- 
tion, was.  chosen  by  Omri  (i  K.  xvi.  24),  and 
remained  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  until  it 
had  given  the  last  proof  of  its  strength  by  sus- 
taining for  three  years  the  onset  of  the  hosts 
of  Assyria.  ^Jezreel  was  probably  only  a  royal 
residence  of  some  of  the  Israelitish  kings.  4. 
The  kingdom  of  Israel  lasted  254  years,  from 
C.  975  to  B.  C.  721,  about  two-thirds  of  the 
duration  of  its  more  compact  neighbor  Judah. 
The  detailed  history  of  the  kingdom  will  be 
found  under  the  names  of  its  nineteen  kings. 
A  summary  view  may  be  taken  in  four  pe- 
riods: (a)  B.  C.  975-929.  Jeroboam  had  not 
sufificient  force  of  character  in  himself  to  make 
a  lasting  impression  on  his  people.  A  king, 
but  not  a  founder  of  a  dynasty,  he  aimed  at 
nothing  beyond  securing  his  present  elevation. 
The  army  soon  learned  its  power  to  dictate  to 
the  isolated  monarch  and  disunited  people. 
Baasha,  in  the  midst  of  the  army  at  Gibbethon, 


ISRAEL,  KINGDOM  OF 

slew  the  son  and  successor  of  Jeroboam; 
Zimri,  a  captain  of  chariots,  slew  the  son  and 
successor  of  Baasha;  Omri,  the  captain  of  the 
host,  was  chosen  to  punish  Zimri ;  and  after  a 
civil  war  of  four  years  he  prevailed  over  Tibni, 
the  choice  of  half  the  people,  (b)  B.  C.  929- 
884.  For  forty-five  years  Israel  was  governed 
by  the  house  of  Omri.  That  sagacious  king 
pitched  on  the  strong  hill  of  Samaria  as  the 
site  of  his  capital.  The  princes  of  his  house 
cultivated  an  alliance  with  the  kings  of  Judah, 
which  was  cemented  by  the  marriage  of 
Jehoram  and  Athaliah.  The  adoption  of  Baal- 
worship  led  to  a  reaction  in  the  nation,  to  the 
moral  triumph  of  the  prophets  in  the  person  of 
Elijah,  and  to  the  extinction  of  the  house  of 
Ahab  in  obedience  to  the  bidding  of  Elisha. 
(c)  B.  C- 884-772.  Unparalleled  triumphs,  but 
deeper  humiliation,  awaited  the  kingdom  of 
Israel  under  the  dynasty  of  Jehu.  Hazael,  the 
ablest  king  of  Damascus,  reduced  Jehoahaz  to 
the  condition  of  a  vassal,  and  triumphed  for 
a  time  over  both  the  disunited  Hebrew  king- 
doms. Almost  the  first  sign  of  the  restoration 
of  their  strength  was  a  war  between  them ;  and 
Jehoash,  the  grandson  of  Jehu,  entered  Jeru- 
salem as  the  conqueror  of  Amaziah.  Jehoash 
also  turned  the  tide  of  war  against  the  Syrians ; 
and  Jeroboam  II.,  the  most  powerful  of  all  the 
kings  of  Israel,  captured  Damascus,  and  re- 
covered the  whole  ancient  frontier  from 
Hamath  to  the  Dead  Sea.  This  short-lived 
greatness  expired  with  the  last  king  of  Jehu's 
line,  (d)  B.  C.  772-721.  Military  violence,  it 
would  seem,  broke  off  the  hereditary  succes- 
sion after  the  obscure  and  probably  convulsed 
reign  of  Zachariah.  An  unsuccessful  usurper, 
Shallum,  is  followed  by  the  cruel  Menahem, 
who,  being  unable  to  make  head  against  the 
first  attack  of  Assyria  under  Pul,  became  the 
agent  of  that  monarch  for  the  oppressive  tax- 
ation of  his  subjects.  Yet  his  power  at  home 
was  sufficient-  to  insure  for  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor Pekahiah  a  ten  years'  reign,  cut  short 
by  a  bold  usurper,  Pekah.  Abandoning  the 
northern  and  trans-Jordanic  regions  to  the  en- 
croaching power  of  Assyria  under  Tiglath- 
Pileser,  he  was  very  near  subjugating  Judah, 
with  the  help  of  Damascus,  now  the  coequal 
ally  of  Israel.  But.  Assyria  interposing  sum- 
marily put  an  end  to  the  independence  of  Da- 
mascus, and  perhaps  was  the  indirect  cause  of 
the  assassination  of  the  baffled  Pekah.  The 
irresolute  Hoshea,  the  next  and  last  usurper, 
became  tributary  to  his  invader,  Shalmaneser, 
betrayed  the  Assyrian  to  the  rival  monarchy 
of  Egypt,  and  was  punished  by  the  loss  of  his 
liberty,  and  by  the  capture,  after  a  three  years' 
siege,  of  his  strong  capital,  Samaria.  Some 


JACINTH 

gleanings  of  the  ten  tribes  yet  remained  in  the 
land  after  so  many  years  of  religious  decline, 
moral  debasement,  national  degradation,  an- 
archy, bloodshed,  and  deportation.  Even  these 
were  gathered  up  by  the  conqueror,  and  car- 
ried to  Assyria,  never  again,  as  a  distinct  peo- 
ple, to  occupy  their  portion  of  that  goodly  and 
pleasant  land  which  their  forefathers  won  un- 
der Joshua  from  the  heathen. 

Is'raelite.  In  2  Sam.  xvii.  25,  Ithra,  the  fa- 
ther of  Amasa,  is  called  "an  Israelite,"  while 
in  I  Chr.  ii.  17  he  appears  as  "Jether  the  Ish- 
maelite."  The  latter  is  undoubtedly  the  true 
reading. 

Italian  Band,  [Army.] 

It'aly.  This  word  is  used  in  the  N.  T.  (Acts 
xviii.  2,  xxvii.  i;  Heb.  xiii.  24),  in  the  usual 
sense  of  the  period,  i.  e.  in  its  true  geographi- 
cal sense,  as  denoting  the  wliole  natural  penin- 
sula between  the  Alps  and  the  Straits  of  Mes- 
sina. 

Ivory.  The  word  shen  literally  signifies  the 
"tooth"  of  any  animal,  and  hence  more  espe- 
cially denotes  the  substance  of  the  projecting 
tusks  of  elephants.  It  is  remarkable  that  no 
word  in  Biblical  Hebrew  denotes  an  elephant, 
unless  the  latter  portion  of  the  compound 
shenhabbim  be  supposed  to  have  this  mean- 
ing. Gesenius  derives  it  from  th&  Sanscrit 
ibhas,  "an  elephant."  The  skilled  workmen  of 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  fashioned  the  great  ivory 
throne  of  Solomon,  and  overlaid  it  with  pure 
gold  (i  K.  X.  18;  2  Chr.  ix.  17).  The  ivory 
thus  employed  was  supplied  by  the  caravans 
of  Dedan  (Is.  xxi.  13;  Ez.  xxvii.  15),  or  was 
brought  with  apes  and  peacocks  by  the  navy 
of  Tarshish  (i  K.  x.  22).  The  "ivory  house" 
of  Ahab  (i  K.  xxii.  39)  was  probably  a  palace, 
the  walls  of  which  were  panelled  with  ivory, 
like  the  palace  of  Menelaus,  described  by  Ho- 
mer (Odys.  iv.  73).  Beds  inlaid  or  veneered 
with  ivory  were  in  use  among  the  Hebrews 
(Am.  vi,  4), 

J. 

Jab'bok,  a  stream  which  intersects  the 
mountain-range  of  Gilead  (comp.  Josh.  xii.  2 
and  5),  and  falls  into  the  Jordan  about  mid- 
way between  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  the  Dead 
Sea.  It  was  anciently  the  border  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Ammon  (Num.  xxi.  24;  Deut.  ii.  37, 
iii.  16).  It  was  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Jab- 
bok  the  interview  too  place  between  Jacob 
and  Esau  (Gen.  xxxii.  22)  ;  and  this  river 
afterward^  became,  towards  its  western  part, 
the  boundary  between  the  kingdoms  of  Sihon 
and  Og  (Josh.  xii.  2,  5).  Its  modern  name  is 
Wady  Zurka. 

Jacinth,  a  precious  stone,  forming  one  of  the 


172 


OF  m 


JACOB 

foundations  of  the  walls  of  the  new  Jerusa- 
lem (Rev.  xxi.  20).  It  seems  to  be  identical 
with  the  Hebrew  leshem  (A.  V.  "ligure,"  Ex. 
xxviii.  19).  The  jacinth  or  hyacinth  is  a  red 
variety  of  zircon,  which  is  found  in  square 
prisms,  of  a  white,  gray,  red,  reddish-brown, 
yellow,  or  pale-green  color.  The  expression  in 
Rev.  ix.  17,  "of  jacinth,"  applied  to  the  breast- 
plate, is  descriptive  simply  of  a  hyacinthine, 
i.  e.  dark-purple  color. 

Ja'cob  (supplanted),  the  second  son  of 
Isaac  and  Rebekah.  He  was  born  with  Esau, 
when  Isaac  was  59  and  Abraham  159  years 
old,  probably  at  the  well  Lahai-roi.  His  his- 
tory is  related  in  the  latter  half  of  the  boot 
of  Genesis.  He  bought  the  birthright  from 
his  brother  Esau ;  and  afterwards,  at  his  moth- 
er's instigation,  acquired  the  blessing  intended 
for  Esau,  by  practising  a  well-known  deceit 
on  Isaac.  Hitherto  the  two  sons  shared  the 
wanderings  of  Isaac  in  the  South  Country ;  but 
now  Jacob,  in  his  78th  year,  was  sent  from 
the  family  home,  to  avoid  his  brother,  and  to 
seek  a  wife  among  his  kindred  in  Padan-aram. 
As  he  passed  through  Bethel,  God  appeared 
to  him.  After  the  lapse  of  21  years  he  returned 
from  Padan-aram  with  two  wives,  two  con- 
cubines, eleven  sons,  and  a  daughter,  and  large 
property.  He  escaped  from  the  angry  pursuit 
of  Laban,  from  a  meeting  with  Esau,  and  from 
the  vengeance  of  the  Canaanites  provoked  by 
the  murder  of  Shechem ;  and  in  each  of  those 
three  emergencies  he  was  aided  and  strength- 


.Tabbok  (Wa'Jy  Ziukaj. 

ened  by  the  interposition  of  God,  and  in  sign 
of  the  grace  won  by  a  night  of  wrestling  with 
God  his  name  was  changed  at  Jabbok  into 
Israel.  Deborah  and  Rachel  died  before  he 
reached  Hebron ;  and  it  was  at  Hebron,  in  the 
I22d  year  of  his  age,  that  he  and  Esau  buried 
their  father  Isaac.  Joseph,  the  favorite  son  of 
Jacob,  was  sold  into  Egypt  eleven  years  be- 
fore the  death  of  Isaac;  and  Jacob  had  prob- 
ably exceeded  his  130th  year  when  he  went 


JAEL 

thither,  being  encouraged  in  a  divine  vision  as 
he  passed  for  the  last  time  through  Beersheba. 
He  was  presented  to  Pharaoh,  and  dwelt  for 
seventeen  years  in  Rameses  and  Goshen. 
After  giving  his  solemn  blessing  to  Ephraim 
and  IManasseh,  and  his  ,ovvn  sons  one  by  one, 
and  charging  the  ten  to  complete  their  recon- 
ciliation with  Joseph,  he  died  in  his  147th  year. 
His  body  was  embalmed,  carried  with  great 
care  and  pomp  into  the  land  of  Canaan,  and 
deposited  with  his  fathers,  and  his  wife  Leah," 
in  the  cave  of  Machpelah. — The  example  of 
Jacob  is  quoted  by  the  first  and  the  last  of  the 


Jacob's  Well  at  Shechem. 


minor  prophets.  Hosea-,  in  the  latter  days  of 
the  kingdom,  seeks  (xii.  3,  4,  12)  to  convert 
the  descendants  of  Jacob  from  their  state  of 
alienation  from  God,  by  recalling  to  their 
memory  the  repeated  acts  of  God's  favor 
shown  to  their  ancestor.  And  Malachi  (i.  2) 
strengthens  the  desponding  hearts  of  the  re- 
turned exiles  by  assuring  them  that  the  love 
which  God  bestowed  upon  Jacob  was  not  with- 
held from  them.  Besides  the  frequent  men- 
tion of  his  name  in  conjunction  with  those  of 
the  other  two  patriarchs,  there  are  distinct  ref- 
erences to  events  in  the  life  of  Jacob  in  four 
books  of  the  N.  T.  In  Rom.  ix.  11-13,  St.  Paul 
adduces  the  history  of  Jacob's  birth  to  prove 
that  the  favor  of  God  is  independent  of  the 
order  of  natural  descent.  In  Heb.  xii.  16,  and 
xi.  21,  the  transfer  of  the  birthright  and 
Jacob's  dying  benediction  are  referred  to.  His 
vision  at  Bethel,  and  his  possession  of  land 
at  Shechem  are  cited  in  St.  John  i.  51,  and  iv. 
5,  12.  And  St.  Stephen,  in  his  speech  (Acts 
vii.  12,  16),  mentions  the  famine  which  was  the 
means  of  restoring  Jacob  to  his  lost  son  in 
Egypt,  and  the  burial  of  the  patriarch  in 
Shechem. 

Ja'el,  the  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite.  In  the 
headlong  rout  which  followed  the  defeat  of 
the  Canaanites  by  Barak,  Sisera,  abandoning 

73 


JAMES 

his  chariot  the  more  easily  to  avoid  notice, 
fled  unattended,  and  in  an  opposite  direction 
from  that  taken  by  his  army,  to  the  tent  of  the 
Kenite  chieftainess.  He  accepted  Jael's  invi- 
tation to  enter,  and  she  flung  a  mantle  over 
him  as  he  lay  v^^earily  on  the  floor.  When 
thirst  prevented  sleep,  and  he  asked  for  water, 
she  brought  him  buttermilk  in  her  choicest 
vessel,  thus  ratifying  with  the  semblance  of 
ofificious  zeal  the  sacred  bond  of  Eastern  hos- 
pitality. At  last,  with  a  feeling  of  perfect  se- 
curity, the  weary  general  resigned  himself  to 
the  deep  sleep  of  misery  and  fatigue.  Then  it 
was  that  Jael  took  in  her  left  hand  one  of  the 
great  wooden  pins  which  fastened  down  the 
cords  of  the  tent,  and  in  her  right  hand  the 
mallet  used  to  drive  it  into  the  ground,  and 
with  one  terrible  blow  dashed  it  through 
Sisera's  temples  deep  into  the  earth  (Judg. 
v.  27).  She  then  waited  to  meet  the  pursuing 
Barak,  and  led  him  into  her  tent  that  she  might 
in  his  presence  claim  the  glory  of  the  deed ! 
Many  have  supposed  that  by  this  act  she  ful- 
filled the  saying  of  Deborah,  that  God  would 
sell  Sisera  into  the  hand  of  a  woman  (Judg. 
iv.  9)  ;  and  hence  they  have  supposed  that 
Jael  was  actuated  by  some  divine  and  hidden 
influence.  But  the  Bible  gives  no  hint  of  such 
an  inspiration. 

James  (the  Greek  form  of  Jacob).  I.  James 
the  son  of  Zebedee,  one  of  the  Twelve  Apos- 
tles. We  first  hear  of  him  in  A.  D.  27,  when 
Zebedee,  a  fisherman  (Mark  i.  20),  was  out  on 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  with  his  two  sons,  James 
and  John,  and  some  boatmen.  He  was  en- 
gaged in  his  customary  occupation  of  fishing, 
and  near  him  was  another  boat  belonging  to 
Simon  and  Andrew,  with  whom  he  and  his 
sons_were  in  partnership.  Finding  themselves 
unsuccessful,  the  occupants  of  both  boats 
came  ashore,  and  began  to  wash  their  nets. 
At  this  time  the  new  Teacher  appeared  upon 
the  beach.  At  His  call  they  left  all,  and  be- 
came, once  and  forever,  His  disciples,  here- 
after to  catch  men.  For  a  full  year  we  lose 
sight  of  St.  James.  He  is  then,  in  the  spring 
of  28,  called  to  the  apostleship  with  his  eleven 
brethren  (Matt.  x.  2;  Mark  iii.  14;  Luke  vi. 
13;  Acts  i.  13).  In  the  list  of  th«  Apostles 
given  us  by  St.  Mark,  and  in  the  book  of  Acts, 
his  name  occurs  next  to  that  of  Simon  Peter: 
in  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke 
it  comes  third.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that 
with  one  exception  (Luke  ix.  28),  the  name 
of  James  is  put  before  that  of  John,  and  that 
John  is  twice  described  as  "the  brother  of 
James"  (Mark  v.  37;  Matt.  xvii.  i).  This 
would  appear  to  imply  that  at  this  time  James, 
either  from  age  or  character,  took  a  higher  po- 


JAMES  THE  LESS 

sition  than  his  brother.  It  would  seem  to  have 
been  at  the  time  of  the  appointment  of  the 
twelve  Apostles  that  the  name  of  Boanerges- 
was  given  to  the  sons  of  Zebedee. — The  "Sons 
of  Thunder"  had  a  burning  and  impetuous 
spirit,  which  twice  exhibits  itself  in  its  un- 
chastened  form  (Luke  ix.  54;  Mark  x.  37). 
The  first  occasion  on  which  this  natural  char- 
acter manifests  itself  in  St.  James  and  his 
brother  is  at  the  commencement  of  our  Lord's 
last  journey  to  Jerusalem  in  the  year  30.  He 
was  passing  through  Samaria,  and  "sent  mes- 
sengers before  his  face"  into  a  certain  village, 
"to  make  ready  for  him"  (Luke  ix.  52),  i.  e. 
in  all  probability  to  announce  him  as  the  Mes- 
siah. The  Samaritans;  with  their  old  jealousy 
strong  upon  them,  refused  to  receive  him ;  and 
in  their  exasperation  James  and  John  entreated 
their  Master  to  follow  the  example  of  Elijah, 
and  call  down  fire  to  consume  them.  At  the 
end  of  the  same  journey  a  similar  spirit  ap- 
pears again  (Mark  x.  35).  On  the  night  be- 
fore the  Crucifixion  he  was  present  at  the 
Agony  in  the  Garden.  On  the  day  of  the  As- 
cension he  is  mentioned  as  persevering  with 
the  rest  of  the  Apostles  and  disciples  in. prayer 
(Acts  i.  13).  Shortly  before  the  day  of  the 
Passover,  in  the  year  44,  he  was  put  to  death 
by  Herod  Agrippa  I. 

James  the  Less,  son  of  Alphaeus  or  Clopas, 
and  brother  of  our  Lord  (see  above),  was 
called  to  the-  Apostolate,  together  with  his 
younger  brother  Jude,  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  28.  It  is  not  likely  (though  far  from  im- 
possible) that  James  and  Jude  took  part  with 
their  brothers  and  sisters,  and  the  Virgin 
Mary,  in  trying  "to  lay  hold  on"  Jesus  in  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year  (Mark  iii.  21)  ;  and 
it  is  likely,  though  not  certain,  that  it  is  of  the 
other  brothers  and  sisters,  without  these  two, 
that  St.  John  says,  "Neither  did  His  brethren 
believe  on  Him"  (John  vii.  5),  in  the  autumn 
of  A.  D.  29.  We  hear  no  more  of  James  till 
after  the  Crucifixion  and  the  Resurrection.  At 
some  time  in  the  forty  days  that  intervened 
between  the  Resurrection  and  the  Ascension 
the  Lord  appeared  to  him.  This  is  not  related 
by  the  Evangelists,  but  it  is  mentioned  by  St. 
Paul  (i  Cor.  XV.  7).  Again  we  lose  sight  of 
James  for  ten  years,  and  when  he  appears  once 
more  it  is  in  a  far  higher  position  than  any 
that  he  has  yet  held.  In  the  year  37  occurred 
the  conversion  of  Saul.  Three  years  after  his 
conversion  he  paid  his  first  visit  to  Jerusalem, 
but  the  Christians  recollected  what  they  had 
suffered  at  his  hands,  and  feared  to  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  him.  Barnabas,  at  this  time 
of  far  higher  reputation  than  himself,  took  him 
by  the  hand,  and  introduced  him  to  Peter  and 


174 


JAMES,  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OP 

James  (Acts  ix.  27;  Gal.  i.  18,  19),  and  by  their 
authority  he  was  admitted  into  the  society  of 
the  Christians,  and  allowed  to  associate  freely 
with  them  during  the  fifteen  days  of  his  stay. 
Here  we  find  James  on  a  level  with  Peter,  and 
with  him  deciding  on  the  admission  of  St.  Paul 
into  fellowship  with  the  Church  at  Jerusalem ; 
and  from  henceforth  we  always  find  him  equal, 
or  in  his  own  department  superior,  to  the  very 
chiefest  Apostles,  Peter,  John,  and  Paul.  For 
by  this  time  he  had  been  appointed  to  preside 
over  the  infant  Church  in  its  most  important 
centre,  in  a  position  equivalent  to  that  of 
Bishop.  This  pre-eminence  is  evident 
throughout  the  after  history  of  the  Apostles, 
whether  we  read  it  in  the  Acts,  in  the  Epistles, 
or  in  Ecclesiastical  writers  (Acts  xii.  17,  xv. 
13,  19,  xxi.  18;  Gal.  ii.  9).  According  to  tra- 
dition, James  was  thrown  down  from  the 
Temple  by  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees ;  he  was 
then  stoned  and  his  brains  dashed  out  by  a 
fuller's  club. 

James,  The  General  Epistle  of.  The  author* 
of  this  Epistle  was  in  all  probability  James  the 
son  of  Alphaeus,  and  our  Lord's  brother.  It 
was  written  from  Jerusalem,  which  St.  James 
does  not  seem  to  have  ever  left.  Its  main  ob- 
ject is  not  to  teach  doctrine,  but  to  improve 
morality.  St.  James  is  the  moral  teacher  of 
the  N.  T.  He  wrote  for  the  Jewish  Christians 
whether  in  Jerusalem  or  abroad,  to  warn  them 
against  the  sins  to  which  as  Jews  they  were 
most  liable,  and  to  console  and  exhort  them 
under  the  sufferings  to  which  as  Christians 
they  were  most  exposed.  It  has  been  main- 
tained that  the  passage  ii.  14-26  is  a  formal 
opposition  to  St.  Paul's  doctrine  of  Justifica- 
tion by  Faith ;  but  if  we  consider  the  meaning 
of  the  two  Apostles,  we  see  at  once  that  there 
is  no  contradiction  either  intended  or  possible 
St.  Paul  was  opposing  the  Judaizing  party, 
which  claimed  to  earn  acceptance  by  good 
works,  whether  the  works  of  the-  Mosaic  law, 
or  works  of  piety  done  by  themselves.  In  op- 
position to  these,  St.  Paul  lays  down  the  great 
truth  that  acceptance  cannot  be  earned  by  man 
at  all,  but  is  the  free  gift  of  God  to  the  Chris- 
tian man,  for  the  sake  of  the  merits  of  Jesus 
Christ,  appropriated  by  each  individual,  and 
made  his  own  by  the  instrumentality  of  faith. 
St.  James,  on  the  other  hand,  was  opposing  the 
old  Jewish  tenet  that  to  be  a  child  of  Abraham 
was  all  in  all ;  that  godliness  'was  not  neces- 
sary, so  that  the  belief  was  correct. 

Jasper,  a  precious  stone  frequently  noticed 
in  Scripture.  It  was  the  last  of  the  twelve 
inserted  in  the  high-priest's  breastplate  (Ex. 
xxviii.  20,  xxxix.  13),  and  the  first  of  the 
twelve  used  in  the  foundations  of  the  new  Je- 


JEHORAM 

rusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  19).  The  characteristics 
of  the  stone,,  as  far  as  they  are  specified  in 
Scripture  (Rev.  xxi.  11),  are,  that  it  was  "most 
precious,"  and  "like  crystal :"  we  may  also  in- 
fer from  Rev.  iv.  3,  that  it  was  a  stone  of  bril- 
liant and  transparent  light.  The  stone  which 
we  name  "jasper"  does  not  accord  with  this 
description.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
diamond  would  more  adequately  answer  to  the 
description  in  the  book  of  Revelation. 
Javelin.  [Arms.] 

Jeb'usites,  The,  were  descended  from  the 
third  son  of  Canaan  (Gen.  x.  16;  I  Chr.  i.  14). 
The  actual  people  first  appear  in  the  inval- 
uable report  of  the  spies  (Num.  xiii.  29). 
When  Jabin  organized  his  rising  against 
Joshua  he  sent  amongst  others  "to  the 
Amorite,  the  Hittite,  the  Perizzite,  and  the 
Jebusite  in  the  mountain"  (Josh.  xi.  3).  A 
motintain-tribe  they  were,  and  a  mountain- 
tribe  they  remained.  "Jebas,  which  is  Jeru- 
salem," lost  its  king  in  the  slaughter  of  Beth- 
horon  (Josh.  x.  i,  5,  26;  comp.  xii.  10),  was 
sacked  and  burned  by  the  men  of  Judah  (Judg. 
i.  21),  and  its  citadel  finally  scaled  and  occu- 
pied by  David  (2  Sam.  v.  6).  After  this  they 
emerge  from  the  darkness  but  once,  in  the  per- 
son of  Araunah  the  Jebvisite,  "Araunah  the 
king,"  who  appears  before  us  in  true  kingly 
dignity  in  his  well-known  transaction  with 
David  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  23;  i  Chr.  xix.  23). 

Jeho'ram  (whom  God  has  exalted),  i.  Son 
of  Ahab  king  of  Israel,  who  succeeded  his 
brother  Ahaziah,  B.  C.  896,  and  died  B.  C.  884. 
The  alliance  between  the  kingdoms  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  commenced  by  his  father  and 
Jehoshaphat,  was  very  close  throughout  the 
reign.  We  first  find  him  associated  with 
Jehoshaphat  and  the  king  of  Edom,  at  that 
time  a  tributary  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  in 
a  war  against  the  Moabites.  The  three  armies 
were  in  the  utmost  danger  of  perishing  for 
want  of  water.  The  piety  of  Jehoshaphat  sug- 
gested' an  inquiry  of  some  prophet  of  Jehovah, 
and  Elisha,  at  that  time  and  since  the  latter 
part  of  Ahab's  reign  Elijah's  attendant  (2  K. 
iii.  11;  I  K.  xix.  19-21),  was  found  with  the 
host.  From  him  Jehoram  received  a  severe 
rebuke,  and  was  bid  to  inquire  of  the  prophets 
of  his  father  and  mother,  the  prophets  of  Baal. 
Nevertheless  for  Jehoshaphat's  sake  Elisha  in- 
quired of  Jeliovah,  and  received  the  promise 
of  an  abundant  supply  of  water,  and  of  a  great 
victory  over  tlie  Moabites;  a  promise  which 
was  immediately  fulfilled.  The  Moabites  were 
put  to  the  rout.  A  little  later,  when  war  broke 
out  between  Syria  and  Israel,  we  find  Elisha 
befriending  Jehoram.  What  happened  after 
this  to  change  the  relations  between  the  king 

75 


JEHOSHAPHAT 


JEHOSHAPHAT,  VALLEY  OF 


and  the  prophet  we  can  only  conjecture.  B+it 
it  seems  probable  that  when  the  Syrian  inroads 
ceased,  and  he  felt  less  dependent  upon  the  aid 
of  the  prophet,  he  relapsed  into  idolatry,  and 
was  rebuked  by  Elisha,  and  threatened  with  a 
return  of  the  calamities  from  which  he  had 
escaped.  The  providential  interposition  by 
which  both  Elisha's  life  was  saved  and  the  city 
delivered,  is  narrated  2  K.  vii.,  and  Jehoram 
appears  to  have  returned  to  friendly  feeling 
towards  Elisha  (2  K.  viii.  4).  It  was  very 
soon  after  the  above  events  that  Elisha  went 
to  Damascus,  and  predicted  the  revolt  of 
Hazael,  and  his  accession  to  the  throne  of 
Syria  in  the  room  of  Ben-hadad.  Jehoram 
seems  to  have  thought  the  revolution  in  Syria, 
which  immediately  followed  Elisha's  predic- 
tion, a  good  opportunity  to  pursue  his  father's 
favorite  project  of  recovering  Ramoth-Gilead 
from  the  Syrians.  He  accordingly  made  an  al- 
liance with  his  nephew  Ahaziah,  who  had  just 
succeeded  Joram  on  the  throne  of  Judah,  and 
the  two  kings  proceeded  to  occupy  Ramoth- 
Gilead  by  force.  The  expedition  was  an  unfor- 
tunate one.  Jehoram  was  wounded  jn  battle, 
and  obliged  to  return  to  Jezreel  to  be  healed 
of  his  wounds  (2  K.  viii.  29,  ix.  14,  15), 
leaving  his  army  under  Jehu  to  hold  Ramoth- 
Gilead  against  Hazael.  Jehu,  however,  and 
the  army  under  his  command,  revolted  from 
their  allegiance  to  Jehoram  (2  K.  ix.),  and 
hastily  marching  to  Jezreel,  surprised  Jeho- 
ram, wounded  and  defenceless  as  he  was. 
Jehoram,  going  out  to  meet  him,  fell  pierced 
by  an  arrow  from  Jehu's  bow  on  the  very  plot 
of  ground  which  Ahab  had  wrested  from 
Naboth  the  Jezreelite ;  thus  fulfilling  to  the 
letter  the  prophecy  of  Elijah  (i  K.  xxi.  21,  29). 
With  the  life  of  Jehoram  ended  the  dynasty  of 
Omri. 

Jehosh'aphat  (whom  Jehovah  judges),  i. 
King  of  Judah,  son  of  Asa,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  B.  C.  914,  when  he  was  35  years  old, 
and  reigned  25  years.  His  history  is  to  be 
found  among  the  events  recorded  in  i  K.  xv. 
24;  2  K.  viii.  16,  or  in  a  continuous  narrative 
in  2  Chr.  xvii.  i-xxi.  3.  He  was  contemporary 
with  Ahab,  Ahaziah,  and  Jehoram.  At  first  he 
strengthened  himself  against  Israel  by  fortify- 
ing and  garrisoning  the  cities  of  Judah  and 
the  Ephraimite  conquests  of  Asia.  But  soon 
afterwards  the  two  Hebrew  kings,  perhaps  ap- 
l)reciating  their  common  danger  from  Damas- 
cus and  the  tribes  on  their  eastern  frontier, 
formed  an  alliance.  Jehoshaphat's  eldest  son 
Jehoram  married  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of 
Ahab  and  Jezebel.  In  his  own  kingdom 
Jehoshaphat  ever  showed  himself  a  zealous 
follower  of  the   commandments  of  God :  he 


tried,  it  would  seem  not  quite  successfully,  to 
put  down  the  high  places  and  groves  in  which 
the  people  of  Judah  burnt  incense.  Riches  and 
honors  increased  around  him.  He  received 
tribute  from  the  Philistines  and  Arabians;  and 
kept  up  a  large  standing  army  in  Jerusalem. 
It  was  probably  about  the  i6th  year  of  his 
reign  (B.  C.  898)  when  he  went  to  Samaria 
to  visit  Ahab,  and  to  become  his  ally  in  the 
great  battle  of  Ramoth-Gilead.  From  thence 
Jehoshaphat  returned  to  Jerusalem  in  peace ; 
and  went  himself  through  the  people  "from 
Beersheba  to  Mount  Ephraim,"  reclaiming 
them  to  the  law  of  God.  Turning  his  attention 
to  foreign  commerce,  he  built  at  Ezion-geber, 
with  the  help  of  Ahaziah,  a  navy  designed  to 
go  to  Tarshish ;  but  it  was  wrecked  at  Ezion- 
geber.  Before  the  close  of  his  reign  he  was 
engaged  in  two  additional  wars.  He  was 
miracuously  delivered  from  a  threatened  at- 
tack of  the  people  of  Ammon,  Moab,  and  Seir. 


Valley  of  Jehosliapbat. 
Tomb  of  Absalom.    Tomb  of  St.  James.    Tomb  of  Zechariah. 

After  this,  perhaps,  must  be  dated  the  war 
which  Jeho,shaphat,  in  conjunction  with  Jeho- 
ram king  of  Israel  and  the  king  of  Edom,  car- 
ried on  against  the  rebellious  king  of  Moab 
(2  K.  iii.).  In  his  declining  years  the  admin- 
istration of  affairs  was  placed  (probably  B.  C. 
891)  in  the  hands  of  his  son  Jehoram. 

Jehosh'aphat,  Valley  of,  a  valley  mentioned 
by  Joel  only,  as  the  spot  in  which,  after  the 
return  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  from  captivity, 
Jehovah  would  gather  all  the  heathen  (Joel  iii. 
2),  and  would  there  sit  and  judge  them  for 
their  misdeeds  to  Israel  (iii.  12).  The  prophet 
seems  to  have  glanced  back  at  that  triumphant 
day  when  king  Jehoshaphat,  the  greatest  king 
the  nation  had  seen  since  Solomon,  led  out  his 
people  to  a  valley  in  the  wilderness  of  Tekoah, 
and  was  there  blessed  with  such  a  victory 
over  the  hordes  of  his  enemies  as  was  without 


176 


JEHOVAH 


JEHU 


a  parallel  in  the  national  records  (2  Chr.  xx.).j 
The  scene  of  "Jehovah's  judgment"  has  been' 
localized,  and  the  name  has  come  down  to  us 
attached  to  that  deep  ravine  which  separates 
Jerusalem  from  the  Blount  of  Olives,  through 
which  at  one  time  the  Kedron  forced  its 
stream.  At  what  period  the  name  was  first 
applied  to  this  spot  is  not  known.  There  is  no 
trace  of  it  in  the  Bible  or  in  Josephus.  In 
both  the  only  name  used  for  this  gorge  is  Kid- 
ron  (X.  T.  Cedron).  We  first  encounter  its 
new  title  in  the  middle  of  the  4th  century  in 
the  Onomasticon  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  and 
in  the  Commentary  of  the  latter  Father  on 
Joel.  Since  that  time  the  name  has  been  rec- 
ognized and  adopted  by  travelers  of  all  ages 
and  faiths.  Both  ^Moslems  and  Jews  believe 
that  the  last  judgment  is  to  take  place  there. 

Jehovah.  The  true  pronunciation  of  this 
name,  by  which  God  was  known  to  the  He- 
brews, has  been  entirely  lost,  the  Jews  them- 
selves scrupulously  avoiding  every  mention  of 
it,  and  substituting  in  its  stead  one  or  other 
of  the  words  with  whose  proper  vowel-points 
it  may  happen  to  be  written.  This  custom, 
which  had  its  origin  in  reverence,  and  has  al- 
most degenerated  into  a  superstition,  was 
founded  upon  an  erroneous  rendering  of  Lev. 
xxiv.  16,  from  which  it  was  inferred  that  the 
mere  utterance  of  the  name  constituted  a  cap- 
ital offence.  According  to  Jewish  tradition,  it 
was  pronounced  but  once  a  year  by  the  high- 
priest  on  the  day  of  Atonement  when  he  en- 
tered the  Holy  of  Holies ;  but  on  this  point 
there  is  some  doubt.  On  the  authority  of 
Maimonides  we  learn  that  it  ceased  with 
Simeon  the  Just.  But  even  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  second  Temple  instances  are  met 
with  of  individuals  who  were  in  possession  of 
the  mysterious  secret.  That  the  Hebrews 
learned  the  word  from  the  Egyptians  is  a  the- 
ory which  has  found  some  advocates.  There 
can  be  but  little  doubt  that  the  process  in 
reality  was  reversed,  and  that  in  this  case  the 
Hebrews  were,  not  the  borrowers,  but  the 
lenders.  We  have  indisputable  evidence  that 
it  existed  among  them,  whatever  may  have 
been  its  origin,  many  centuries  before  it  is 
found  in  other  records ;  of  the  contrary  we 
have  no  evidence  whatever.  One  argument 
for  the  Egyptian  origin  of  Jehovah  may  be  no- 
ticed. It  is  found  in  the  circumstance  that 
Pharaoh  changed  the  name  of  Eliakim  to 
Jehoiakim  (2  K.  xxiii.  34),  which  it  is  asserted 
is  not  in  accordance  with  the  practice  of  con- 
querors towards  the  conquered,  unless  the 
Egyptian  king  imposed  upon  the  king  of  Judah 
the  name  of  one  of  his  own  gods.  But  the 
same  reasoning  would  prove  that  the  origin  of 


the  word  was  Babylonian,  for  the  king  of 
Babylon  changed  the  name  of  Mattaniah  to 
Zedekiah  (2  K.  xxiv,  17).  But  many,  aban- 
doning as  untenable  the  theory  of  an  Egyp- 
tian origin,  have  sought  to  trace  the  name 
among  the  Phoenicians  and  Canaanitish  tribes. 
From  the  occurrence  of  Jehovah  as  a  compound 
in  the  proper  names  of  many  who  were  not 
Hebrews,  Hamaker  contends  that  it  must  have 
been  known  among  heathen  people.  But  such 
knowledge,  if  it  existed,  was  no  more  than 
might  have  been  obtained  by  their  necessary 
contact  with  the  Hebrews.  The  names  of 
Uriah  the  Hittite,  of  Araunah  or  Aranjah  the 
Jebusite,  of  Tobiah  the  Ammonite,  and  of  the 
Canaanitish  town  Bizjothjah,  may  be  all  ex- 
plained without  having  recourse  to  Hamaker's 
hypothesis.  Most  of  the  authorities  on  the 
opposite  side  have  taken  for  the  basis  of  their 
explanations,  and  the  different  methods  of 
punctuation  which  they  propose,  the  passage 
in  Ex.  iii.  14,  to  which  we  must  naturally  look 
for  a  solution  of  the  question.  When  Moses 
received  his  commission  to  be  the  deliverer  of 
Israel,  the  Almighty,  who  appeared  in  the 
burning  bush,  communicated  to  him  the  name 
which  he  should  give  as  the  credentials  of  his 
mission :  "And  God  said  unto  Moses,  I  am 
that  I  am ;  and  he  said,  Thus  shalt  thou  say 
unto  the  children  of  Israel,  I  am  hath  sent 
me  unto  you."  That  this  passage  is  intended 
to  indicate  the  etymology  of  Jehovah,  as  un- 
derstood by  the  Hebrews,  no  one  has  ventured 
to  doubt.  While  Elohim  exhibits  God  dis- 
played in  his  power  as  the  creator  and  gov- 
ernor of  the  physical  universe,  the  name 
Jehovah  designates  his  nature  as  He  stands 
in  relation  to  man,  as  the  only  almighty,  true, 
personal,  holy  Being,  a  spirit,  and  "the  father 
of  spirits"  (Num.  xvi.  22;  comp.  John  iv.  24), 
who  revealed  himself  to  his  people,  made  a 
covenant  with  them,  and  became  their  law- 
giver, and  to  whom  all  honor  and  worship  are 
due. 

Jehu  (the  living).  The  founder  of  the 
fifth  dynasty  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  son  of 
Jehoshaphat  (2  K.  ix.  2).  His  first  appear- 
ance in  history  is  when  he  heard  the  warning 
of  Elijah  against  the  murderer  of  Naboth  (2 
K.  ix.  25).  In  the  reigns  of  Ahaziah  and  Jeho- 
ram,  he  had  risen  to  importance.  He  was, 
under  the  last-named  king,  captain  of  the  host 
in  the  siege  of  Ramoth-Gilead.  Whilst  in  the 
midst  of  the  officers  of  the  besieging  army  a 
youth  suddenly  entered,  of  wild  appearance  (2 
K.  ix.  11),  and  uncovered  a  vial  of  the  sacred 
oil  which  he  had  brought  with  him,  poured  it 
over  Jehu's  head,  and  after  announcing  to  him 
the  message  from  Elisha,  that  he  was  ap- 


177 


JEHU 


JEREMIAH 


pointed  to  be  king  of  Israel  and  destroyer  of 
the  house  of  Ahab,  rushed  out  of  the  house 
and  disappeared.  In  a  moment  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  army  took  fire,  and  ordained  him  king. 
He  then  cut  off  all  communication  between 
Ramoth-Gilead  and  Jezreel.  From  the  tower 
of.Jezreel  a  watchman  saw  the  cloud  of  dust 
(A.  V.  "Company")  and  announced  his  com- 
ing (2  K.  ix.  17).  It  was  not  till  he  had  al- 
most reached  the  city,  and  was  identified  by 
the  watchman,  that  alarm  was  taken.  Jehu 
seized  his  opportunity,  and  shot  Jehoram 
through  the  heart  (ix.  24).  Jehu  himself  ad- 
vanced to  the  gates  of  Jezreel  and  fulfilled  the 
divine  warning  on  Jezebel  as  already  on 
Jehoram.  He  then  entered  on  a  work  of  ex- 
termination hitherto  unparalleled  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Jewish  monarchy.  All  the  descend- 
ants of  Ahab  that  remained  in  Jezreel,  together 


The  Black  Obelisk  Inscribed  -with  the  Names  of  Jehu  and 
Ilazael. 

with  the  officers  of  the  court,  and  hierarchy  of 
Astarte,  were  swept  away.  His  next  step  was 
to  secure  Samaria.  There  was  to  be  a  new 
inauguration  of  the  worship  of  Baal.  A  sol- 
emn assembly,  sacred  vestments,  innumerable 
victims,  were  ready.  The  vast  temple  at 
Samaria  raised  by  Ahab  (i  K.  xvi.  32)  was 
crowded  from  end  to  end.  The  chief  sacrifice 
was  offered,  as  if  in  the  excess  of  his  zeal,  by 
Jehu  himself.  As  soon  as  it  was  ascertained 
that  all, •and  none  but,  the  idolaters  were  there, 
the  signal  was  given  to  eighty  trusted  guards, 
and  a  sweeping  massacre  removed  at  one  blow 
the  whole  heathen  population  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel.  This  is  the  last  public  act  recorded 
of  Jehu.  The  remaining  twenty-seven  years 
of  his  long  reign  are  passed  over  in  a  few 
words,  in  which  two  points  only  are  material: 

I 


— He  did  not  destroy  the  calf-worship  of  Jero- 
boam : — The  trans- Jordanic  tribes  suffered 
much  from  the  ravages  of  Hazeal  (2  K.  x.  29- 
33).  He  was  buried  in  state  in  Samaria,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jehoahaz  (2  K.  x. 
35).  His  name  is  the  first  of  the  Israelite 
kings  which  appears  in  the  Assyrian  monu- 
ments. 

Jeph'thah  (whom  God  sets  free),  a  judge, 
about  B.  C.  1143-1137,  His  history  is  con- 
tained in  Judg.  xi.  i-xii.  8.  He  was  a  Gileadite, 
the  son  of  Gilead  and  a  conculiine.  Driven 
by  the  legitimate  sons  from  his  father's  inher- 
itance, he  went  to  Tob,  and  became  the  head 
of  a  company  of  freebooters  in  a  debatable 
land  probably  belonging  to  Ammon  (2  Sam.  x. 
6).  His  fame  as  a  bold  and  successful  captain 
was  carried  back  to  his  native  Gilead ;  and 
when  the  time  was  ripe  for  throwing  off  the 
yoke  of  Ammon,  Jephthah  consented  to  be- 
come their  captain,  on  the  condition  (solemnly 
ratified  before  the  .  Lord  in  Mizpeh)  that  in 
the  event  of  his  success  against  Amnion  he 
should  still  remain  as  their  acknowledged 
head.  He  collected  warriors  throughout 
Gilead  and  Manasseh,  the  provinces  which 
acknowledged  his  authority ;  and  then  he 
vowed  his  vow  unto  the  Lord.  The  Ammon- 
ites were  routed  with  great  slaughter.  But  as 
the  conqueror  returned  to  Mizpeh  there  came 
out  to  meet  him  a  procession  of  damsels  with 
dances  and  timbrels,  and  among  them — the 
first  person  from  his  own  house — his  daugh- 
ter and  only  child.  "Alas!  my  daughter,  thou 
hast  brought  me  very  low,"  was  the  greeting 
of  the  heart-stricken  father.  But  the  high- 
minded  maiden  is  ready  for  any  personal  suf- 
fering in  the  hour  of  her  father's  triumph. 
Only  she  asks  for  a  respite  of  two  months  to 
withdraw  to  her  native  mountains,  and  in  their 
recesses  to  weep  with  her  virgin-friends  over 
the  early  disappointment  of  her  life.  When 
that  time  was  ended  she  returned  to  her  father, 
and  "he  did  unto  her  his  vow."  But  Jephthah 
had  not  long  leisure,  even  if  he  were  disposed, 
for  the  indulgence  of  domestic  grief.  The 
proud  tribe  of  Ephraim  challenged  his  right  to 
go  to  war,  as  he  had  done  without  their  con- 
currence, against  Ammon.  He  first  defeated 
them,  then  intercepted  the  fugitives  at  the 
fords  of  Jordan,  and  there  put  forty-two  thou- 
sand to  the  sword.  He  judged  Israel  six  years 
and  died.  It  is  generally  conjectured  that  his 
jurisdiction  was  limited  to  the  trans-Jordanic 
region.  That  the  daughter  of  Jephthah  was 
really  offered  up  to  God  in  sacrifice,  is  a  con- 
clusion which  it  seems  impossible  to  avoid. 

Jeremi'ah  (whom  Jehovah  has  appointed) 
was  "the  son  of  Hilkiah  of  the  priests  that 


JEREMIAH 


JERICHO 


were  in  Anathoth"  (Jer.  i.  i),  and  was  a  child 
in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  B.  C.  638-608  (i.  6).  In 
his  youth  he  was  called  to  the  prophetic  office, 
but  we  have  hardly  any  mention  of  him  during 
the  eighteen  years  between  his  call  and  Josiah's 
death,  or  during  the  short  reign  of  Jehoahaz. 
Under  Jehoiakim,  B.  C.  607-597,  he  opposed 
the  Egyptian  party,  then  dominant  in  Jerusa- 
lem, and  maintained  that  the  only  way  of 
safety  lay  in  accepting  the  supremacy  of  the 
Chaldeans.  He  was  accordingly  accused  of 
treachery,  and  men  claiming  to  be  prophets 
had  their  "word  of  Jehovah"  to  set  against  his 
(xiv.  13,  xxiii.  7).  As  the  danger  from  the 
Chaldeans  became  more  threatening,  the  per- 
secution against  Jeremiah  grew  hotter  (xviii.). 
The  people  sought  his  life ;  his  voice  rose  up 
in  the  prayer  that  God  would  deliver  and 
avenge  him.  That  thought  he  soon  repro- 
duced in  act  as  well  as  word.  Standing  in  the 
valley  of  Ben-Hinnom,  he  broke  the  earthen 
vessel  he  carried  in  his  hands,  and  prophesied 
to  the  people  that  the  whole  city  should  be 
defiled  with  the  dead,  ^s  that  valley  had  been, 
within  their  memory,  by  Josiah  (xix.  10-13). 
The  boldness  of  the  speech  and  act  drew  upon 
him  immediate  punishment.  The  years  that 
followed  brought  no  change  for  the  better. 
Famine  and  drought  were  added  to  the  mis- 
eries of  the  people  (xiv.  i),  but  false  prophets 
still  deceived  them  with  assurances  of  plenty ; 
and  Jeremiah  was  looked  on  with  dislike,  as 
"a  prophet  of  evil,"  and  "every  one  cursed" 
him  (xv.  10).  He  was  set,  however,  "as  a 
fenced  brazen  wall"  (xv.  20),  and  went  on 
with  his  work,  reproving  king  and  nobles  and 
people.  The  danger  which  Jeremiah  had  so 
long  foretold  at  last  came  near.  First  Jehoia- 
kim, and  afterwards  his  successor  Jehoiachin, 
were  carried  into  exile  (2  K.  xxiv.)  ;  but  Zede- 
kiah  (B.  C.  597-586),  who  was  appointed  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  does  not  exhibit  the  same 
obstinate  resistance.  The  approach  of  an 
Egyptian  army,  and  the  consequent  departure 
of  the  Chaldeans,  made  the  position  of  Jere- 
miah full  of  danger ;  and  he  sought  to  ef¥ect 
his  escape,  but  he  was  seized  and  thrown  into 
a  dungeon  (xxxvii.  16).  The  return  of  the 
Chaldean  army  filled  both  king  and  people 
with  dismay  (xxxii.  i)  ;  and  the  risk  now  was, 
that  they  would  pass  from  their  presumptuous 
confidence  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  sink 
down  in  despair,  with  no  faith  in  God  and  no 
hope  for  the  future.  The  prophet  was  taught 
how  40  meet  that  danger  also.  In  his  prison, 
while  the  Chaldeans  were  ravaging  the  coun- 
try, he  bought,  with  all  requisite  formalities, 
the  field  at  Anathoth  which  his  kinsman  Ha- 
nameel  wished  to  get  rid  of  (xxxii.  6-9).  His 


faith  in  the  promises  of  God  did  not  fail  him. 
At  last  the  blow  came.  The  city  was  taken, 
the  Temple  burnt.  The  king  and  his  princes 
shared  the  fate  of  Jehoiachin.  The  prophet 
gave  utterance  to  his  sorrow  in  the  Lamenta- 
tions. After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  B.  C. 
586,  the  Chaldean  party  in  Judah  had  now  the 
prospect  of  better  things.  We  find  a  special 
charge  given  to  Nebuzaradan  (xxxix.  11  to 
protect  the  person  of  Jeremiah ;  and,  after 
being  carried  as  far  as  Ramah  with  the  crowd 
of  captives  (xl.  i),  he  was  set  free,  and 
Gedeliah  made  governor  over  the  cities  of 
Judah.  The  feeling  of  the  Chaldeans  towards 
him  was  shown  yet  more  strongly  in  the  offer 
made  him  by  Nebuzaradan  (xl.  4,  6).  For  a 
short  time  there  was  an  interval  of  peace  (xl. 
9-12),  soon  broken,  however,  by  the  murder 
of  Gedaliah  by  Ishmael  and  his  associates. 
The  prophet  escaped  from  the  massacre ;  and 
the  people,  under  Johanan,  who  had  taken  the 
command  on  the  death  of  Gedaliah,  turned  to 
him  for  counsel.  His  warnings  and  assur- 
ances were  in  vain,  and  did  but  dfaw  on  him 
and  Baruch  the  old  charge  of  treachery  (xliii. 
3).  The  people  followed  their  own  counsel, 
and  in  order  to  escape  the  vengeance  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar for  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  they 
determined  to  take  refuge  in  Egypt.  They 
carried  with  them  Jeremiah  and  his  faithful 
friend  and  amanuensis  Baruch.  In  Egypt,  in 
the  city  of  Tahpanhes,  we  have  the  last  clear 
glimpses  of  the  Prophet's  life.  His  words  are 
sharper  and  stronger  than  ever.  He  does  not 
shrink,  even  there,  from  speaking  of  the  Chal- 
dean king  once  more  as  "the  servant  of  Jeho- 
vah" (xliii.  10).  After  this  all  is  uncertain, 
but  he  probably  died  in  Egypt.  [Lamenta- 
tions of  Jeremiah.] 

Jer'icho  (place  of  fragrance),  a  city  of  high 
antiquity,  situated  in  a  plain  traversed  by  the 
Jordan,  and  exactly  over  against  where  that 
river  was  crossed  by  the  Israelites  under 
Joshua  (Josh.  iii.  16).  It  had  a  king.  Its  walls 
were  so  considerable  that  houses  were  built 
upon  them  (ii.  15),  and  its  gates  were  shut, 
as  throughout  the  East  still,  "when  it  was 
dark"  (v.  5).  The  spoil  that  was  found  in  it 
betokened  its  affluence.  Jericho  is  fifst  men- 
tioned as  the  city  to  which  the  two  spies  were 
sent  by  Joshua  from  Shittim  ;  they  were  lodged 
in  the  house  of  Rahab  the  harlot  upon  the 
wall,  and  departed,  having  first  jTromised  to 
save  her  and  all  that  were  found  in  her  house 
from  destruction  (ii.  1-21).  As  it  had  been  left 
by  Joshua  it  was  bestowed  by  him  upon  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  21),  and  from 
this  time  a  long  interval  elapses  before  Jericho 
appears  again  upon  the  scene.    The  solemn 


179 


JERICHO 

manner  in  which  its  second  foundation  under 
Hiel  the  Bethelite  is  recorded  (i  K.  xvi.  34) 
implies  that  up  to  that  time  its  site  had  been 
uninhabited.  Once  rebuilt,  Jericho  rose  again 
slowly  into  consequence.  In  its  immediate 
vicinity  the  sons  of  the  prophets  sought  retire- 
ment from  the  world ;  Elisha  "healed  the 
spring  of  the  waters ;"  and  over  against  it, 
beyond  Jordan,  Elijah  "went  up  by  a  whirl- 
wind into  heaven"  (2  K.  ii.  1-22).  In  its  plains 
Zedekiah  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Chaldeans 
(2  K.  XXV.  5;  Jer.  xxxix.  5).  In  the  return 
under  Zerubbabel  the  "children  of  Jericho," 
345  in  number,  are  comprised  (Ez.  iii.  34; 
Neh.  vii.  36).  Under  Herod  the  Great  it  again 
became  an  important  place.  He  built  a  fort 
there,  which  he  called  "Cyprus"  in  honor  of 
his  mother,  a  tower  which  he  called  in  honor 
of  his  brother  Phasaelis ;  and  a  number  of  new 
palaces,  which  he  named  after  his  friends.  He 
even  founded  a  jiew  town,  higher  up  the  plain, 
which  he  called,  like  the  tower,  Phasaelis.  If 
he  did  not  make  Jericho  his  habitual  residence, 
he  at  least  retired  thither  to  die,  and  it  was  in 
the  amphitheatre  of  Jericho  that  the  news  of 
his  death  was  announced  to  the  assembled  sol- 
diers and  people  by  Salome.  Soon  afterwards 
the  palace  was  burnt,  and  the  town  plundered 
by  one  Simon,  slave  to  Herod ;  but  Archelaus 
rebuilt  the  former  sumptuously,  and  founded 
a  new  town'  on  the  plain,  that  bore  his  own 
name ;  and,  most  important  of  all,  diverted 
water  from  a  village  called  Neaera,  to  irrigate 


Jerkho. 

the  plain  which  he  had  planted  with  palms. 
Thus  Jericho  was  once  more  "a  city  of  palms" 
when  our  Lord  visited  it.  Here  He  restored 
sight  to  the  blind  (Matt.  xx.  30;  Mark  x.  46; 
Luke  xviii.  35).  Here  the  descendant  of  Ra- 
hab  did  not  disdain  the  hospitality  of  Zac- 
chaeus  the  publican.    Finally,  between  Jeru- 

I 


JEROBOAM 

salem  and  Jericho  was  laid  the  scene  of  his 
story  of  the  good  Samaritan.  The  city  was 
destroyed  by  Vespasian.  The  site  of  ancient 
(the  first)  Jericho  is  placed  by  Dr.  Robinson 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  fountain 
of  Elisha ;  and  that  of  the  second  (the  city  of 
the  N.  T.  and  of  Josephus)  at  the  opening  of 


Fountain  of  Elisha  at  Jericho. 

the  Wady  Kelt  (Cherith),  half  an  hour  from 
the  fountain. 

Jerobo'am  (whose  people  are  many). 
The  first  king  of  the  divided  kingdom  of  Israel 
(B.  C.  975-954),  was  the  son  of  an  Ephraimite 
of  the  name  of  Nebat.  He  was  employed  by 
Solomon  in  the  fortifications  of  Millo  under- 
neath the  citadel  of  Zion,  and  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  superintendent  over  the  taxes  and 
labors  exacted  from  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (i 
K.  xi.  28).  He  made  the  most  of  his  position, 
and  at  last  was  perceived  by  Solomon  to  be 
aiming  at  the  monarchy.  He  was  leaving  Je- 
rusalem, when  he  encountered  Ahijah,  "the 
prophet,"  who  gave  Jeroboam  the  assurance 
that  on  condition  of  his  obedience  to  His  laws, 
God  would  establish  for  him  a  kingdom  and 
dynasty  equal  to  that  of  David  (i  K.  xi.  29- 
40).  The  attempts  of  Solomon  to  cut  short 
Jeroboam's  designs  occasioned  his  flight  into 
Egypt.  There  he  remained  during  the  rest  of 
Solomon's  reign.  On  Solomon's  death,  he 
demanded  Shishak's  permission  to  return..  The 
Egyptian  king  seems,  in  his  reluctance,  to 
have  offered  any  gift  which  Jeroboam  chose, 
as  a  reason  for  his  remaining,  and  the  conse- 
quence was  the  marriage  with  Ano,  the  elder 
sister  of  the  Egyptian  queen,  Tahpenes,  and 
of  another  princess  who  had  married  the 
Edomite  chief  Hadad.  A  year  elapsed,  and  a 
son,  Abijah  (or  Abijam),  was  born.  Then 
Jeroboam  again  requested  permission  to  de- 
part, Avhich  was  granted;  and  on  his  return  to 
Shechem  took  place  the  conference  with  Reho- 
boam,  and  the  final  revolt  [Rehoboam]  ;  which 
ended  in  the  elevation  of  Jeroboam  to  the 

80 


m  HI 

OF  ihE 


JERUSALEM 


JERUSALEM 


throne  of  the  northern  kingdom.  From  this 
moment  one  fatal  error  undermined  his  dynasty 
and  tarnished  his  name  as  the  first  king  of 
Israel.  He  feared  that  the  yearly  pilgrimages 
to  Jerusalem  would  undo  all  the  work  which 
he  effected,  and  he  took  the  bold  step  of  ren- 
dering it  asunder.  He  caused  a  golden  figure 
of  Mnevis,  the  sacred  calf  of  Heliopolis,  to  be 
set  up,  with  the  address,  "Behold  thy  God 
which  brought  thee  up  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt."  It  was  while  dedicating  the  altar  at 
Bethel  that  a  prophet  from  Judah  suddenly 
appeared,  who  denounced  the  altar,  and  fore- 
told its  desecration  by  Josiah,  and  violent 
overthrow.  The  king,  stretching  out  his  hand 
to  arrest  the  prophet,  felt  it  withered  and 
paralyzed,  and  only  at  the  prophet's  prayer 
saw  it  restored,  and  acknowledged  his  divine 
mission.  Jeroboam  was  at  constant  war  with 
the  house  of  Judah,  but  the  only  act  distinctly 
recorded  is  a  battle  with  Abijah,  son  of  Reho- 
boam,  in  which  he  was  defeated.  The  calam- 
ity was  severely  felt;  he  never  recovered  the 
blow,  and  soon  after  died,  in  the  22d  year  of 
his  reign  (2  Chr.  xiii.  20),  and  was  buried  in 
his  ancestral  sepulchre  (i  K.  xiv.  20). 

Jeru'salem  (the  habitation  of  peace).  Jeru- 
salem stands  in  latitude  31°  46'  35"  North,  and 
longitude  35°  18'  30"  East  of  Greenwich.  It 
is  32  miles  distant  from  the  sea,  and  18  from 
the  Jordan;  20  from  Hebron,  and  36  from 
Samaria.  "In  several  respects,"  says  Dean 
Stanley,  "its  situation  is  singular  among  the 
cities  of  Palestine.  Its  elevation  is  remarkable ; 
occasioned  not  from  its  being  on  the  summit 
of  one  of  the  numerous  hills  of  Judaea,  like 
most  of  the  towns  and  villages,  but  because  it 
is  on  the  edge  of  one  of  the  highest  table-lands 
of  the  country.  Hebron  indeed  is  higher  still 
by  some  hundred  feet,  and  from  the  south,  ac- 
cordingly (even  from  Bethlehem),  the  ap- 
proach to  Jerusalem  is  by  a  slight  descent. 
But  from  any  other  side  the  ascent  is  per- 
petual ;  and  to  the  traveller  approaching  the 
city  from  the  E.  or  W.  it  must  always  have 
presented  the  appearance  beyond  any  other 
capital  of  the  then  known  world — we  may  say 
beyond  any  important  city  that  has  ever 
existed  on  the  earth — of  a  mountain  city; 
breathing,  as  compared  with  the  sultry  plains 
of  Jordan,  a  mountain  air ;  enthroned,  as  com- 
pared with  Jericho  or  Damascus,  Gaza  or 
Tyre,  on  a  mountain  fastness."  The  elevation 
of  Jerusalem  is  a  subject  of  constant  reference 
and  exultation  by  the  Jewish  writers.  Their 
fervid  poetry  abounds  with  allusions  to  its 
height,  to  the  ascent  thither  of  the  tribes  from 
all  parts  of  the  country.  It  was  the  habitation 
of  Jehovah,  from  which  "He  looked  upon  all 

I 


the  inhabitants  of  the  world"  (Ps.  xxxiii.  14)  : 
its  kings  were  "higher  than  the  kings  of  the 
earth"  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  27).  Jerusalem,  if  not 
actually  in  the  centre  of  Palestine,  was  yet  vir- 
tually so.  "It  was  on  the  ridge,  the  broadest 
and  most  strongly  marked  ridge  of  the  back- 
bone of  the  complicated  hills  which  extend 
through  the  whole  country  from  the  Plain  of 
Esdraelon  to  the  Desert.  It  was  the  water- 
shed between  the  streams,  or  rather  the  tor- 
rent beds,  which  find  their  way  eastward  to 
the  Jordan,  and  those  which  pass  westward  to 
the   Mediterranean.    There  appear   to  have 


been  but  two  main  approaches  to  the 
city.  I.  From  the  Jordan  valley  by  Jericho 
and  the  Mount  of  Olives.  This  was  the  route 
commonly  taken  from  the  north  and  east  of 
the  country — as  from  Galilee  by  our  Lord 
(Luke  xvii.  11,  xviii.  35,  xix.  I,  29,  45,  &c.), 
from  Damascus  by  Pompey,  to  Mahanaim  by 
David  (2  Sam.  xv.,  xvi.).  It  was  also  the  route 
from  places  in  the  central  districts  of  the  coun- 
try, as  Samaria  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  15).  The  latter 
part  of  the  approach,  over  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  as  generally  followed  at  the  present 
day,  is  identical  with  what  it  was,  at  least  in 
one  memorable  instance,  in  the  time  of  Christ. 
2.  From  the  great  maritime  plain  of  Philistia 
and  Sharon.  This  road  led  by  the  two  Beth- 
81 


JERUSALEM 


JERUSALEM 


horons  up  to  the  high  ground  at  Gibeon, 
whence  it  turned  south,  and  came  to  Jerusalem 
by  Ramah  and  Gibeah,  and  over  the  ridge 
north  of  the  city.  To  convey  an  idea  of  the 
position  of  Jerusalem,  we  may  say  roughly, 
that  the  city  occupies  the  southern  termination 
of  a  table-land,  which  is  cut  ofif  from  the  coun- 
try round  it  on  its  west,  south,  and  east  sides, 
by  ravines  more  than  usually  deep  and 
precipitous.  These  ravines  leave  the  level  of 
the  table-land,  the  one  on  the  west  and  the 
other  on  the  north-east  of  the  city,  and  fall 
rapidly  until  they  form  a  junction  below  its 
south-east  corner.  The  eastern  one — the  Val- 
ley of  the  Kedron,  commonly  called  the  Valley 
of  Jehoshaphat,  runs  nearly  straight  from 
north  to  south.  But  the  western  one — the 
Valley  of  Hinnom — runs  south  for  a  time,  and 
then  takes  a  sudden  bend  to  the  east  until  it 
meets  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  after  which 
the  two  rush  off  as  one  to  the  Dead  Sea.  How 
sudden  is  their  descent  may  be  gathered  from 
the  fact,  that  the  level  at  the  point  of  junction 
— about  a  mile  and  a  quarter  from  the  start- 
ing-point of  each — is  more  than  600  feet  below 
that  of  the  upper  plateau  from  which  they 
commenced  their  descent.  Thus,  while  on  the 
north  there  is  no  material  difference  between 
the  general  level  of  the  country  outside  the 
walls,  and  that  of  the  highest  parts  of  the  city  ; 
on  the  other  three  sides,  so  steep  is  the  fall  of 
the  ravines,  so  trench-like  their  character,  and 
so  close  do  they  keep  to  the  promontory,  at 
whose  feet  they  run,  as  to  leave  on  the  be- 
holder almost  the  impression  of  the  ditch  at 


Interior  of  the  Greek  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 


the  foot  of  a  fortress,  rather  than  of  valleys 
formed  by  nature.  The  first  or  old  wall  began 
on  the  north  at  the  tower  called  Hippicus,  the 
ruins  now  called  Kasr  Jalud  at  the  N.  W. 
angle  of  the  present  city,  and,  extending  to  the 
Xystus,  joined  the  council  house,  and  ended  at 

I 


the  west  cloister  of  the  Temple.  Its  southern 
direction  is  described  as  passing  the  gate  of 
the  Essenes  (probably  the  modern  Jaffa  gate), 
and,  bending  above  the  fountain  of  Siloam,  it 
reached  Ophel,  and  was  joined  to  the  eastern 
cloister  of  the  Temple.  The  second  wall  began 
at  the  gate  Gennath,  in  the  old  wall,  probably 


Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  Jerusalem. 


near  the  Hippicus,  and  passed  round  the  north- 
ern quarter  of  the  city,  enclosing  the  great 
valley  of  the  Tyropoeon,  which  leads  up  to  the 
Damascus  gate ;  and  then,  proceeding  south- 
ward, joined  the  fortress  Antonia.  The  direc- 
tion of  this  second  wall  was  identical  with  that 
of  the  modern  wall ;  and  some  part  at  least  of 
the  northern  portion  of  the  western  part  of  the 
Haram  area  is  probably  built  on  its  site.  The 
third  wall  was  built  by  King  Herod  Agrippa, 
and  w-as  intended  to  enclose  the  suburbs 
which  had  grown  out  on  the  northern  sides 
of  the  city,  which  before  this  had  been  left  ex- 
posed. It  began  at  the  Hippicus,  and  reached 
as  far  as  the  tower  Psephinus,  till  it  came  op- 
posite the  monument  of  Queen  Helena  of 
Adiabene ;  it  then  passed  by  the  sepulchral 
monuments  of  the  kings — a  well-known  lo- 
cality— and  turning  south  at  the  monument  of 
the  Fuller,  joined  the  old  wall  at  the  valley 
called  the  valley  of  Kedron.  After  describing 
these  walls,  Josephus  adds  that  the  whole  cir- 
cumference of  the  city  was  33  stadia,  or  nearly 
four  English  miles,  which  is  as  near  as  may  be 
the  extent  indicated  by  the  localities.  He  then 
adds  that  the  number  of  towers  in  the  old  wall 
was  60,  the  middle  wall  40,  and  the  new 
wall  99.  Streets,  Houses,  &c. — Of  the  nature 
of  these  in  the  ancient  city  we  have  only  the 
most  scattered  notices.  Streets,  properly  so 
called,  there  were  (Jer.  v.  i,  xi.  13,  &c.),  but 
the  name  of  only  one,  "the  bakers'  street"  (Jer. 
xxxvii.  2i),  is  preserved  to  us.  To  the  houses 
we  have  even  less  clew ;  but  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  in  either  liouses  or  streets  the 


JERUSALEM 

ancient  Jerusalem  differed  very  materially 
from  the  modern.  No  doubt  the  ancient  city 
did  not  exhibit  that  air  of  mouldering  dilapida- 
tion which  is  now  so  prominent  there.  The 
whole  of  the  slopes  south  of  the  Haram  area 
(the  ancient  Ophel),  and  the  modern  Zion,  and 
the  west  side  of  the  valley  oi  Jehoshaphat, 
present  the  appearance  of  gigantic  mounds  of 
rubbish.  In  this  point  at  least  the  ancient  city 
stood  in  favorable  contrast  with  the  modern, 
but  in  many  others  the  resemblance  must  have 
been  strong.  Population. — Taking  the  area  of 
the  city  enclosed  by  the  two  old  walls  at  750,- 
000  yards  and  that  enclosed  by  the  wall  of 
Agrippa  at  1,500,000,  we  have  2,250,000  yards 
for  the  whole.  Taking  the  population  of  the 
old  city  at  the  probable  number  of  one  person 
to  50  yards  we  have  15,000,  and  at  the  extreme 
limit  of  30  yards  we  should  have  25,000  in- 
habitants for  the  old  city.  And  at  100  yards 
to  each  individual  in  the  new  city  about  15,000 
moie;  so  that  the  population  of  Jerusalem,  in 


Pool  of  Ilezekiab,  Inside  the  Jaffa  Gate. 

its  days  of  greatest  prosperity,  may  have 
amqunted  to  from  30,000  to  45,000  souls,  but 
could  hardly  ever  have  reached  50,000 ;  and  as- 
suming that  in  times  of  festival  one  half  were 
added  to  this  amount,  which  is  an  extreme 
estimate,  there  may  have  been  60,000  or  70,000 
in  the  city  when  Titus  came  up  against  it. 
Environs  of  the  City. — The  various  spots  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  city  are  .  described 
under  their  own  names,  and  to  them  the  reader 
is  accordingly  referred.  The  Annals  of  the 
City.  In  considering  the  annals  of  the  city  of 
Jerusalem,  nothing  strikes  one  so  forcibly  as 
the  number  and  severity  of  the  sieges  which  it 
underwent.  We  catch  our  earliest  glimpse  of 
it  in  the  brief  notice  of  the  ist  chapter  of 
Judges,  which  describes  how  the  "children  of 
Judah  smote  it  with  the  edge  of  the  sword, 
and  set  the  city  on  fire ;"  and  almost  the  latest 
mention  of  it  in  the  New  Testament  is  con- 
tained in  the  solemn  warnings  in  which  Christ 


JERUSALEM 

foretold  how  Jerusalem  should  be  "compassed 
with  armies"  (Luke  xxi.  20),  and  the  "abom- 
ination of  desolation"  be  seen  standing  in  the 
Holy  Place  (Matt.  xxiv.  15).  In  the  fifteen 
centuries  which  elapsed  between  those  two 
points  the  city  was  besieged  no  fewer  than 


Zion. 


seventeen  times;  twice  it  was  razed  to  the 
ground ;  and  on  two  other  occasions  its  walls 
were  levelled.  In  this  respect  it  stands  with- 
out a  parallel  in  any  city,  ancient  or  modern. 
The  first  siege  appears  to  have  taken  place 
almost  immediately  after  the  death  of  Joshua 
(cir.  1400  B.  C).  Judah  and  Simeon  "fought 
against  it  and  took  it,  and  smote  it  with  the 
edge  of  the  sword,  and  set  the  city  on  fire" 
(Judg.  i.  8).  To  this  brief  notice  Josephus 
makes  a  material  addition.    He  tells  us  that 


Jaffa  Gate  and  David's  Tower,  Jerusalem. 

the  part  which  was  taken  at  last,  and  in  which 
the  slaughter  was  made,  was  the  lower  city ; 
but  that  the  upper  city  was  so  strong,  that 
they  relinquished  the  attempt  and  moved  off 
to  Hebron.  As  long  as  the  upper  city  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  the  Jebusites  they  prac- 


183 


JERUSALEM 


JERUSALEM 


tically  had  possession  of  the  whole,  and  a 
Jebusite  city  in  fact  it  remained  for  a  long 
period  after  this.  The  Benjamites  followed 
the  men  of  Judah  to  Jerusalem,  but  with  no 
better  result  (Judg.  i.  21).  And  this  lasted 
during  the  whole  period  of  the  Judges,  the 
reign  of  Saul,  and  the  reign  of  David  at  Heb- 
ron. David  advanced  against  the  place  at  the 
head  of  a  formidable  army.    No  doubt  he  ap- 


The  Golden  Gate  of  Jerusalem. 


proached  the  city  from  the  south.  As  before, 
the  lower  city  was  immediately  taken — and 
as  before,  the  citadel  held  out.  The  undaunted 
Jebusites,  believing  in  the  impregnability  of 
their  fortress,  manned  the  battlements  "with 
lame  and  blind."  But  they  little  understood 
the  temper  of  the  king  or  of  those  he  com- 
manded. David's  anger  was  thoroughly  roused 
by  the  insult,  and  he  at  once  proclaimed  to  his 
host  that  the  first  man  who  would  scale  the 
rocky  side  of  the  fortress  and  kill  a  Jebusite 
should  be  made  chief  captain  of  the  host.  A 
crowd  of  warriors  rushed  forward  to  the  at- 
tempt, but  Joab's  superior  agility  gained  him 
the  day,  and  the  citadel,  the  fastness  of  Zion, 
was  taken  (1046  B.  C).  It  is  the  first  time 
that  that  memorable  name  appears  in  history. 
The  fortress,  which  now  became  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom,  received  the  name  of  "the  city 
of  David;"  and  David  fortified  its  whole  cir- 
cuit round  about  from  Millo,  while  Joab  re- 
paired the  rest  of  the  city.  (2  Sam.  v.  6-9;  i 
Chr.  xi.  4-8.)  Until  the  time  of  Soromon  we 
hear  of  no  additions  to  the  city.  His  three 
great  works  were  the  Temple,  with  its  east 
wall  and  cloister,  his  own  Palace,  and  the 
Wall  of  Jerusalem.  One  of  the  first  acts  of 
the  new  king  was  to  make  the  walls  larger. 
But  on  the  completion  of  the  Temple  he  again 
turned  his  attention  to  the  walls,  and  both 
increased  their  height  and  constructed  very 
large  towers  along  them.    Another  work  of 

I 


his  in  Jerusalem  was  the  repair  or  fortification 
of  Millo  (i  K.  ix.  15,  24).  The  city  was  taken 
by  the  Philistines  and  Arabians  in  the  reign 
of  Jehoram  (B.  C.  886),  and  by  the  Israelites 
in  the  reign  of  Amaziah  (B.  C.  826).  It  was 
thrice  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  the  years 

B.  C.  607,  597,  and  586,  in  the  last  of  which  it 
was  utterly  destroyed.  Its  restoration  com- 
menced under  Cyrus  (B.  C.  538),  and  was 
completed  under  Artaxerxes  I.,  who  issued 
commissions  for  this  purpose  to  Ezra  (B.  C. 
457)  and  Nehemiah  (B.  C.  445).  In  B.  C.  332 
it  was  captured  by  Alexander  the  Great.  Under 
the  Ptolemies  and  the  Seleucidae  the  town  was 
prosperous,  until  Antiochus  Epiphanes  sacked 
it  (B.  C.  170).  In  consequence  of  his  tyranny, 
the  Jews  rose  under  the  Maccabees,  and 
Jerusalem  became  again  independent,  and  re- 
tained its  position  until  its  capture  by  the 
Romans  under  Pompey  (B.  C.  63).  The  Tem- 
ple was  subsequently  plundered  by  Crassus 
(B.  C.  54),  and  the  city  by  the  Parthians  (E. 

C.  40).  Herod  took  up  his  residence  there  as 
soon  as  he  was  appointed  sovereign,  and  re- 
stored the  Temple  with  great  magnificence. 
On  the  death  of  Herod  it  became  the  residence 
of  the  Roman  procurators,  who  occupied  the 
fortress  of  Antonia.  The  greatest  siege  that  it 
sustained,  however,  was  at  the  hands  of  th'^ 
Romans  under  Titus,  when  it  held  out  nearly 
five  months,  and  when  the  town  was  com- 
pletely destroyed  (A.  D.  70).  Hadrian  restored 
it  as  a  Roman  colony  (A.  D.  135),  and  among 


St.  Stephen's  Gate,  Jerusalem. 


other  buildings  erected  a  temple  of  Jupiter 
Capitolinus  on  the  site  of  the  Temple.  He 
gave  to  it  the  name  of  Aelia  Capitolma,  thus 
combining  his  own  family  name  with  that  of 
the  Capitoline  Jupiter.  The  emperor  Con- 
stantine  established  the  Christian  characteV  by 
the  erection  of  a  church  on  the  supposed  site 
of  the  holy  sepulchre  (A.  D.  336).  Of  the 
buildings  which  Constantine  or  his  mother, 

84 


TIIK   SAVIOUI!.     TIZIAXO    VECELLIO    (TITIAN).    AFTER  THE    PAINTING    IN   THE  IMTTI 

I'AIACE.  FI,f)i;ENCE. 


THE  l««"^AflY 
OF  THE 


JERUSALEM 


JESSE 


Helena,  erected,  Mr.  Fergusson  maintains  that 
two  of  tliem  now  remain, — the  one  the 
Anastasis,  a  circular  building  erected  over  the 
tomb  itself;  the  other  the  "Golden  Gateway," 
which  was  the  propylea  described  by  Eusebius 
as  leading  to  the  atrium  of  the  basilica. 
Justinian  added  several  churches  and  hospitals 
(about  A.  D.  532).  It  was  taken  by  the 
Persians  under  Chosroes  II.  in  A.  D.  614.  After 
a  struggle  of  fourteen  years  the  imperial  arms 
were  again  victorious,  and  in  628  Heraclius 
entered  Jerusalem  on  foot.  The  dominion  of 
the  Christians  in  the  Holy  City  was  now  rap- 
idly drawing  to  a  close.  In  A.  D.  637  the 
patriarch  Sophronius  surrendered  to  the  Khalif 
Omar  in  person.  With  the  fall  of  the  Abassides 


street  in  Jerusalem. 

the  Holy  City  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Fatimite  dynasty,  under  whom  the  sufferings 
of  the  Christians  in  Jerusalem  reached  their 
height.  About  the  year  1084  it  was  bestowed 
upon  Ortok,  chief  of  a  Turkman  horde  under 
his  command.  From  this  time  till  1091  Ortok 
was  emir  of  the  city,  and  on  his  death  it  was 
held  as  a  kind  of  fiief  by  his  sons  Ilghazy  and 
Sukman,  whose  severity  to  the  Christians  be- 
came the  proximate  cause  of  the  Crusades.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Crusaders  in  1099,  and  for 
eighty-eight  years  Jerusalem  remained  in  the 
hands-  of  the  Christians.  In  1187  it  was  re- 
taken by  Saladin  after  a  siege  of  several  weeks. 


In  1277  Jerusalem  was  nominally  annexed  to 
the  kingdom  of  Sicily.  In  15 17  it  passed  under 
the  sway  of  the  Ottoman  Sultan  Selim  I., 
whose  successor  Suliman  built  the  present 
walls  of  the  city  in  1542.  Mohammed  Aly,  the 
Pasha  of  Egypt,  took  possession  of  it  in  1832; 


Coin  to  Commemorate  the  Capture  of  Judea,  A.  T  '/O 

and  in  1840.  after  the  bombardment  o£  Acv 
it  was  again  restored  to  the  Sultan. 

Jes'se  (wealthy),  the  father  of  Bdv^id,  was. 
the  son  of  Obed,  who  again  was  the  iniit  of  the 
union  of  Boaz  and  the  Moabitess,  Ruth.  Nor 
was  Ruth's  the  only  foreign  blood  that  ran  in 
his  veins ;  for  his  great-grandinother  was  no 
less  a  person  than  Rahab  the  Canaanite,  of 
Jericho  (Matt.  i.  5).  Jesse'd  genealogy  is  twice 
given  in  full  in  the  O.  T.,  viz.  Ruth  iv.  18-22, 
and  I  Chr.  ii.  5-12.  He  is  commonly  designated 
as  "Jesse  the  Rethlehemite"  (i  Sam.  xvi.  i,  18). 


The  Way  of  the  Cross,  Jerusalem. 

So  he  is  called  by  his  son  David,  then  fresh 
from  home  (xvii.  58)  ;  but  his  full  title  is  "the 
Ephrathite  of  Bethlehem  Judah"  (xvii.  12).  He 
is  an  "old  man"  when  we  first  meet  with  him 
(i  Sam.  xvii.  12),  with  eight  sons  (xvi.  10,  xvii. 
12),  residing  at  Bethlehem  (xvi.  4,  5).  Jesse's 
wealth  seems  to  have  consisted  of  a  flock  of 


185 


1 


JESUITES 

sheep  and  goats,  which  were  under  the  care  of 
David  (xvi.  1 1,  xvii.  34,  35).  When  David's 
rupture  with  Saul  had  finally  driven  him  from 
the  court,  and  he  was  in  the  cave  of  Adullam, 
"his  brethren  and  all  his  father's  house"  joined 
him  (xxii.  i).  Anxious  for  their  safety,  he 
took  his  father  and  his  mother  into  the  country 
of  Moab,  and  deposited  them  with  the  king, 
and  there  they  disappear  from  our  view  in  the 
records  of  Scripture. 

Jes'uites,  The.  A  family  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher  (Num.  xxvi.  44). 

Je'sus.  I.  The  Greek  form  of  the  name 
Joshua  or  Jeshua,  a  contraction  of  Jehoshua, 
that  is,  "help  of  Jehovah"  or  "Saviour"  (Num. 
xiii.  16).  2.  Joshua,  son  of  Nun  (vii.  45;  Heb. 
iv.  8).  [Jehoshua.] 

Je'sus  Christ.  I.  Name.  The  name  Jesus 
signifies  Saviour.  The  name  of  Christ  signifies 
Anointed.  Priests  were  anointed  among  the 
Jews,  as  their  inauguration  to  their  office  (i 
Chr.  xvi.  22;  Ps.  cv.  15),  and  kings  also  (2 
Mace.  i.  24;  Ecclus.  xlvi.  19).  In  the  New 
Testament  the  name  Christ  is  used  as  equiva- 
lent to  Messiah  (John  i.  41),  the  name  given 
to  the  long-promised  Prophet  and  King  whom 
the  Jews  had  been  taught  by  their  prophets  to 
expect  (Acts  xix.  4;  Matt.  xi.  3).  The  use  of 
this  name,  as  applied  to  the  Lord,  has  always 
a  reference  to  the  promises  of  the  Prophets. 
The  name  of  Jesus  is  the  proper  name  of  our 
Lord,  and  that  of  Christ  is  added  to  identify 
Him  with  the  promised  Messiah.  IL  Birth 
and  Early  Life.  According  to  the  received 
chronology,  which  is  in  fact  that  of  Dionysius 
Exiguus  in  the  6th  century,  the  Birth  of  Christ 
occurred  in  the  year  of  Rome  754  (A.  D.  i)  ; 
but  from  other  considerations  it  is  probable 
that  the  Nativity  took  place  some  time  before 
the  month  of  April,  750  (A.  D.  4),  and  if  it 
happened  only  a  few  months  before  Herod's 
death,  then  its  date  would  be  four  years  earlier 
than  the  Dionysian  reckoning.  The  salutation 
addressed  by  the  Angel  to  Mary  His  mother, 
"Hail!  thou  that  art  highly  favored,"  was  the 
prelude  to  a  new  act  of  divine  creation.  Mary 
received  the  announcement  of  a  miracle,  the 
full  import  of  which  she  could  not  have  vmder- 
stood,  with  the  submission  of  one  who  knew 
that  the  message  came  from  God ;  and  the 
Angel  departed  from  her.  The  prophet  Micah 
had  foretold  (v.  2)  that  the  future  king  should 
be  born  in  Bethlehem  of  Judaea,  the  place 
where  the  house  of  David  had  its  origin ;  but 
Mary  dwelt  in  Nazareth.  Augustus,  however, 
had  ordered  a  general  census  of  the  Roman 
empire.  From  the  well-known  passage  of  St. 
Luke  (ii.  2)  it  appears  that  the  taxing  was  not 
completed  till  the  time  of  Quirinus  (Cyrenius), 


JESUS  CHRIST 

some  years  later;  and  how  far  it  was  carried 
now,  cannot  be  determined :  all  that  we  learn 
is,  that  it  brought  Joseph,  who  was  of  the 
house  of  David,  from  his  home  to  Bethlehem, 
where  the  Lord  was  born.  As  there  was  no 
room  in  the  inn,  a  manger  was  the  cradle  in 
which  Christ  the  Lord  was  laid.  But  signs 
were  not  wanting  of  the  greatness  of  the  event 
that  seemed  so  unimportant.  Lowly  shepherds 
were  the  witnesses  of  the  wonder  that  ac- 
companied the  lowly  Saviour's  birth ;  an  angel 
proclaimed  to  them  "good  tidings  of  great 
joy;"  and  then  the  exceeding  joy  that  was  in 
heaven  amongst  the  angels  about  this  mystery 
of  love  broke  through  the  silence  of  night  with 
the  words,  "Glory  to  God  in  the  highest,  and 
on  earth  peace,  good  will  toward  men"  (Luke 
ii.  8-20).  The  child  Jesus  is  circumcised  in  due 
time,  is  brought  to  the  Temple,  and  the  mother 
makes  the  offering  for  her  purification.  Simeon 
and  Anna,  taught  from  God  that  the  object  of 
their  earnest  longings  w^as  before  them, 
prophesied  of  His  divine  work:  the  one  rejoic- 
ing that  his  eyes  had  seen  the  salvation  of  God, 
and  the  other  speaking  of  Him  "to  all  that 
looked  for  redemption  in  Jerusalem"  (Luke  ii. 
28-38).  Thus  recognized  amongst  His  own 
people,  the  Saviour  was  not  without  witness 
amongst  the  heathen.  "Wise  men  from  the 
East" — that  is,  Persian  magi  of  the  Zend  re- 
ligion, in  which  the  idea  of  a  Zoziosh  or  Re- 
deemer was  clearly  known — guided  miracu- 
lously by  a  star  or  meteor  created  for  the  pur- 
pose, came  and  sought  out  the  Saviour  to  pay 
him  homage.  A  little  child  made  the  great 
Herod  quake  upon  his  throne.  When  he  knew 
that  the  magi  were  come  to  hail  their  king  and 
Lord,  and  did  not  stop  at  his  palace,  but 
passed  on  to  a  humbler  roof,  and  when  he 
found  that  they  would  not  return  to  betray  this 
child  to  him,  he  put  to  death  all  the  children 
in  Bethlehem  that  were  under  two  years  old. 
Joseph,  warned  by  a  dream,  flees  to  Egypt 
with  the  young  child,  beyond  the  reach  of 
Herod's  arm.  After  the  death  of  Herod,  in 
less  than  a  year,  Jesus  returned  with  his  par- 
ents to  their  own  land,  and  went  to  Nazareth,  . 
where  they  abode.  Except  as  to  one  event,  the 
Evangelists  are  silent  upon  the  succeeding 
years  of  our  Lord's  life  down  to  the  commence- 
ment of  His  ministry.  When  He  was  twelve 
years  old  He  was  found  in  the  Temple,  hear- 
ing the  doctors  and  asking  them  questions 
(Luke  ii.  40-52).  We  are  shown  this  one  fact 
that  we  may  know  that  at  the  time  when  the 
Jews  considered  childhood  to  be  passing  into 
youth,  Jesus  was  already  aware  of  His  mis- 
sion, and  consciously  preparing  for  it,  although 
years  passed  before  its  actual  commencement. 


186 


JESUS  CHRIST 

Thirty  years  had  elapsed  from  the  birth  of  our 
Lord  to  the  opening  of  His  ministry.  In  that 
time  great  changes  had  come  over  the  chosen 
people.  Herod  the  Great  had  united  under 
him  almost  all  the  original  kingdom  of  David ; 
after  the  death  of  that  prince  it  was  dismem- 
bered forever.  It  was  in  the  fifteenth  year  of 
Tiberius  the  Emperor,  reckoning  from  his 
joint  rule  with  Augustus  (Jan.  U.  C.  765,  A.  D. 
12),  and  not  from  his  sole  rule  (Aug.  U.  C. 
767,  A.  D.  14),  that  John  the  Baptist  began 
to  teach.  He  was  the  last  representative  of 
the  prophets  of  the  old  covenant ;  and  his  work 
was  twofold — to  enforce  repentance  and  the 
terrors  of  the  old  law,  and  to  revive  the  almost 
forgotten  expectation  of  the  Messiah  (Matt, 
iii.  l-io;  ]\Iark  i.  1-8;  Luke  iii.  1-18).  The 
career  of  John  seems  to  have  been  verj^  short. 
Jesus  came  to  Jordan  with  the  rest  to  receive 
baptism  at  John's  hands:  first,  in  order  that 
the  sacrament  by  which  all  were  hereafter  to 
be  admitted  into  His  kingdom  might  not  want 
His  example  to  justify  its  use  (Matt.  iii.  15)  ; 
next,  that  John  might  have  an  assurance  that 
his  course  as  the  herald  of  Christ  was  now 
completed  by  his  appearance  (John  i.  33)  ;  and 
last,  that  some  public  token  might  be  given 
that  He  was  indeed  the  Anointed  of  God  (Heb. 
V.  5).  Immediately  after  this  inauguration  of 
His  ministry  Jesus  was  led  up  of  the  Spirit 
into  the  wilderness  to  be  tempted  of  the  devil 
(Matt.  iv.  i-ii;  Mark  i.  12,  13;  Luke  iv.  1-13). 
The  three  temptations  are  addressed  to  the 
three  forms  in  which  the  disease  of  sin  makes 
its  appearance  on  the  soul — to  the  solace  of 
sense,  and  the  love  of  praise,  and  the  desire 
of  gain  (i  John  ii.  16).  III.  The  Lord's  Min- 
istry. Before  entering  upon  the  history  of  our 
Lord's  ministry,  there  are  two  points  that 
demand  a  few  remarks:  (i.)  the  scene  of  the 
ministry;  (ii.)  its  duration,  (i.)  The  scene  of 
the  ministry. — As  to  the  scene  of  the  ministry 
of  Christ,  no  less  than  as  to  its  duration,  the 
three  Evangelists  seem  at  first  sight  to  be  at 
variance  with  the  fourth.  Matthew,  Mark,  and 
Luke  record  only  our  Lord's  doings  in  Galilee ; 
if  we  put  aside  a  few  days  before  the  Passion, 
we  find  that  they  never  mention  His  visiting 
Jerusalem.  John,  on  the  other  hand,  whilst  he 
records  some  acts  in  Galilee,  devotes  the  chief 
part  of  his  Gospel  to  the  transactions  in 
Judaea.  But  when  the  supplemental  character 
of  John's  Gospel  is  borne  in  mind  there  is  lit- 
tle difficulty  in  explaining  this.  The  three 
Evangelists  do  not  profess  to  give  a  chronology 
of  the  ministry,  but  rather  a  picture  of  it: 
notes  of  time  are  not  frequent  in  their  narra- 
tive. And  as  they  chiefly  confined  themselves 
to  Galilee,  where  the  Redeemer's  chief  acts 


JESUS  CHRIST 

were  done,  they  might  naturally  omit  to  men- 
tion the  feasts,  which,  being  passed  by  our 
Lord  at  Jerusalem,  added  nothing  to  the  ma- 
terials for  His  Galilean  ministry,  (ii.)  Dura- 
tion of  the  ministry. — It  is  impossible  to  de- 
termine exactly  from  the  Gospels  the  number 
of  years  during  which  the  Redeemer  exercised 
His  ministry  before  the  Passion :  but  the  doubt 
lies  between  two  and  three,  i.  First  year  of 
the  ministry  was  U.  C.  780  A.  D.  27),  and 
the  Baptism  of  our  Lord  took  place  either  in 
the  beginning  of  that  year  or  the  end  of  the 
year  preceding.  Our  Lord  has  now  passed 
through  the  ordeal  of  temptation,  and  His 
ministry  is  begun.  At  Bethabara,  to  which 
He  returns,  disciples  begin  to  be  drawn  to- 
wards Him ;  Andrew  and  another,  probably 
John,  the  sole  narrator  of  the  fact,  see  Jesus, 
and  hear  the  Baptist's  testimony  concerning 
Him.  Andrew  brings  Simon  Peter  to  see  Him 
also;  and  he  receives  from  the  Lord  the  name 
of  Cephas.  Then  Philip  and  Nathanael  are 
brought  into  contact  with  our  Lord.  The  two 
disciples  last  named  saw  Him  as  He  was 
about  to  set  out  for  Galilee,  on  the  third  day 
of  His  sojourn  at  Bethabara.  The  third  day 
after  this  interview  Jesus  is  at  Cana  in  Galilee, 
and  works  His  first  miracle,  by  making  the 
water  wine  (John  i.  29,  35,  43;  ii.  i).  He  now 
betakes  Himself  to  Capernaum,  and  after  a 
sojourn  there  of  "not  many  days,"  sets  out  for 
Jerusalem  to  the  Passover,  which  was  to  be 
the  beginning  of  His  ministry  in  Judaea  (John 
ii.  12,  13).  .The  cleansing  of  the  Temple  is  as- 
sociated by  St.  John  with  this  first  Passover 
(ii.  12-22),  and  a  similar  cleansing  is  assigned 
to  the  last  Passover  by  the  other  Evangelists. 
These  two  cannot  be  confounded  without 
throwing  discredit  on  the  historical  character 
of  one  narrative  or  the  other ;  the  notes  of 
time  are  too  precise.  The  expulsion  of  the 
traders  was  not  likely  to  produce  a  permanent 
effect,  and  at  the  end  of  three  years  Jesus 
found  the  tumult  and  the  traffic  defiling  the 
court  of  the  Temple  as  they  had  done  when  He 
visited  it  before.  After  a  sojourn  at  Jeru- 
salem of  uncertain  duration,  Jesus  went 
to  the  Jordan  with  His  disciples ;  and  they 
there  baptized  in  His  name.  The  Bap- 
tist was  now  at  Aenon  near  Salim ;  and 
the  jealousy  of  his  disciples  against  Jesus 
drew  from  John  an  avowal  of  his  position, 
which  is  remarkable  for  its  humility  (John  iii. 
27-30).  How  long  this  sojourn  in  Judaea 
lasted  is  uncertain.  In  the  way  to  Galilee 
Jesus  passed  by  the  shortest  route,  through 
Samaria.  In  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  Samari- 
tans were  hated  by  the  Jews  even  more  than  if 
they  had  been  Gentiles.    Yet  even  in  Samaria 


187 


JESUS  CHRIST 

were  souls  to  be  saved ;  and  Jesus  would  not 
shake  off  even  that  dust  from  His  feet.  He 
came  in  His  journey  to  Sichem,  which  the 
Jews  in  mockery  had  changed  to  Sychar. 
Wearied  and  athirst  He  sat  on  the  side  of 
Jacob's  well.  A  woman  from  the  neighbor- 
ing town  came  to  draw  from  the  well,  and 
was  astonished  that  a  Jew  should  address  her 
as  a  neighbor,  with  a  request  for  water.  The 
conversation  that  ensued  might  be  taken  for  an 
example  of  the  mode  in  which  Christ  leads  to 
Himself  the  souls  of  men.  In  this  remarkable 
dialogue  are  many  things  to  ponder  over.  The 
living  water  which  Christ  would  give ;  the  an- 
nouncement of  a  change  in  the  worship  of  Jew 
and  Samaritan ;  lastly,  the  confession  that  He 
who  speaks  is  truly  the  Messiah,  are  all  note- 
worthy. Jesus  now  returned  to  Galilee,  and 
came  to  Nazareth,  His  own  city.  In  the  Syna- 
gogue He  expounded  to  the  people  a  passage 
from  Isaiah  (Ixi.  i),  telling  them  that  its  ful- 
filment was  now  at  hand  in  His  person.  The 
same  truth  that  had  filled  the  Samaritans  with 
gratitude,  wrought  up  to  fury  the  men  of 
Nazareth,  who  would  have  destroyed  Him  if 
He  had  not  escaped  out  of  their  hands  (Luke 
iv.  16-30).  He  came  now  to  Capernaum.  On 
his  way  hither,  when  He  had  reached  Cana, 
He  healed  the  son  of  one  of  the  courtiers  of 
Herod  Antipas  (John  iv.  46-54),  who  "himself 
believed,  and  his  whole  house."  This  was  the 
second  Galilean  miracle.  At  Capernaum  He 
wrought  many  miracles  for  them  that  needed. 
Here  two  disciples  who  had  known  him  be- 
fore, namely,  Simon  Peter  and  Andrew,  were 
called  from  their  fishing  to  become  "fishers  of 
men"  (Matt.  iv.  19),  and  the  two  sons_  of 
Zebedee  received  the  same  summons.  After 
healing  on  the  Sabbath  a  demoniac  in  the 
Synagogue,  He  returned  the  same  day  to 
Simon's  house,  and  healed  the  mother-in-law 
of  Simon,  who  was  sick  of  a  fever.  At  sunset, 
the  multitude,  now  fully  aroused  by  what  they 
had  heard,  brought  their  sick  to  Simon's  door 
to  get  them  healed.  He  did  not  refuse  His 
succor,  and  healed  them  all  (Mark  i.  29-34). 
He  now,  after  showering  down  on  Capernaum 
so  many  cures,  turned  His  thoughts  to  the  rest 
of  Galilee,  where  other  "lost  sheep"  were  scat- 
tered:  "Let  us  go  into  the  next  towns  that  I 
may  preach  there  also,  for  therefore  came  I 
forth"  (Mark  i.  38).  The  journey  through 
Galilee,  on  v^hich  He  now  entered,  must  have 
been  a  general  circuit  of  that  country.  2.  Sec- 
ond year  of  the  ministry. — Jesus  went  up  to 
Jerusalem  to  "a  feast  of  the  Jews,"  which  was 
probably  the  Passover.  At  the  pool  Bethesda 
(=  house  of  mercy),  which  was  near  the 
sheep-gate  (Neh.  iii.  i)  on  the  north-east  side 


JESUS  CHRIST 

of  the  Temple,  Jesus  saw  many  infirm  persons 
waiting  their  turn  for  the  healing  virtues  of 
the  water  (John  v.  1-18).  Among  them  was  a 
man  who  had  an  infirmity  thirty-eight  years: 
Jesus  made  him  whole  by  a  word,  bidding  him 
take  up  his  bed  and  walk.  The  miracle  was 
done  on  the  Sabbath ;  and  the  Jews,  who  acted 
against  Jesus,  rebuked  the  man  for  carrying 
his  bed.  It  was  a  labor,  and  as  such  forbidden 
(Jer.  xvii.  21).  In  our  Lord's  justification  of 
Himself,  "My  Father  worketh  hitherto,  and  I 
work"  (John  v.  17),  there  is  an  unequivocal 
claim  to  the  divine  nature.  In  placing  the  ordi- 
nation or  calling  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  just 
before  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  we  are  under 
the  guidance  of  St.  Luke  (vi.  13,  17).  But  this 
more  solemn  separation  for  their  work  by  no 
means  marks  the  time  of  their  first  approach 
to  Jesus.  That  which  takes  place  here  is  the 
appointment  of  twelve  disciples  to  be  a  dis- 
tinct body,  under  the  name  of  Apostles.  They 
are  not  sent  forth  to  preach  until  later  in  the 
same  year.  The  number  twelve  must  have  ref- 
erence to  the  number  of  the  Jewish  tribes :  it 
is  a  number  selected  on  account  of  its  symbol- 
ical meaning,  for  the  work  confided  to  them 
might  have  been  wrought  by  more  or  fewer. 
The  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  although  it  is 
meant  for  all  the  disciples,  seems  to  have  a 
special  reference  to  the  chosen  Twelve  (Matt. 
V.  11).  About  this  time  it  was  that  John  the 
Baptist,  long  a  prisoner  with  little  hope  of  re- 
lease, sent  his  disciples  to  Jesus  with  the  ques- 
tion, "Art  thou  He  that  should  come,  or  do  we 
look  for  another?"  In  all  the  Gospels  there  is 
no  more  touching  incident.  The  great  privilege 
of  John's  life  was  that  he  was  appointed  to 
recognize  and  bear  witness  to  the  Messiah 
(John  i.  31).  After  languishing  a  year  in  a 
dungeon,  after  learning  that  even  yet  Jesus 
had  made  no  steps  towards  the  establishment 
of  His  kingdom  of  the  Jews,  and  that  His  fol- 
lowing consisted  of  only  twelve  poor  Galileans, 
doubts  began  to  cloud  over  his  spirit.  Was  the 
kingdom  of  Messiah  as  near  as  he  had  thought? 
Was  Jesus  not  the  Messiah,  but  some  forerun- 
ner of  that  Deliverer,  as  he  himself  had  been? 
There  is  no  unbelief;  he  does  not  suppose  that 
Jesus  has  deceived ;  when  the  doubts  arise,  it 
is  to  Jesus  that  he  submits  them.  But  it  was 
not  without  great  depression  and  perplexity 
that  he  put  the  question,  "Art  thou  He  that 
should  come?"  The  scope  of  the  answer  given 
lies  in  its  recalling  John  to  the  grounds  of  his 
former  confidence.  Now  commences  the  sec- 
ond circuit  of  Galilee  (Luke  viii.  1-3),  to 
which  belong  the  parables  in  Matt,  xiii.-;  the 
visit  of  our  Lord's  mother  and  brethren  (Luke 
viii.  19-21),  and  the  account  of  His  reception 


OF  THE 


! 


JESUS  CHRIST 

at  Nazareth  (Mark  vi.  i-6)_.  During  this  time 
the  twelve  have  journeyed  Avith  Him.  But 
now  a  third  circuit  in  Galilee  is  recorded, 
which  probably  occurred  during  the  last  three 
months  of  this  year  (Matt.  ix.  35,  38)  ;  and 
during  this  circuit,  after  reminding  them  how 
great  is  the  harvest  and  how  pressing  the  need 
of  laborers,  He  carries  the  training  of  the  dis- 
ciples one  step  further  by  sending  them  forth 
by  themselves  to  teach  (Matt,  x.,  xi.).  They 
went  forth  two  and  two ;  and  our  Lord  con- 
tinued His  own  circuit  (Matt.  xi.  i),  with 
what  companions  does  not  appear.  After  a 
journey  of  perhaps  two  months'  duration  the 
twelve  returned  to  Jesus,  and  gave  an  account 
of  their  ministry.  The  third  Passover  was 
now' drawing  near;  but  the  Lord  did  not  go 
up  to  it.  He  wished  to  commune  with  His 
Apostles  privately  upon  their  work,  and,  we 
may  suppose,  to  add  to  the  instruction  they 
had  already  received  from  Him  (Mark  vi.  30, 
31).  He  therefore  went  with  them  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Capernaum  to  a  moimtain  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  near 
Bethsaida  Julias,  not  far  from  the  head  of  the 
sea.  Great  multitudes  pursued  them ;  and 
here  the  Lord,  moved  to  compassion  by  the 
hunger  and  weariness  of  the  people,  wrought 
for  them  one  of  His  most  remarkable  miracles. 
Out  of  five  barley  loaves  and  two  small  fishes. 
He  produced  food  for  five  thousand  men  be- 
sides women  and  children.  After  the  miracle 
the  disciples  crossed  the  sea,  and  Jesus  retired 
alone  to  a  mountain  to  commune  with  the 
Father.  They  were  toiling  at  the  oar,  for  the 
wind  was  contrary,  when,  as  the  night  drew 
towards  morning,  they  saw  Jesus  walking  to 
them  on  the  sea,  having  passed  the  whole 
night  on  the  mountain.  They  were  amazed 
and  terrified.  He  came  into  the  ship  and  the 
wind  ceased.  When  they  reached  the  shore 
of  Gennesaret  the  whole  people  show^ed  their 
faith  in  Him  as  a  Healer  of  disease  (Mark  vi. 
53-56)  ;  and  He  performed  very  many  miracles 
on  them.  Yet  on  the  next  day  the  great  dis- 
course just  alluded  to  was  uttered,  and  "from 
that  time  many  of  His  disciples  went  back, 
and  walked  no  more  w^ith  Him"  (John  vi.  66). 
3.  Third  year  of  the  ministry. — Hearing  per- 
haps that  Jesus  was  not  coming  to  the  feast, 
Scribes  and  Pharisees  from  Jerusalem  went 
down  to  see  Him  at  Capernaum  (Matt.  xv.  i). 
Leaving  the  neighborhood  of  Capernaum  our 
Lord  now  travels  to  the  north-west  of  Galilee, 
to  the  region  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  It  does  not 
appear  that  He  retired  into  this  heathen  coun- 
try for  the  purpose  of  ministering;  more 
probably  it  was  a  retreat  from  the  machina- 
tions of  the  Jews  (Matt,  xv.  21-28;  Mark  vii. 


JESUS  CHRIST 

24-30).  Returning  thence  He  passed  round 
by  the  north  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the  region 
of  Decapolis  on  its  eastern  side  (Mark  vii. 
31-37).  In  this  district  he  performed  many 
miracles,  and  especially  the  restoration  of  a 
deaf  man  who  had  an  impediment  in  his 
speech,  remarkable  for  the  seeming  effort 
with  which  He  wrought  it.  To  these  suc- 
ceeded the  feeding  of  the  four  thousand  with 
the  seven  loaves  (Matt.  xv.  32).  He  now 
crossed  the  Lake  of  Magdala,  where  the 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees  asked  and  were  re- 
fused a  "sign."  After  they  had  departed  Jesus 
crossed  the  lake  with  his  disciples.  At  Beth- 
saida Julias,  He  restored  sight  to  a  blind  man ; 
and  here,  as  in  a  former  case,  the  form  and 
preparation  which  He  adopted  are  to  be  re- 
marked (Mark  viii.  22-26).  The  ministry  in 
Galilee  is  now  drawing  to  its  close.  Through 
the  length  and  breadth  of  that  country  Jesus 
has  proclaimed  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  and 
has  shown  by  mighty  works  that  He  is  the 
Christ  that  was  to  come.  Many  thousands 
had  actually  been  benefited  by  the  miracles ; 
and  yet  of  all  these  there  were  only  twelve 
that  really  clave  to  Him,  and  one  of  them  was 
Judas  the  traitor.  Jesus  teaches  that, 
in  comparison  with  the  higher  life,  the 
life  of  the  soul,  the  life  of  the  body  is  value- 
less (Matt.  xvi.  21-28;  Mark  viii.  31-38;  Luke 
ix.  22-27).  The  Transfiguration,  which  took 
place  just  a  week  after  this  conversation,  is  to 
be  understood  in  connection  with  it.  The 
minds  of  the  twelve  were  greatly  disturbed  at 
what  they  had  heard.  Now,  if  ever,  they 
needed  support  for  their  perplexed  spirits,  and 
this  their  loving  Master  failed  not  to  give 
them.  He  takes  with  Him  three  chosen  dis- 
ciples, Peter,  John,  and  James,  who  formed  as 
it  were  a  smaller  circle  nearer  to  Jesus  than 
the  rest,  into  a  high  mountain  apart  by  them- 
selves. There  are  no  means  of  determining 
the  position  of  the  mountain.  The  three  dis- 
ciples were  taken  up  with  Him,  who  should 
afterwards  be  the  three  witnesses  of  His 
agony  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane :  those 
who  saw  His  glory  in  the  holy  mount  would 
be  sustained  by  the  remembrance  of  it  when 
they  beheld  His  lowest  humiliation.  Once  more 
did  Jesus  foretell  His  sufferings  on  their  way 
back  to  Capernaum  (Mark  ix.  30-32).  Third 
year,  from  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. — The 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  now  approaching. 
His  brethren  set  out  for  the  feast  without 
Him,  and  He  abode  in  Galilee  for  a  few  days 
longer  (John  vii.  2-10),  Afterwards  He  set 
out,  taking  the  more  direct  but  less  frequented 
route  by  Samaria.  St.  Luke  alone  records,  in 
connection  with  this  journey,  the  sending 
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forth  of  the  seventy  disciples.  This  event  is 
to  be  regarded  in  a  different  light  from  that  of 
the  twelve.  The  seventy  had  received  no  spe- 
cial education  from  our  Lord,  and  their  com- 
mission v^as  of  a  temporary  kind.  The  num- 
ber has  reference  to  the  Gentiles,  as  twelve 
had  to  the  Jews;  and  the  scene  of  the  work, 
Samaria,  reminds  us  that  this  is  a  movement 
directed  towards  the  stranger.  After  healing 
the  ten  lepers  in  ^Samaria,  He  came  about  the 
midst  of  the  feast  to  Jerusalem.  The  Phar- 
isees and  rulers  sought  to  take  Him ;  some 
of  the  people,  however,  believed  in  Him,  but 
concealed  their  opinion  for  fear  of  the  rulers. 
To  this  division  of  opinion  we  may  attribute 
the  failure  of  the  repeated  attempts  on  the 
part  of  the  Sanhedrim  to  take  One  who  was- 
openly  teaching  in  the  Temple  (John  vii. 
11-53:  see  esp.  ver.  30,  32,  44,  45,  46).  The 
officers  were  partly  afraid  to  seize  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  people  the  favorite  Teacher,  and 
partly  were  themselves  awed  and  attracted  by 
Him.  The  history  of  the  woman  taken  in 
adultery  belongs  to  this  time.  To  this  place 
belongs  the  account,  given  by  John  alone,  of 
the  healing  of  one  who  was  born  blind,  and  the 
consequences  of  it  (John  ix.  1-41,  x.  1-21).  The 
well-known  parable  of  the  good  shepherd  is  an 
answer  to  the  calumny  of  the  Pharisees,  that 
He  was  an  impostor  and  breaker  of  the  law : 
"This  man  is  not  of  God,  because  he  keepeth 
not  the  Sabbath-day"  (ix.  16).  Some  of  the 
most  striking  parables,  preserved  only  by  Luke, 
belong  to  this  period.  The  parables  of  the  good 
Samaritan,  the  prodigal  son,  the  unjust  stew- 
ard, the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  and  the  Phari- 
see and  publican,  all  peculiar  to  this  Gospel, 
belong  to  the  present  section.  The  instructive 
account  of  Mary  and  Martha  and  the  miracle  of 
the  ten  lepers  belong  to  this  portion  of  the  nar- 
rative. Besides  these,  scattered  sayings  that  oc- 
cur in  St.  Matthew  are  here  repeated  in  a  new 
connection.  The  account  of  the  bringing  of 
young  children  to  Jesus  unites  again  the  three 
Evangelists  (Matt.  xix.  13-15;  Mark  x.  13-16; 
Luke  xviii.  15-17).  On  the  way  to  Jerusalem 
through  Peraea,  to  the  Feast  of  Dedication, 
Jesus  again  puts  before  the  minds  of  the  twelve 
what  they  are  never  now  to  forget — the  suf- 
ferings that  await  Him.  They  "understood 
none  of  these  things,"  for  they  could  not  recon- 
cile this  foreboding  of  suffering  with  the  signs 
and  announcements  of  the  coming  of  His  king- 
dom (Matt.  XX.  17-19;  Mark  x.  32-34;  Luke 
xviii.  31-34).  Jesus  once  more  recalls  the 
principle  that  the  child-like  disposition  is  that 
which  He  approves  (Matt.  xx.  20-28;  Mark  x. 
35-45).  The  healing  of  the  two  blind  men  at 
Jericho  is  chiefly  remarkable  among  the  mira- 


cles from  the  difficulty  which  has  arisen  in  har- 
monizing the  accounts.  Matthew  speaks  of 
two  blind  men,  and  of  the  occasion  as  the  de- 
parture from  Jericho;  Mark  of  one,  whom  he 
names,  and  of  their  arrival  at  Jericho ;  and 
Luke  agrees  with  him.  This  point  has  received 
much  discussion ;  but  the  view  of  Lightfoot 
finds  favor  with  many  eminent  expositors,  that 
there  were  two  blind  men,  and  both  were 
healed  under  similar  circumstances,  except  that 
Bartimaeus  was  on  one  side  of  the  city,  and 
was  healed  by  Jesus  as  he  entered,  and  the 
other  was  healed  on  the  other  side  as  they  de- 
parted (Matt.  XX.  29-34;  Mark  x.  46-52;  Luke 
xviii.  35-43)-  The  c.alling  of  Zacchaeus  has 
more  than  a  mere  personal  interest.  He  was  a 
publican,  one  of  a  class  hated  and  despised  by 
the  Jews.  But  he  was  one  who  sought  to  serve 
God.  From  such  did  Jesus  wish  to  call  His 
disciples,  whether  they  were  publicans  or  not 
(Luke  xix.  i-io).  We  have  reached  now  the 
Feast  of  Dedication ;  but,  as  has  been  said,  the 
exact  place  of  the  events  in  St.  Luke  about  this 
part  of  the  ministry  has  not  been  conclusively 
determined.  After  being  present  at  the  feast, 
Jesus  returned  to  Bethabara  beyond  Jordan, 
where  John  had  formerly  baptized,  and  abode 
there.  How  long  He  remained  here  does  not 
appear.  It  was  probably  for  some  weeks.  The 
sore  need  of  a  family  in  Bethany,  who  were 
what  men  call  the  intimate  friends  of  our  Lord, 
called  Him  thence.  Lazarus  was  sick,  and  his 
sisters  sent  word  of  it  to  Jesus,  whose  power 
they  well  knew.  It  was  not  till  Lazarus  had 
been  four  days  in  the  grave  that  the  Saviour 
appeared  on  the  scene.  But  with  the  power 
of  God  He  breaks  the  fetters  of  brass  in  which 
Lazarus  was  held  by  death,  and  at  His  word 
the  man  on  whom  corruption  had  already  be- 
gun to  do  its  work,  came  forth  alive  and  whole 
(John  xi.  1-45).  A  miracle  so  public,  for 
Bethany  was  close  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  fam- 
ily of  Lazarus  well  known  to  many  people  in 
the  mother-city,  could  not  escape  the  notice  of 
the  Sanhedrim.  A  meeting  of  this  Council  was 
called  without  loss  of  time,  and  the  matter  dis- 
cussed. We  now  approach  the  final  stage  of 
the  history,  and  every  word  and  act  tend 
towards  the  great  act  of  sufYering.  Each  day 
is  marked  by  its  own  events  or  instructions. 
Our  Lord  entered  into  Bethany  on  Friday  the 
8th  of  Nisan,  the  eve  of  the  Sabbath,  and  re- 
mained over  the  Sabbath. — Saturday,  the  9th 
of  Nisan  (April  ist).  As  He  was  at  supper  in 
the  house  of  one  Simon,  surnamed  "the  leper," 
a  relation  of  Lazarus,  who  was  at  table  with 
Him,  Mary,  full  of  gratitude  for  the  wonder- 
ful raising  of  her  brother  from  the  dead,  took 
a  vessel  containing  a  quantity  of  pure  oint- 


190 


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JESUS  CHRIST 


ment  of  spikenard,  and  anointed  the  feet  of 
Jesus,  and  wiped  His  feet  with  her  hair,  and 
anointed  his  head  likewise. — Passion  Week. 
Sunday  the  loth  day  of  Nisan  (April  2d). 
When  He  arrives  at  the  Mount  of  Olives  He 
commands  two  of  His  disciples  to  go  into  the 
village  near  at  hand,  where  they  would  find  an 
ass  and  a  colt  tied  with  her.  With  these  beasts, 
impressed  as  for  the  service  of  a  king.  He  was 
to  enter  into  Jerusalem.  The  disciples  spread 
upon  the  ass  their  ragged  cloaks  for  Him  to  sit 
on.  And  the  multitudes  cried  aloud  before 
Him  in  the  words  of  the  Ii8th  Psalm,  "Hosan- 
na,  Save  now !  blessed  is  He  that  cometh  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord."  All  the  city  was  moved. 
Blind  and  lame  came  to  the  Temple  when  He 
arrived  there  and  were  healed.  After  working 
miracles  in  the  Temple  He  returned  to  Beth- 
any. The  loth  of  Xisan  was  the  day  for  the 
separation  of  the  paschal  lamb  (Ex.  xii.  3). 
Jesus,  the  Lamb  of  God,  entered  Jerusalem 
and  the  Temple  on  this  day,  and  although  none 
but  He  knew  that  He  was  the  Paschal  Lamb, 
the  coincidence  is  not  undesigned  (Matt.  xxi. 
i-li,  14-17;  Mark  xi.  i-il;  Luke  xix.  29-44; 
John  xii.  12-19). — Monday  the  nth  of  Nisan 
(April  3d).  The  next  day  Jesus  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  again  to  take  advantage  of  the 
mood  of  the  people  to  instruct  them.  On  the 
way  He  approached  one  of  the  many  fig-trees 
which  grew  in  that  quarter,  and  found  that  it 
was  full  of  foliage,  but  without  fruit.  He  said, 
"No  man  eat  fruit  of  thee  hereafter  forever!" 
and  the  fig-tree  withered  away  (Matt.  xxi.  18, 
19;  Mark  xi.  12-14).  Proceeding  now  to  the 
Temple,  He  cleared  its  court  of  the  crowd  of 
traders  that  gathered  there  (Matt.  xxi.  12,  13; 
Mark  xi.  15-19;  Luke  xix.  45-48).  In  the  even- 
ing he  returned  again  to  Bethany. — Tuesday 
the  I2th  of  Nisan  (April  4th).  On  this  the 
third  day  of  Passion  week  Jesus  went  into 
Jerusalem  as  before,  and  visited  the  Temple. 
The  Sanhedrim  came  to  Him  to  call  Him  to  ac- 
count for  the  clearing  of  the  Temple.  "By 
what  authority  doest  thou  these  things?"  The 
Lord  answered  this  question  by  another.  They 
refused  to  answer,  and  Jesus  refused  in  like 
manner  to  answer  them.  To  this  time  belong 
the  parables  of  the  two  sons  (Matt.  xxi.  23-32  : 
Mark  xi.  2']-ii  ;  Luke  xx.  1-8),  of  the  wicked 
husbandman,  and  of  the  wedding  garment 
(Matt.  xxi.  33-46,  xxii.  1-14;  Mark  xii.  1-12; 
Luke  XX.  9-19).  Another  great  discourse  be- 
longs to  this  day,  which,  more  than  any  other, 
presents  Jesus  as  the  great  Prophet  of  His 
people.  On  leaving  the  Temple  His  disciples 
drew  attention  to  the  beauty  of  its  structure, 
its  "goodly  stones  and  gifts,"  their  remarks 
probably  arising  from  the  threats  of  destruc- 


tion which  had  so  lately  been  uttered  by  Jesus. 
Their  Master  answered  that  not  one  stone  of 
the  noble  pile  should  be  left  upon  another. 
When  they  reached  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the 
disciples,  or  rather  the  first  four  (Mark), 
speaking,  for  the  rest,  asked  Him  when  this 
destruction  should  be  accomplished.  To  un- 
derstand the  answer  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  Jesus  warned  them  that  He  was  not  giv- 
ing them  an  historical  account  such  as  would 
enable  them  to  anticipate  the  events.  "Of  that 
day  and  hour  knoweth  no  man,  no,  not  the 
angels  of  heaven,  but  my  Father  only."  Exact 
data  of  time  are  to  be  purposely  withheld  from 
them.  The  conclusion  which  Jesus  drew  from 
his  own  awful  warning  was,  that  they  were 
not  to  attempt  to  fix  the  date  of  his  return. 
The  lesson  of  the  parable  of  the  Ten  Virgins 
is  the  same  (Matt.  xxiv.  44,  xxv.  13).  And 
the  parable  of  the  Talents,  here  repeated  in  a 
modified  form,  teaches  how  precious  to  souls 
are  the  uses  of  time  (xxrv.  14-30).  In  conclud- 
ing this  momentous  discourse,  our  Lord  puts 
aside  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  dis- 
plays to  our  eyes  the  picture  of  the  final  judg- 
ment (Matt.  xxv.  31-46).  With  these  weighty 
words  ends  the  third  day. — (Wednesday  the 
13th  of  Nisan  (April  5th).  This  day  was 
passed  in  retirement  with  the  Apostles. .  Satan 
had  put  it  into  the  mind  of  one  of  them  to  be- 
tray Him ;  and  Judas  Iscariot  made  a  covenant 
to  betray  Him  to  the  chief  priests  for  thirty 
pieces  of  silver  (Matt.  xxvi.  14-16;' Mark  xiv. 
10,  II ;  Luke  xxii.  1-6). — Thursday  the  14th  of 
Nisan  (April  6th).  On  "the  first  day  of  un- 
leavened bread,"  the  disciples  asked  their  Mas- 
ter where  they  were  to  eat  the  Passover.  He 
directed  Peter  and  John  to  go  into  Jerusalem, 
and  to  follow  a  man  whom  they  should  see 
bearing  a  pitcher  of  water,  and  to  demand  of 
him,  in  their  Master's  name,  the  use  of  the 
guest-chamber  in  his  house  for  this  purpose. 
All  happened  as  Jesus  had  told  them,  and  in 
the  evening  they  assembled  to  celebrate,  for 
the  last  time,  the  paschal  meal.  It  was  custo- 
mary to  drink  at  the  paschal  supper  four  cups 
of  wine  mixed  with  water ;  and  this  answered 
to  the  first  of  them.  There  now  arose  a  con- 
tention among  the  disciples  which  of  them 
should  be  the  greatest;  perhaps  in  connection 
with  the  places  which  they  had  tdken  at  this 
feast  (Luke).  After  a  solemn  warning  against 
pride  and  ambition  Jesus  performed  an  act 
which,  as  one  of  the  last  of  His  life,  must  ever 
have  been  remembered  by  the  witnesses  as  a 
great  lesson  of  humility.  He  rose  from  the 
table,  poured  water  into  a  basin,  girded  him- 
self with  a  towel,  and  proceeded  to  wash  the 
disciples'   feet    (John).    After  all   had  been 


191 


JESUS  CHRIST 

washed,  the  Saviour  explained  to  them  the 
meaning  of  what  He  had  done.  "If  I,  your 
Lord  and  Master,  have  washed  your  feet,  ye 
also  ought  to  wash  one  another's  feet.  For 
I  have  given  you  an  example,  that  ye 
should  do  as  I  have  done  to  you"  (Matt.  xxvi. 
17-20;  Mark  xiv.  12-17;  Luke  xxii.  7-30;  John 

xiii,  1-20).  From  this  act  of  love  it  does  not 
seem  that  even  the  traitor  Judas  was  excluded. 
But  his  treason  was  thoroughly  known ;  and 
now  Jesus  denounces  it.  One  of  them  should 
betray  Him.  The  traitor  having  gone  straight 
to  his  wicked  object,  the  end  of  the  Sa,viour's 
ministry  seemed  already  at  hand.  He  gave 
them  the  new  commandment,  to  love  one  an- 
other, as  though  it  were  a  last  bequest  to  them 
(Matt.  xxvi.  21-25 ;  Mark  xiv.  18-21  ;  Luke  xxii. 

21-  23;  John  xiii,  21-35).  Towards  the  close  of 
the  meal  Jesus  instituted  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  (Matt.  xxvi.  26-29;  Mark  xiv. 

22-  25;  Luke  xxii.  19,  20;  i  Cor.  xi.  23-25).  The 
denial  of  Peter  is  now  foretold,  and  to  no  one 
would  such  an  announcement  be  more  incred- 
ible than  to  Peter  himself  (Matt.  xxvi.  31-35; 
Mark  xiv.  27-31;  Luke  xxii.  31-38;  John  xiii. 
36-38).  That  great  final  discourse,  which  John 
alone  has  recorded,  is  now  delivered.  Al- 
though in  the  middle  of  it  there  is  a  mention 
of  departure  (John  xiv.  31),  this  per'iiaps  only 
implies  that  they  prepared  to  go ;  and  then 
the  whole  discourse  was  delivered  in  the  house 
before  they  proceeded  to  Gethsemane  (John 

xiv.  -xvii.). — Friday  the  15th  of  Nisan  (April 
7th),  including  part  of  the  eve  of  it.  "When 
they  had  sung  a  hymn,"  they  went  out  into  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  Jesus  takes  only  his  three 
proved  companions,  Peter,  James,  and  John, 
and  passes  with  them  farther  into  the  garden, 
leaving  the  rest  seated,  probably  near  the  en- 
trance. No  pen  can  attempt  to  describe  what 
passed  that  night  in  that  secluded  spot.  He 
tells  them,  "My  soul  .is  exceeding  sorrowful, 
even  unto  death  ;  tarry  ye  here  and  watch  with 
me,"  and  then  leaving  even  the  three  He  goes 
further,  and  in  solitude  wrestles  with  an  incon- 
ceivable trial.  The  words  of  Mark  are  still 
more  expressive — "He  began  to  be  '  sore 
amazed,  and  to  be  very  heavy"  (xiv.  33).  The 
disciples  have  sunk  to  sleep.  It  was  in  search 
of  consolation  that  He  came  back  to  them.  The 
disciple  who  had  been  so  ready  to  ask,  "Why 
cannot  I  follow  thee  now?"  must  hear  an- 
other question,  that  rebukes  his  former  confi- 
dence— "Couldest  not  thou  watch  one  hour?" 
A  second  time  He  departs  and  wrestles  in 
prayer  with  the  Father.  A  second  time  He  re- 
turns and  finds  them  sleeping.  The  same 
scene  is  repeated  yet  a  third  time;  and  then 
all  is  concluded.    Henceforth  they  may  sleep 

192 


JESUS  CHRIST 

and  take  their  rest;  never  more  shall  they  be 
asked  to  watch  one  hour  with  Jesus,  for  His 
ministry  in  the  flesh  is  at  an  end.  This  scene 
is  in  complete  contrast  to  the  Transfiguration 
(Matt.  xxvi.  36-46;  Mark  xiv.  32-42;  Luke  xxii. 
39-46;  John  xviii.  1).  Judas  now  appeared  to 
complete  his  work.  In  the  doubtful  light  of 
torches,  a  kiss  from  him  was  the  sign  to  the 
officers  whom  they  should  take.  Peter,  whose 
name  is  first  given  in  John's  Gospel,  drew  a 
sword  and  smote  a  servant  of  the  high- 
priest  and  cut  ofif  his  ear ;  but  his  Lord  re- 
fused such  succor,  and  healed  the  wounded 
man.  All  the  disciples  forsook  Him  and  fled 
(Matt.  xxvi.  47-56;  Mark  xiv.  43-52;  Luke  xxii. 
47-53;  John  xviii.  2-12).  There  is  some  diffi- 
culty in  arranging  the  events  that  immediately 
follow,  so  as  to  embrace  all  the  four  accounts. 
On  the  capture  of  Jesus  he  was  first  taken  to 
the  house  of  Annas,  the  father-in-law  of 
Caiaphas  the  high-priest.  The  house  of 
the  high-priest  consisted  probably,  like 
other  Eastern  houses,  o*f  an  open  central  court 
with  chambers  round  it.  Into  this  court 
a  gate  admitted  them,  at  which  a  woman  stood 
to  open.  As  Peter  passed  in,  the  portress  took 
note  of  him  ;  and  afterwards,  at  the  fire  which 
had  been  lighted,  asked  him,  "Art  not  thou 
also  one  of  this  man's  disciples?"  (John).  All 
the  zeal  and  boldness  of  Peter  seem  to  have 
deserted  him.  He  had  come  as  in  secret;  he 
is  determined  so  to  remain,  and  he  denies  his 
Master!  Feeling  now  the  danger  of  his  situa- 
tion, he  went  out  into  the  porch,  and  there 
some  one,  or,  looking  at  all  the  accounts,  prob- 
ably several  persons,  asked  him  the  question  a 
second  time,  and  he  denied  more  strongly. 
About  an  hour  after,  when  he  had  returned 
into  the  court,  the  same  question  was  put  to 
him  a  third  time,  with  the  same  result.  Then 
the  cock  crew ;  and  Jesus,  who  was  within 
sight,  probably  in  some  open  room  communi- 
cating with  the  court,  "turned  and  looked 
upon  Peter.  And  Peter  remembered  the  word 
of  the  Lord,  how  He  had  said  unto  him.  Be- 
fore the  cock  crow,  thou  shalt  deny  Me  thrice. 
And  Peter  went  out  and  wept  bitterly"  (Matt, 
xxvi.  57, 58,69-75  ;  Mark  xiv.  53, 54,66-72  ;  Luke 
xxii.  54-62;  John  xviii.  13,  18,  24-27).  The  first 
interrogatory  to  which  our  Lord  was  subject 
(John  xviii.  19-24)  was  addressed  to  Him  by 
Caiaphas,  probably  before  the  Sanhedrim  had 
time  to  assemble.  At  the  dawn  of  day  the 
Sanherdrim,  summoned  by  the  high-priest  in 
the  course  of  the  night,  assembled  and  brought 
their  band  of  false  witnesses,  whom  they  must 
have  had  ready  before.  These  gave  their  testi- 
mony, but  even  before  this  unjust  tribunal  it 
could  not  stand,  it  was  so  full  of  contradic- 


JESUS  CHRIST 


JESUS  CHRIST 


tions.  At  last  two  false  witnesses  came,  and 
their  testimony  was  very  like  the  truth.  Even 
these  tvi-o  fell  into  contradictions.  The  high- 
priest  now  with  a  solemn  adjuration  asks  Him 
whether  He  is  the  Christ  the  Son  of  God.  He 
answers  that  He  is,  and  foretells  His  return  in 
glory  and  power  at  the  la,st  day.  This  is 
enough  for  their  purpose.  They  pronounce 
him  guilty  of  a  crime  for  which  death  should 
be  the  punishment  (John  xviii.  19-24;  Luke 
xxii.  63-71;  Matt.  xxvi.  59-68;  Mark  xiv.  55- 
65).  Although  they  had  pronounced  Jesus  to 
be  guilty  of  death,  the  Sanhedrim  possessed 
no  power  to  carry  out  such  a  sentence.  As 
soon  as  it  was  day  they  took  Him  to  Pilate, 
the  Roman  procurator.  Pilate,  hearing  that 
Jesus  was  an  offender  under  their  law,  was 
about  to  give  them  leave  to  treat  Him  accord- 
ingly ;  and  this  would  have  made  it  quite  safe 
to  execute  Him.  From  the  first  Jesus  found 
favor  in  the  eyes  of  Pilate,  and  he  pronounced 
that  he  found  no  fault  in  Him.  Not  so  easily 
were  the  Jews  to  be  cheated  of  their  prey. 
They  heaped  up  accusations  against  Him  as 
a  disturber  of  the  public  peace  (Luke  xxiii.  5). 
Pilate  was  no  match  for  their  vehemence. 
Finding  that  Jesus  was  a  Galilean,  he  sent 
Him  to  Herod  to  be  dealt  with  ;  but  Herod, 
after  cruel  mockery  and  persecution,  sent  Him 
back  to  Pilate.  After  the  examination  by 
He'rod,  and  the  return  of  Jesus,  Pilate  pro- 
posed to  release  Him,  as  it  w-as  usual  .on  the 
feast-day  to  release  a  prisoner  to  the  Jews  out 
of  grace.  Pilate  knew  well  that  the  priests 
and  rulers  would  object  to  this;  but  it  was  a 
covert  appeal  to  the  people.  The  multitude, 
persuaded  by  the  priests,  preferred  another 
prisoner,  called  Barabbas.  Now  came  the 
scouraging,  and  the  blows  and  insults  of  the 
soldiers,  who,  uttering  truth  when  they  were 
only  reviling,  crowned  Him  and  addressed 
Him  as  King  of  the  Jews.  According  to  John, 
Pilate  now- made  one  more  effort  for  His  re- 
lease. He  still  sought  to  release  Jesus: 
but  the  last  argument,  which  had  been 
in  the  minds  of  both  sides  all  along, 
was  now  openly  applied  to  him :  "If  thou  let 
this  man  go,  thou  art  not  Caesar's  friend." 
This  decided  the  question.  He  delivered  Jesus 
to  be  crucified  (]\Iatt.  xxvii.  15-30;  Mark  xv. 
6-19;  Luke  xxiii.  17-25;  John  xviii.  39,  40,  xix. 
1-16).  John  mentions  that  this  occurred 
about  the  sixth  hour,  reckoning  probably  from 
midnight.  In  Mark,  the  Jewish  reckoning 
from  six  in  the  morning  is  followed.  One  Per- 
son alone  has  been  calm  amidst  the  excite- 
ments of  that  night  of  horrors.  On  Him  is 
now  laid  the  weight  of  His  cross,  or  at  least 
of  the  transverse  beam  of  it ;  and,  with  this 


pressing  Him  down,  they  proceed  out  of  the 
city  to  Golgotha  or  Calvary,  a  place  the  site 
of  which  is  now  uncertain.  As  He  began  to 
droop,  His  persecutors,  unwilling  to  defile 
themselves  with  the  accursed  burden,  lay  hold 
of  Simon  of  Cyrene  and  compel  him  to  carry 
the  cross  after  Jesus.  After  offering  Him 
wine  and  myrrh,  they  crucified  Him  between 
two  thieves.  Nothing  was  wanting  to  His 
humiliation ;  a  thief  had  been  preferred  before 
Him,  and  two  thieves  share  His  punishment. 
Pilate  set  over  Him  in  -  three  languages  the 
inscription,  "Jesus,  the  King  of  the  Jews."  The 
chief  priests  took  exception  to  this,  that  it  did 
not  denounce  Him  as  falsely  calling  Himself  by 
that  name,  but  Pilate  refused  to  alter  it.  One 
of  the  two  thieves  underwent  a  change  of 
heart  even  on  the  cross:  he  reviled  at  first 
(Alatt.)  ;  and  then,  at  the  sight  of  the  con- 
stancy of  Jesus,  repented  (Li:ke)  (Matt, 
xxvii.;  Mark  xv. ;  Luke  xxiii.;  John  xix.).  In 
the  depths  of  His  Bodily'  suffering,  Jesus 
calmly  commended  to  John  (?),  who  stood 
near,  the  care  of  Mary,  his  mother.  "Behold 
thy  son !  behold  thy  mother."  From  the 
sixth  hour  to  the  ninth  there  was  darkness 
over  the  whole  land.  At  the  ninth  hour 
(3  p.  m.)  Jesus  vittered  with  a  loud  voice  the 
opening  words  of  the  22d  Psalm,  all  the  in- 
spired words  of  which  referred  to  the  suffer- 
ing Messiah.  One  of  those  present  dipped  a 
sponge  in  the  common  sour  wine  of  the  sol- 
diers and  put  it  on  a  reed  to  moisten  the  suf- 
ferer's lips.  Again  he  cried  with  a  loud  voice, 
"It  is  finished"  (John),  "Father,  into  thy 
hands  I  commend  my  spirit"  (Luke),  and  gave 
up  the  ghost  (Matt,  xxvii.  31-56;  Mark  xv. 
20-41  ;  Luke  xxiii.  33-49;  John  xix.  17-30).  On 
the  death  of  Jesus  the  veil  which  covered  the 
most  Holy  Place  of  the  Temple,  the  place  of 
the  more  especial  presence  of  Jehovah,  was 
rent  in  twain.  There  was  a  great  earthquake. 
Many  who  were  dead  rose  from  their  graves, 
although  they  returned  to  the  dust  again  after 
this  great  token  of  Christ's  quickening  power 
had  been  given  to  many  (Matt.).  The  Jews, 
very  zealous  for  the  Sabbath  in  the  midst  of 
their  murderous  work,  begged  Pilate  that  he 
would  put  an  end  to  the  punishment  by  break- 
ing the  legs  of  the  criminals  that  they  might 
be  taken  down  and  buried  before  the  Sabbath, 
for  which  they  were  preparing  (Deut.  xxi.  23 ; 
Joseph,  B.  J.  iv.  5,  §  2).  Those  who  were  to 
execute  this  duty  found  that  Jesus  was  dead 
and  the  thieves  still  living.  The  death  of  the 
Lord  before  the  others  was,  no  doubt,  partly 
the  consequence  of  the  previous  mental  suffer- 
ing which  He  had  undergone,  and  partlv  be- 
cause His  will  to  die  lessened  the  natural  re- 


193 


JESUS  CHRIST 

sistance  of  the  frame  to  dissolution.  Joseph 
of  Armathea,  a  member  of  the  Council,  but  a 
secret  disciple  of  Jesus,  came  to  Pilate  to  beg 
the  body  of  Jesus,  that  he  might  bury  it. 
Nicodemus  assisted  in  this  work  of  love,  and 
they  anointed  the  body  and  laid  it  in  Joseph's 
new  tomb  (Matt,  xxvii.  50-61 ;  Mark  xv.  37-47; 
Luke  xxiii.  46-56;  John  xix.  30-42). — Saturday 
the  i6th  of  Nisan  (April  8th).  The  chief 
priests  and  Pharisees,  with  Pilate's  permission, 
set  a  watch  over  the  tomb,  "lest  His  disciples 
come  by  night  and  steal  Him  away,  and  say 
unto  the  people.  He  is  risen  from  the  dead." 
(Matt,  xxvii.  62-66). — Sunday  the  17th  of 
Nisan  (April  9th).  The  Sabbath  ended  at  six 
on  the  evening  of  Nisan  i6th.  Early  the  next 
morning  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  took  place. 
The  exact  hour  of  the  resurrection  is  not  men- 
tioned by  any  of  the  Evangelists.  Of  the  great 
mystery  itself,  the  resumption  of  life  by  Him 
who  was  truly  dead,  we  see  but  little.  The 
women,  who  had  stood  by  the  cross  of  Jesus, 
had  prepared  spices  on  the  evening  before, 
perhaps  to  complete  the  embalming  of  our 
Lord's  body,  already  performed  in  haste  by 
Joseph  and  Nicodemus.  They  came  very  early 
on  the  first  day  of  the  week  to  the  Sepulchre. 
When  they  arrive  they  find  the  stone  rolled 
away,  and  Jesus  no  longer  in  the  Sepulchre. 
He  had  arisen  from  the  dead.  Mary  Magda- 
lene at  this  point  goes  back  in  haste ;  and  at 
once,  believing  that  the  body  has  been  re- 
moved by  men,  tells  Peter  and  John  that  the 
Lord  has  been  taken  away.  The  other  women, 
however,  go  into  the  Sepulchre,  and  they  see 
an  angel  (Matt.  Mark).  The  two  angels, 
mentioned  by  St.  Luke,  are  probably  two  sep- 
arate appearances  to  dififerent  members  of  the 
group ;  for  he  alone  mentions  an  indefinite 
number  of  women.  They  now  leave  the 
Sepulchre,  and  go  in  haste  to  make  known 
the  news  to  the  Apostles.  As  they  were  go- 
ing, "Jesus  met  them,  saying,  All  hail."  T4ie 
eleven  do  not  believe  the  account  when  they 
receive  it.  In  the  meantime  Peter  and  John 
came  to  the  Sepulchre.  They  ran,  in  their 
eagerness,  and  John  arrived  first  and  looked 
in ;  Peter  afterwards  came  up,  and  it  is  char- 
acteristic that  the  awe  which  had  prevented 
the  other  disciple  from  going  in  appears  to 
have  been  unfelt  by  Peter,  who  entered  at 
once,  and  found  the  grave-clothes  lying,  but 
not  Him  who  had  worn  them.  This  fact  must 
have  suggested  that  the  removal  was  not  the 
work  of  human  hands.  They  then  returned, 
wondering  at  what  they  had  seen.  Mary 
Magdalene,  however,  remained  weeping  at  the 
tomb,  and  she  too  saw  the  two  angels  in  the 
tomb,  though  Peter  and  John  did  not.  They 


JEW 

address  her,  and  she  answers,  still,  however, 
without  any  suspicion  that  the  Lord  is  risen. 
As  she  turns  away  she  sees  Jesus,  but  in  the 
tumult  of  her  feelings  does  not  even  recognize 
Him  at  His  first  address.  But  He  calls  her 
by  name,  and  then  she  joyfully  recognizes  her 
Master.  The  third  appearance  of  our  Lord 
was  to  Peter  (Luke,  Paul)  ;  the  fourth  to  the 
two  disciples  going  to  Emmaus  in  the  evening 
(Mark,  Luke)  ;  the  fifth  in  the  same  evening 
to  the  eleven  as  they  sat  at  meat  (Mark,  Luke, 
John).  All  of  these  occurred  on  the  first  day 
of  the  week,  the  very  day  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion. Exactly  a  week  after,  He  appeared  to 
the  Apostles,  and  gave  Thomas  a  convincing 
proof  of  His  resurrection  (Jonn)  ;  this  was  the 
sixth  appearance.  The  seventh  was  in  Galilee, 
where  seven  of  the  Apostles  were  assembled, 
some  of  them  probably  about  to  return  to  their 
old  trade  of  fishing  (John).  The  eighth  was 
to  the  eleven  (Matt.),  and  probably  to  five 
hundred  brethren  assembled  with  them  (Paul) 
on  a  mountain  in  Galilee.  The  ninth  was  to 
James  (Paul)  ;  and  the  last  to  the  Apostles  at 
Jerusalem  just  before  the  Ascension  (Acts). 

Je'thro  was  priest  or  prince  of  Midian,  both 
offices  probably  being  combined  in  one  per- 
son. Moses  spent  the  forty  years  of  his  exile 
from  Egypt  with  him,  and  married  his  daugh- 
ter Zipporah.  By  the  advice  of  Jethro,  Moses 
appointed  deputies  to  judge  the  congregation 
and  share  the  burden  of  government  with  him- 
self (Ex.  xviii.).  On  account  of  his  local 
knowledge  he  was  entreated  to  remain  with 
the  Israelites  throughout  their  journey  to 
Canaan  (Num.  x.  31,  33).  It  is  said  in  Ex.  ii. 
18  that  the  priest  of  Midian  whose  daughter 
Moses  married  was  Reuel !  afterwards  at  ch. 
iii.  I  he  is  called  Jethro,  as  also  in  ch.  xviii. ; 
but  in  Num.  x.  29  "Hobab  the  son  of  Raguel 
the  Midianite"  is  apparently  called  Moses' 
father-in-law  (comp.  Judg.  iv.  11).  Some 
commentators  take  Jethro  and  Reuel  to  be 
identical,  and  call  Hobab  the  brother-in-law  of 
Moses. 

Jew.  This  name  was  properly  applied  to  a 
member  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  after  the 
separation  of  the  ten  tribes.  The  term  first 
makes  its  appearance  just  before  the  captivity 
of  the  ten  tribes  (2  K.  xvi.  6).  After  the  Re- 
turn the  word  received  a  larger  application. 
Partly  from  the  predominance  of  the  members 
of  the  old  kingdom  of  Judah  among  those  who 
returned  to  Palestine,  partly  from  the  identifi- 
cation of  Judah  with  the  religious  ideas  and 
hopes  of  the  people,  all  the  members  of  the 
new  state  were  called  Jews  (Judaeans),and  the 
name  was  extended  to  the  remnants  of  the 
race  scattered  throughout  the  nations. 


194 


JEWEL 

Jew'el,  [Precious  stones]. 

Jez'ebel  (chaste),  wife  of  Ahab,  king  of  Is- 
rael, and  mother  of  Athaliah,  queen  of  Judah, 
and  Ahaziah  and  Joram,  kings  of  Israel.  She 
was  a  Phoenician  princess,  daughter  of  "Eth- 
baal  king  of  the  Zidonians."  In  her  hands  her 
husband  became  a  mere  puppet  (i  K.  xxi.  25). 
The  first  effect  of  her  influence  was  the  im- 
mediate establishment  of  the  Phoenician  wor- 
ship on  a  grand  scale  in  the  court  of  Ahab. 
At  her  table  were  supported  no  less  than  450 
prophets  of  Baal,  and  400  of  Astarte  (i  K.  xvi. 
31,  32.  xviii.  19).  The  prophets  of  Jehovah, 
who  up  to  this  time  had  found  their  chief 
refuge  in  the  northern  kingdom,  were  attacked 
by  her  orders  and  put  to  the  sword  ( i  K.  xviii. 
13:  2  K.  ix.  7).  She  survived  Ahab  for  14 
years,  and  as  queen-mother  (after  the  Oriental 
custom),  was  a  great  personage  in  the  court  of 
her  sons;  and,  as  such,  became  the  special  mark 
for  the  vengeance  of  Jehu.  She  was  looking 
out  from  the  window  of  the  palace,  which 
stood  by  the  gate  of  the  city,  as  Jehu  ap- 
proached. The  new  king  looked  up  from  his 
chariot.  Two  or  three  eunuchs  of  the  royal 
harem  showed  their  faces  at  the  windows,  and 
at  his  command  dashed  the  ancient  princess 
down  from  the  chamber.  She  fell  immediately 
in  front  of  the  conqueror's  chariot.  The  mer- 
ciless destroyer  passed  on ;  and  the  last  re- 
mains of  life  were  tramped  out  by  the  horses' 
hoofs. 

Jez'reel,  I.  A  city  situated  in  the  plain  , of 
the  same  name  between  Gilboa  and  Little  Her- 
mon,  now  generally  called  Esdraelon.  [Es- 
draelon.]  It  "appears  in  Josh.  xix.  18,  but  its 
historical  importance  dates  from  the  reign  of 
Ahab,  who  chose  it  for  his  chief  residence.  The 
situation  of  the  modern  village  of  Zcrin  still 
remains  to  show  the  fitness  of  his  choice.  In 
the  neighborhood,  or  within  the  town  probab- 
ly, were  a  temple  and  grove  of  Astarte,  with 
an  establishment  of  400  priests  supported  by 
Jezebel  (i  K.  xvi.  33;  2  K.  x.  ii).  The  palace 
of  Ahab  (l  K.  xxi.  i,  xviii.  46),  probably  con- 
taining his  "ivory  house"  (i  K.  xxii.  39),  was 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  city,  forming  part  of 
the  city  wall  (comp.  i  K.  xxi.  i  ;  2  K.  ix.  25,  30, 
33).  The  seraglio,  in  which  Jezebel  lived,  was 
on  the  city  wall,  and  had  a  high  window  fac- 
ing eastward  (2  K.  ix.  30).  Close  by,  if  not 
forming  part  of  this  seraglio,  was  a  watch- 
tower,  on  which  a  sentinel  stood,  to  give  no- 
tice of  arrivals  from  the  disturbed  district  be- 
yond the  Jordan  (2  K.  ix.  17).  An  ancient 
square  tower  which  stands  among  the  hovels 
of  the  modern  village  may  be  its  representa- 
tive. The  gateway  of  the  city  on  the  east  was 
also  the  gateway  of  the  palace  (2  K.  ix.  34). 


JOHN  THE  APOSTLE 

Whether  the  vineyard  of  Naboth  was  here  or 
at  Samaria  is  a  doubtful  question.  Still  in  the 
same  eastern  direction  are  two  springs,  one  12 
minutes  from  the  town,  the  other  20  minutes. 
The  latter  probably  both  from  its  size  and  sit- 
uation, was  known  as  "The  Spring  of  Jezreel" 
(mistranslated  A.V."a  fountain,"  (i  Sam.xxix. 
I.).  With  the  fall  of  the  house  of  Ahab  the 
glory  of  Jezreel  departed.  2.  A  town  in  Judah, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  southern  Carmel 
(Josh.  XV.  56).  Here  David  in  his  wanderings 
took  Ahinoam  the  Israelitess  for  his  first  wife 
(i  Sam.  xxvii.  3,  xxx.  5.)  3.  The  eldest  son 
of  the  prophet  Hosea  (Hos.  i.  4). 

Job,  the  patriarch,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
books  of  the  O.  T.  His  residence  in  the  land 
of  Uz,  which  took  its  name  from  a  son  of 
Aram  (Gen.  x.  23),  or  Nahor  (Gen.  xxii.  21), 
marks  him  as  belonging  to  a  branch  of  the 
Aramaean  race,  which  had  settled  in  the  lower 
part  of  Mesopotamia  (probably  to  the  south  or 
south-east  of  Palestine,  in  Idumaean  Arabia), 
adjacent  to  the  Sabaeans  and  Chaldaeans.  The 
opinions  of  Job  and  his  friends  are  thus  pecu- 
liarly interesting  as  exhibiting  an  aspect  of  the 
patriarchal  religion  outside  of  the  family  of 
Abraham,  and  as  yet  uninfluenced  by  the  leg- 
islation of  Moses.  The  form  of  worship  be- 
longs essentially  to  the  early  patriarchal  type ; 
with  little  of  ceremonial  ritual,  without  a  sep- 
arate priesthood,  it  is  thoroughly  domestic  in 
form  and  spirit.  Job  is  represented  as  a  chief- 
tain of  immense  wealth  and  high  rank,  blame- 
less in  all  the  relations  of  life,  and  the  object 
of  the  book  in  which  his  sufferings  are  depicted 
is  to  show  the  effects  of  calamity  in  its  worst 
and  most  awtul  form  upon  a  truly  religious 
spirit.  Historical  character  of  the  work. — ■ 
Three  distinct  theories  have  been  maintained 
at  various  times ;  some  believing  the  book  to 
be  strictly  historical ;  others  a  religious  fiction ; 
others  a  composition  based  upon  facts.  By 
some  the  authorship  of  the  work  was  attrib- 
uted to  Moses.  The  fact  of  Job's  existence, 
and  the  substantial  truth  of  the  narrative,  were 
not  likely  to  be  denied  by  Hebrews  or  Chris- 
tians, considering  the  terms  in  which  the 
patriarch  is  named  in  the  14th  of  Ezekiel  and 
in  the  Epistle  of  St.  James  (v.  11).  Luther 
first  suggested  the  theory,  which,  in  some  form 
or  other,  is  now  most  generally  received.  He 
says,  "I  look  upon  the  book  of  Job  as  a  true 
history,  yet  I  do  not  believe  that  all  took  place 
just  as  it  is  written,  but  that  an  ingenious, 
pious,  and  learned  man  brought  it  into  its 
present  form."  , 

John  the  Apostle  was  the  son  of  Zebedee,  a 
fisherman  on  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  and  of  Sa- 
lome, and  brother  of  James,  also  an  apostle. 


195 


JOHN  THE  APOSTLE 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST 


He  was  probably  younger  than  his  brother, 
whose  name  commonly  precedes  his  (Matt.  iv. 
21,  X.  3,  xvii.  I  &c.),  younger  than  his  friend 
Peter,  possibly  also  than  his  Master.  His 
call,  and  that  of  his  brother,  to  be  first  dis- 
ciples and  then  apostles  of  our  Lord,  are  re- 
lated under  James.  Peter  and  James  and  John 
come  within  the  innermost  circle  of  their 
Lord's  friends.  Peter  is  throughout  the  leader 
of  that  band ;  to  John  belongs  the  yet  more 
memorable  distinction  of  being  the  disciple 
whom  Jesus  loved.  He  hardly  sustains  the 
popular  notion,  fostered  by  the  received  types 
of  Christian  art,  of  a  nature  gentle,  yielding, 
feminine.  The  name  Boanerges  (Mark  iii.  17) 
implies  a  vehemence,  zeal,  intensity,  which 
gave  to  those  who  had  it  the  might  of  Sons  of 
Thunder.  [James.]  The  three  are  with  Him 
when  none  else  are,  in  the  chamber  of  death 
(Mark  v.  37),  in  the  glory  of  the  transfigura- 
tion (Matt.  xvii.  i),  when  he  forewarns  them 
of  the  destruction  of  the  Holy  City  (Mark  xiii. 
3,  Andrew,  in  this  instance,  with  them),  in  the 
agony  of  Gethsemane.  When  the  betrayal  is 
accomplished,  Peter  and  John,  after  the  first 
moment  of  confusion,  follow  afar  of¥,  while 
the  others  simply  seek  safety  in  a  hasty  flight 
(John  xviii.  15).  The  personal  acquaintance 
which  existed  between  John  and  Caiaphas  en- 
abled him  to  gain  access  both  for  himself  and 
Peter,  but  the  latter  remains  in  the  porch, 
with  the  officers  and  servants,  while  John  him- 
self apparently  is  admitted  to  the  council- 
chamber,  and  follows  Jesus  thence,  even  to  the 
praetorium  of  the  Roman  Procurator  (John 
xviii.  16,  19,  28).  Thence  he  followed,  accom- 
panied probably  by  his  own  mother,  Mary  the 
mother  of  Jesus,  and  Mary  Magdalene,  to  the 
place  of  crucifixion.  The  Teacher  who  had 
been  to  him  as  a  brother  leaves  to  him  a 
brother's  duty.  He  is  to  be  as  a  son  to  the 
mother  who  is  left  desolate  (John  xix.  26,  27). 
The  sabbath  that  followed  was  spent,  it  would 
appear,  in  the  same  company.  He  receives 
Peter,  in  spite  of  his  denial,  on  the  old  terms 
of  friendship.  It  is  to  them  that  Mary  Magda- 
lene first  runs  with  the  tidings  of  the  emptied 
sepulchre  (John  xx.  2)  ;  they  are  the  first  to 
go  together  to  see  what  the  strange  words 
meant.  Not  without  some  bearing  on  their 
respective  characters  is  the  fact  that  John  is 
the  more  impetuous,  running  on  most  eagerly 
to  the  rock-tomb ;  Peter,  the  least  restrained 
by  awe,  the  first  to  enter  in  and  look  (John  xx. 
4-6).  For  at  least  eight  days  they  continued 
in  Jerusalem  (John  xx.  26).  Then,  in  the  in- 
terval between  the  resurr"fection  and  the  ascen- 
sion, we  find  them  still  together  on  the  sea  of 
Galilee  (John  xxi.  i).    Here  too  there  is  a 


characteristic  difference.  John  is  the  first  to 
recognize  in  the  dim  form  seen  in  the  morning 
twilight  the  presence  of  his  risen  Lord ;  Peter 
the  first  to  plunge  into  the  water  and  swim  to- 
wards the  shore  where  He  stood  calling  to 
them  (John  xxi.  7).  The  last  words  of  the 
Gospel  reveal  to  us  the  deep  afifection  which 
united  the  two  friends.  It  is  not  enough  for 
Peter  to  know  his  own  future.  That  at  once 
suggests  the  question,  "And  what  shall  this 
man  do?"  (John  xxi.  21).  The  history  of  the 
Acts  shows  the  same  union.  They  are  of 
course  together  at  the  ascension  and  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost.  Together  they  enter  the 
Temple  as  worshippers  (Acts  iii.  i)  and  pro- 
test against  the  threats  of  the  Sanhedrim  (iv. 
13).  The  persecution  which  was  pushed  on 
by  Saul  of  Tarsus  did  not  drive  him  or  any  of 
the  apostles  from  their  post  (viii.  i).  The 
sharper  though  shorter  persecution  which  fol- 
lowed under  Herod  Agrippa  brought  a  great 
sorrow  to  him  in  the  martyrdom  of  his  brother 
(Acts  xii.  2).  His  friend  was  driven  to  seek 
safety  in  flight.  Fifteen  years  after  St.  Paul's 
first  visit  he  was  still  at  Jerusalem,  and  helped 
to  take  part  in  the  settlement  of  the  great  con- 
troversy between  the  Jewish  and  the  Gentile 
Christians  (Acts  xv.  6).  His  subsequent  his- 
tory we  know  only  by  tradition.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  he  removed  from  Jerusalem 
and  settled  at  Ephesus,  though  at  what  time  is 
uncertain.  Tradition  goes  on  to  relate  that  in 
the  persecution  under  Domitian  he  is  taken  to 
Rome,  and.  there,  by  his  boldness,  though  not 
by  death,  gains  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  The 
boiling  oil  into  which  he  is  thrown  has  no 
power  to  hurt  him.  He  is  then  sent  to  labor 
in  the  mines,  and  Patmos  is  the  place  of  his 
exile.  The  accession  of  Nerva  frees  him  from 
danger,  and  he  returns  to  Ephesus.  Heresies 
continue  to  show  themselves,  but  he  meets 
them  with  the  strongest  possible  protest.  The 
very  time  of  his  death  lies  within  the  region 
of  conjecture  rather  than  of  history,  and  the 
dates  that  have  been  assigned  for  it  range 
from  A.  D.  89  to  A.  D.  120. 

John  the  Baptist  was  of  the  priestly  race  by 
both  parents,  for  his  father  Zacharias  was  him- 
self a  priest  of  the  course  of  Abia,  or  Abijah 
(i  Chr.  xxiv.  10),  ofifering  incense  at  the  very 
time  when  a  son  was  promised  to  him;  and 
Elizabeth  was  of  the  daughters  of  Aaron 
(Luke  i.  5).  His  birth — a  birth  not  according 
to  the  ordinary  laws  of  nature,  but  through 
the  miraculous  interposition  of  almighty 
power — was  foretold  by  an  angel  sent  from 
God,  and  is  related  at  length  in  the  first  chap- 
ter of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke.  The  birth  of 
John  preceded  by  six  months  that  of  our  Lord. 
96 


0?  THE 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST 

John  was  ordained  to  be  a  Nazarite  from  his 
birth  (Luke  i.  15).  Dwelling  by  himself  in 
the  wild  and  thinly  peopled  region  westward 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  he  prepared  himself  for  the 
wonderful  office  to  which  he  had  been  divinely 
called.  The  very  appearance  of  the  holy  Bap- 
tist was  of  itself  a  lesson  to  his  countrymen; 
his  dress  was  that  of  the  old  prophets — a  gar- 
ment woven  of  camel's  hair  (2  K.  i.  8),  at- 
tached to  the  body  by  a  leathern  girdle.  His 
food  was  such  as  the  desert  afforded — locusts 
(Lev.  xi.  22)  and  wild  honey  (Ps.  Ixxxi.  16). 
And  now  the  long  secluded  hermit  came  forth 
to  the  discharge  of  his  office.  His  supernat- 
ural birth — his  hard  ascetic  life — his  reputa- 
tion for  extraordinary  sancity — and  the  gen- 
erally prevailing  expectation  that  some  great 
one  was  about  to  appear — these  causes,  with- 
out the  aid  of  miraculous  power,  for  "John  did 
no  miracle"  (John  x.  41),  were  sufficient  to 
attract  to  him  a  great  multitude  from  "every 
quarter"  (Matt.  iii.  5).  Brief  and  startling 
was  his  first  exhorarion  to  them,  "Repent  ye, 
for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand."  IMany 
of  every  class  pressed  forward  to  confess  their 
sins  and  to  be  baptized.  The  preparatory  bap- 
tism of  John  was  a  visible  sign  to  the  people, 
and  a  distinct  acknowledgment  by  them,  that 
a  hearty  renunciation  of  sin  and  a  real  amend- 
ment of  life  were  necessary  for  admission  into 
the  kingdom  of  heaven,  which  the  Baptist  pro- 
claimed to  be  at  hand.  But  the  fundamental 
distinction  between  John's  baptism  unto  re- 
pentance, and  that  baptism  accompanied  with 
the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  which  our  Lord 
afterwards  ordained,  is  clearly  marked  by  John 
himself  (]\latt.  iii.  11,  12).  Jesus  himself  came 
from  Galilee  to  Jordan  to  be  baptized  of  John. 
[Jesus.]  From  incidental  notices  we  learn 
that  John  and  his  disciples  continued  to  bap- 
tize some  time  after  our  Lord  entered  upon  his 
ministry  (see  John  iii.  23,  iv.  i;  Acts  xix.  3). 
We  gather  also  that  John  instructed  his  disci- 
ples in  certain  moral  and  religious  du- 
ties, as  fasting  (^Nlatt.  ix.  14;  Luke  v.  33)  and 
prayer  (Luke  xi.  i).  But  shortly  after  he  had 
given  his  testimony  to  the  Messiah,  John's 
public  ministry  was  brought  to  a  close.  In 
daring  disregard  of  the  divine  laws,  Herod 
Antipas  had  taken  to  himself  the  wife  of  his 
brother  Philip ;  and  when  John  reproved  him 
for  this,  as  well  as  for  other  sins  (Luke  iii.  19), 
Herod  cast  him  into  prison.  The  place  of  his 
confinement  was  the  castle  of  Machaerus — a 
fortress  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
It  was  here  that  reports  reached  him  of  the 
miracles  which  our  Lord  was  working  in 
Judaea.  Respecting  the  message  which  John 
sent  to  our  Saviour,  see  Jesus  p.  188.  Noth- 


JOHN,  EPISTLES  OF 

ing  but  the  death  of  the  Baptist  would  satisfy 
the  resentment  of  Herodias.  A  court  festival 
was  kept  at  Machaerus  in  honor  of  the  king's 
birthday.  After  supper,  the  daughter  of 
Herodias  came  in  ancl  danced  before  the  com- 
pany, and  so  charmed  was  the  king  by  her 
grace  that  he  promised  with  an  oath  to  give 
her  whatsoever  she  should  ask.  Salome, 
prompted  by  her  abandoned  mother,  de- 
manded the  head  of  John  the  Baptist.  Herod 
gave  instructions  to  an  officer  of  his  guard, 
who  went  and  executed  John  in  the  prison, 
and  his  head  was  brought  to  feast  the  eyes  of 
the  adulteress  whose  sins  he  had  denounced. 
His  death  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  just 
before  the  third  passover,  in  the  course  of  the 
Lord's  ministry. 

John,  Gospel  of.  No  doubt  has  been  enter- 
tained at  any  time  in  the  Church,  either  of  the 
canonical  authority  of  this  Gospel,  or  of  its 
being  written  by  St.  John.  Ephesus  and  Pat- 
mos  are  the  two  places  mentioned  by  early 
writers  as  the  place  where  this  gospel  was 
written ;  and  the  weight  of  evidence  seems  to 
preponderate  in  favor  of  Ephesus.  The 
Apostle's  sojourn  at  Ephesus  probably  began 
after  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  was 
written,  i.  e.  after  A.  D.  62.  Eusebius  speci- 
fies the  fourteenth  year  of  Domitian,  i.  e.  A.  D. 
95,  as  the  year  of  his  banishment  to  Patmos. 
Probably  the  date  of  the  Gospel  may  lie  about 
midway  between  these  two,  about  A.  D.  78. 
i\fter  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  A.  D,  69, 
Ephesus  probably  became  the  centre  of  the 
active  life  of  Eastern  Christendom.  It  con- 
tained a  large  church  of  faithful  Christians,  a 
multitude  of  zealous  Jews,  an  indigenous  pop- 
ulation devoted  to  the  worship  of  a  strange 
idol  whose  image  was  borrowed  from  the  East, 
its  name  from  the  West.  The  Gospel  was 
obviously  addressed  primarily  to  Christians, 
not  to  heathens.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  main  object  of  St.  John,  v.'ho  wrote 
after  the  other  Evangelists,  is  to  supplement 
their  narratives,  which  were  almost  confined 
to  our  Lord's  life  in  Galilee. 

John,  The  First  Epistle  General  of.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Apostle  John  was 
the  author  of  this  Epistle.  Like  the  Gospel  it 
was  probably  written  from  Ephesus,  and  most 
likely  at  the  close  of  the  first  century.  It  was 
primarily  meant  for  the  churches  of  Asia  un- 
der St.  John's  inspection,  to  whom  he  had  al- 
ready orally  delivered  his  doctrine. 

John,  The  Second  and  Third  Epistles  of. 
These  two  Epistles  are  placed  by  Eusebius  in 
the  class  of  "disputed"  books,  and  he  appears 
himself  to  be  doubtful  whether  they  were  writ- 
ten by  the  Evangelist,  or  by  some  other  John. 


197 


JONAH 


JORDAN 


Jonah  (Dove),  the  fifth  of  the  Minor  Proph- 
ets, according  to  the  order  of  our  Bible,  was 
the  son  of  Aniittai,  and  a  native  of  Gath- 
hepher,  a  town  of  Lower  GaHlee  in  Zebulun 
(2  K.  xiv.  25).  He  Hved  after  the  reign  of 
Jehu,  when  the  losses  of  Israel  (2  K.  x.  32)  be- 
gan ;  and  probably  not  till  the  latter  part  of  the 
reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  The  general  opinion  is, 
that  Jonah,  was  the  first  of  the  prophets.  The 
king  of  Nineveh  at  this  time  is  supposed  to 
have  been  Pul,  who  is  placed  B.  C.  750.  Our 
English  Bible  gives  B.  C.  862.  Having  al- 
ready, as  it  seems,  prophesied  to  Israel,  he  was 
sent  to  Nineveh.'  The  time  was  one  of  political 
revival  in  Israel ;  but  ere  long  the  Assyrians 
were  to  be  employed  by  God  as  a  scourge  upon 
them.  The  prophet  shrank  from  a  commis- 
sion which  he  felt  sure  would  result  (iv.  2)  in 
the  sparing  of  a  hostile  city.  He  attempted 
therefore  to  escape  to  Tarshish.  The  provi- 
dence of  God,  however,  watched  over  him,  first 
in  a  storm,  and  then  in  his  being  swallowed 
by  a  large  fish  for  the  space  of  three  days  and 
three  nights.  [On  this  subject  see  art.  VVhale.] 
After  his  deliverance,  Jonah  executed  his  com- 
mission; and  the  king,  "believing  him  to  be  a 
minister  from  the  supreme  deity  of  the  na- 
tion," and  having  heard  of  his  miraculous  de- 
liverance, ordered  a  general  fast,  and  averted 
the  threatened  judgment.  But  the  prophet, 
not  from  personal,  but  national  feelings, 
grudged  the  mercy  shown  to  a  heathen  nation. 
He  was  therefore  taught,  by  the  significant  les- 
son of  the  "gourd,"  whose  growth  and  decay 
brought  the  truth  at  once  home  to  him,  that 
he  was  sent  to  testify  by  deed,  as  other  proph- 
ets would  afterwards  testify  by  word,  the  ca- 
pacity of  Gentiles  for  salvation,  and  the  de- 
sign of  God  to  make  them  partakers  of  it. 
This  was  "the  sign  of  the  prophet  Jonas" 
(Luke  xi.  29,  30).  But  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  itself  was  also  shadowed  forth  in  the 
history  of  the  prophet  (Matt.  xii.  39,  41,  xvi. 
4).  The  mission  of  Jonah  was  highly  sym- 
bolical. The  facts  contained  a  concealed 
prophecy.  The  old  tradition  made  the  burial- 
place  of  Jonah  to  be  Gathhepher:  the  modern 
tradition  places  it  at  Nebi-Yunus,  opposite 
Mosul. 

Jon'athan,  that  is,  "the  gift  of  Jehovah,"  the 
eldest  son  of  king  Saul.  He  was  regarded  in 
his  father's  lifetime  as  heir  to  the  throne.  He 
was  also  famous  as  a  warrior  (i  Chron.  12,  2), 
as  is  shown  by  the  courage  he  showed  in  at- 
tacking the  garrison  of  the  Philistines  in  com- 
pany with  his  armor  bearer  only.  A  panic 
seized  the  garrison,  thence  spread  to  the 
camp,  and  thence  to  the  surrounding  hordes  of 
marauders;  an  earthquake  combined  with  the 


terror  of  the  moment.  Saul  and  his  little  band 
had  watched  in  astonishment  the  wild  retreat 
from  the  heights  of  Gibeah ;  he  now  joined  in 
the  pursuit.  Jonathan  had  not  heard  of  the 
rash  curse  (xiv.  24)  which  Saul  invoked  on 
any  one  who  ate  before  the  evening,  and  he 
tasted  the  honey  which  lay  on  the  ground  as 
they  passed  through  the  forest.  Jephthah's 
dreadful  sacrifice  would  have  been  repeated ; 
but  the  people  interposed  in  behalf  of  the 
hero  of  that  great  day ;  and  Jonathan  was 
saved  (xiv.  24-41).  But  the  chief  interest  of 
his  career  is  derived  from  the  friendship  with 
David,  which  began  on  the  day  of  David's  re- 
turn from  the  victory  over  the  champion  of 
Gath,  and  continued  till  his  death.  Their  last 
meeting  was  in  the  forest  of  Ziph,  during 
Saul's  pursuit  of  David  (i  Sam.  xxiii.  16-18). 
From  this  time  forth  we  hear  no  more  till  the 
battle  of  Gilboa.  In  that  battle  he  fell,  with 
his  two  brothers  and  his  father,  and  his  corpse 
shared  their  fate  (i  Sam.  xxxi.  2,  8).  His 
ashes  were  buried  first  at  Jabesh-Gilead  (ib. 
13),  but  afterwards  removed  with  those  of  his 
father  to  Zelah  in  Benjamin  (2  Sam.  xxi.  12). 
The  news  of  his  death  occasioned  the  cele- 
brated elegy  of  David. 

Jop'pa,  or  Japho,  now  Jafifa,  a  town  on  the 
S.  W.  coast  of  Palestine,  in  the  portion  of  Dan 
(Josh.  xix.  46).  Having  a  harbor  attached  to 
it — though  always,  as  still,  a  dangerous  one — 
it  became  the  port  of  Jerusalem  in  the  days 
of  Solomon,  and  has  been  ever  since.  Here 
Jonah  "took  ship  to  flee  from  the  presence  of 
his  Maker."  Here,  on  the  house-top  of  Simon 
the  tanner,  "by  the  seaside,"  St.  Peter  had  his 
vision  of  tolerance  (Acts  xi.  5).  The  existing 
town  contains  about  4000  inhabitants. 

Jor'dan  (the  descender),  the  one  river  of 
Palestine,  has  a  course  of  little  more  than  200 
miles,  from  the  roots  of  Anti-Lebanon  to  the 
head  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  the  river  of  the 
"great  plain"  of  Palestine — the  "Descender" — 
if  not  "the  river  of  God"  in  the  book  of 
Psalms,  at  least  that  of  His  chosen  people 
throughout  their  history.  There  were  fords 
over  against  Jericho,  to  which  point  the  men 
of  Jericho  pursued  the  spies  (Josh.  ii.  7;  comp. 
Judg.  iii.  28).  Higher  up,  perhaps  over 
against  Succoth,  some  way  above  where  the 
little  river  Jabbok  (Zerka)  enters  the  Jordan, 
were  the  fords  or  passages  of  Bethbarah 
(probably  the  Bethbara  of  the  Gospel),  where 
Gideon  lay  in  wait  for  the  Midianites  (Judg. 
vii.  24),  and  where  the  men  of  Gilead  slew  the 
Ephraimites  (xii.  6).  These  fords  undoubtedly 
witnessed  the  first  recorded  passage  of  the 
Jordan  in  the  O.  T.  (Gen.  xxxii.  10).  Jordan 
was  next  crossed,  over  against  Jericho,  by 
98 


JORDAN 


JOSEPH 


Joshua  the  son  of  Nun  (Josh.  iv.  12,  13).  From 
their  vicinity  to  Jerusalem  the  lower  fords 
were  much  used ;  David,  it  is  probable,  passed 
over  them  in  one  instance  to  fight  the  Syrians 
(2  Sam.  X.  17)  ;  and  subsequently,  when  a 
fugitive  himself,  in  his  way  to  IMahanaim  (xvii. 
22)  on  the  east  bank.    Thus  there  were  two 


The  Jordan  Valley. 


customary  places  at  which  the  Jordan  was 
fordable ;  and  it  must  have  been  at  one  of  these, 
if  not  at  both,  that  baptism  was  afterwards  ad- 
ministered by  St.  John,  and  by  the  disciples  of 
our  Lord.  Where  our  Lo'rd  was  baptized  is 
not  stated  expressly ;  but  it  was  probably  at 
the  upper  ford.  These  fords  were  rendered  so 
much  the  more  precious  in  those  days  from 
two  circumstances.  First,  it  does  not  appear 
that  there  were  then  any  bridges  thrown  over, 
or  boats  regularly  established  on,  the  Jordan ; 
and  secondly,  because  "Jordan  overflowed  all 
his  banks  all  the  time  of  harvest"  (Josh.  iii. 
15).  The  channel  or  bed  of  the  river  became 
brimful,  so  that  the  level  of  the  water  and  of 
the  banks  was  then  the  same.  In  one  sense  in- 
deed, that  is,  in  so  far  as  it  was  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  it  was  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  promised  land  (Num. 
xxxiv.  12).  The  Jordan  rises  from  several 
sources  near  Panium,  and  passes  through  the 
lakes  of  Merom  and  Gennesaret.  The  two 
principal  features  in  its  course  are  its  descent 
and  its  windings.  From  its  fountain-heads  to 
the  Dead  Sea,  it  rushes  down  one  continuous 
inclined  plane,  only  broken  by  a  series  of  rapids 
or  precipitous  falls.  Between  the  lake  of  Gen- 
nesaret and  the  Dead  Sea  there  are  27  rapids ; 
the  depression  of  the  lake  of  Gennesaret  below 
the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  is  653  feet;  and 
that  of  the  Dead  .Sea  1316  feet.  Its  sinuosity 
is  not  so  remarkable  in  the  upper  part  of  its 
course.  The  only  tributaries  to  the  Jordan 
below  Gennesaret  are  the  Yarmuk  (Hieromax) 
and  the  Zerka  (Jabbok).  Not  a  single  city 
ever  crowned  the  banks  of  the  Jordan.  Still 


Bethshan  and  Jericho  to  the  W.,  Gerasa,  Pella, 
and  Gadara  to  the  E.  of  it,  were  important 
cities,  and  caused  a  good  deal  of  traffic  be- 
tween the  two  opposite  banks. 

Jo'seph  (increase).  1.  The  elder  of  the  two 
sons  of  Jacob  by  Rachel,  is  -  first  mentioned 
when  a  youth,  seventeen  years  old.  Jacob 
seems  then  to  have  staid  at  Hebron  with  the 
aged  Isaac,  while  his  sons  kept  his  flocks. 
Joseph,  we  reaxl,  brought  the  evil  report  of  his 
brethren  to  his  father,  and  they  hated  him 
because  his  father  loved  him  more  than  them, 
as  the  "son  of  his  old  age,"  and  had  sliown 
his  preference  by  making  him  a  dress  which 
appears  to  have  been  a  long  tunic  with  sleeves, 
worn  by  youths  and  maidens  of  the  richer 
class  (Gen.  xxxvii.  2).  The  hatred  of  Joseph's 
brethren  was  increased  by  his  telling  of  a 
dream  foreshowing  that  they  would  bow  down 
to  him,  which  was  followed  by  another  of  the 
same  import.  They  had  gone  to  Shechem  to 
feed  the  flock ;  and  Joseph  was  sent  thither 
from  the  vale  of  Hebron  by  his  father  to  bring 
him  word  of  their  welfare  and  that  of  the 
flock.  They  were  not  at  Shechem,  but  were 
gone  to  Dothan,  which  appears  to  have  been 
not  far  distant,  pasturing  their  flock  like  the 
Arabs  of  the  present  day,  wherever  the  wild 
country  was  unowned.  On  Joseph's  approach, 
his  brethren,  except  Reuben,  resolved  to  kill 


Joseph's  Tomb  and  Mount  Gerizim. 

him ;  but  Reuben  saved  him,  persuading  them 
to  cast  him  into  a  dry  pit,  to  the  intent  that  he 
might  restore  him  to  his  father.  Accordingly, 
when  Joseph  was  come,  they  stripped  him  of 
his  tunic  and  cast  him  into  the  pit,  "and  they 
sat  down  to  eat  bread ;  and  they  lifted  up  their 
eyes  and  looked,  and,  behold,  a  company  of 
Ishmeelites  came  from  Gilead  with  their  cam- 


199 


JOSEPH 

els."  Juclah  suggested  to  his  brethren  to  sell 
Joseph  to  the  Ishmaelites,  and  accordingly 
they  took  him  out  of  the  pit  and  sold  him  "for 
twenty  [shekels]  of  silver"  (ver.  28).  His 
brethren  pretended  to  Jacob  that  Joseph  had 
been  killed  by  some  wild  beast,  taking  to  him 
the  tunic  stained  with  a  kid's  blood.  The 
Midianites  sold  Joseph  in  Egypt  to  Potiphar, 
"an  officer  of  Pharaoh,  captain  of  the  execu- 
tioners, an  Egyptian"  (xxxix.  1 ;  comp.  xxxvii. 
36).  Joseph  prospered  in  the  house  of  the 
Egyptian,  who,  seeing  that  God  blessed  him, 
and  pleased  with  his  good  service,  "set  him 
over  his  house,  and  all  [that]  he  had  he  gave 
into  his  hand"  (xxxix.  4,  comp.  5).  His  mas- 
ter's wife,  with  the  well-known  profligacy  of 
the  Egyptian  women,  tempted  him,  and  failing, 
charged  him  with  the  crime  she  would  have 
made  him  commit.  Potiphar,  incensed  against 
Joseph,  cast  him  into  prison,  where  he  re- 
mained for  at  least  two  years,  and  perhaps 
longer.  In  the  prison,  as  in  Potiphar's  house, 
Joseph  was  found  worthy  of  complete  trust, 
and  the  keeper  of  the  prison  placed  everything 
under  his  control.  After  a  while,  Pharaoh  was 
incensed  against  two  of  his  officers,  "the  chief 
of  the  cup-bearers"  and  the  "chief  of  the 
bakers,"  and  cast  them  into  the  prison  where 
Joseph  was;  Each  dreamed  a  prophetic  dream, 
which  Joseph  interpreted.  "After  two  years," 
Joseph's  deliverance  came.  Pharaoh  dreamed 
two  prophetic  dreams.  "He  stood  by  the  river 
[the  Nile].  And,  behold,  coming  up  out  of  the 
river  seven  kine  [or  'heifers'],  beautiful  in  ap- 
pearance and  fat-fleshed ;  and  they  fed  in  the 
marsh-grass.  And,  behold,  seven  other  kine 
coming  up  after  them  out  of  the.  river,  evil  in 
appearance,  and  lean-fleshed"  (xli.  1-3).  These, 
afterwards  described  still  more  strongly,  ate 
up  the  first  seven,  and  yet,  as  is  said  in  the 
second  account,  when  they  had  eaten  them 
remained  as  lean  as  before  (xli.  1-4,  17-21). 
Then  Pharaoh  had  a  second  dream :  "Behold, 
seven  ears  of  corn  coming  up  on  one  stalk,  fat 
[or  'full,'  ver.  22]  and  good.  And,  behold, 
seven  ears,  thin  and  blasted  with  the  east  wind, 
sprouting  forth  after  them"  (ver.  5,  6).  These, 
also  described  more  strongly  in  the  second  ac- 
count, devoured  the  first  seven  ears  (ver.  5-7, 
22-24).  In  the  morning  Pharaoh  sent  for  the 
"scribes"  and  the  "wise  men,"  and  they  were 
unable  to  give  him  an  interpretation.  Then 
the  chief  of  the  cup-bearers  remembered 
Joseph,  and  told  Pharaoh  how  a  young 
Hebrew,  "servant  to  the  captain  of  the  execu- 
tioners," had  interpreted  his  and  his  fellow- 
prisoner's  dreams.  "Then  Pharaoh  sent  and 
called  Joseph,  and  they  made  him  hasten  out 
of  the  prison;  and  he  shaved  [himself],  and 


JOSEPH 

changed  his  raiment,  and  came  unto  Pharaoh" 
(ver.  14).  The  king  then  related  his  dreams, 
and  Joseph,  when  he  had  disclaimed  human 
wisdom,  declared  to  him  that  they  were  sent 
of  God  to  forewarn  Pharaoh.  There  was  essen- 
tially but  one  dream.  Both  kine  and  ears 
symbolized  years.  There  were  to  be  seven 
years  of  great  plenty  in  Egypt,  and  after  them 
seven  years  of  consuming  and  "very  heavy 
famine."  On  the  interpretation  it  may  be  re- 
marked, th?,t  the  kine  represented  the  animal 
products,  and  the  ears  of  corn  the  vegetable 
products,  the  most  important  object  in  each 
class  representing  the  whole  class.  Having 
interpreted  the  dream,  Joseph  counselled 
Pharaoh  to  choose  a  wise  man  and  set  him 
over  the  country,  in  order  that  he  should  take 
the  fifth  part  of  the  produce  of  the  seven  years 
of  plenty  against  the  years  of  famine.  To  this 
high  post  the  king  appointed  Joseph,  made  him 
not  only  governor  of  Egypt,  but  second  only 
to  the  sovereign.  He  also  "gave  him  to  wife 
Asenath  daughter  of  Potipherah,  priest  [or 
'prince']  of  On."  Joseph's  first  act  was  to  go 
throughout  all  the  land  of  Egypt.  During  the 
seven  plenteous  years  there  was  a  very  abund- 
ant produce,  and  he  gathered  the  fifth  part,  as 
he  had  advised  Pharaoh,  and  laid  it  up.  Be- 
fore the  year  of  famine  Asenath  bare  Joseph 
two  sons.  When  the  seven  good  years  had 
passed,  the  famine  began  (Gen.  xli.  54-57). 
Famines  are  not  very  unfrequent  in  the  history 
of  Egypt  [Famine].  After  the  famine  had 
lasted  for  a  time,  apparently  two  years,  Joseph 
gathered  up  all  the  money  that  was  found  in 
the  land  of  Egypt,  and  in  the  land  of  Canaan, 
for  the  corn  which  they  bought ;  and  Joseph 
brought  the  money  into  Pharaoh's  house  (xlvii. 
13,  14).  When  all  the  money  of  Egypt  and 
Canaan  was  exhausted,  barter  became  neces- 
sary. Joseph  then  obtained  all  the  cattle  of 
Egypt,  and  in  the  next  year,  all  the  land,  ex- 
cept that  of  the  priests,  and  apparently,  as  a 
consequence,  the  Egyptians  themselves.  He 
demanded,  however,  only  a  fifth  part  of  the 
produce  as  Pharaoh's  right.  Early  in  the  time 
of  famine,  which  prevailed  equally  in  Canaan 
and  Egypt,  Jacob  reproved  his  helpless  sons, 
and  sent  them  to  Egypt,  where  he  knew  there 
was  corn  to  be  bought.  Benjamin  alone  he 
kept  with  him.  Joseph  was  now  governor,  an 
Egyptian  in  habits  and  speech.  His  brethren 
did  not  know  him,  grown,  from  the  boy  they 
had  sold,  into  a  man.  Joseph  remembered  his 
dreams,  and  behaved  to  them  as  a  stranger, 
using,  as  we  afterwards  learn,  an  interpreter, 
and'  spoke  hard  words  to  them,  and  accused 
them  of  being  spies.  In  defending  themselves 
they  spoke  of  their  household.    The  whole 


200 


THE  LIBRARY 

Of  T!!£ 


Joseph 

story  of  Joseph's  treatment  of  his  brethren  is 
so  graphically  told  in  Gen.  xlii.-xlv.,  and  is  so 
familiar,  that  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  repeat 
it.  After  the  removal  of  his  family  into  Egypt, 
Jacob  and  his  house  abode  in  the  land  of 
Goshen,  Joseph  still  ruling  the  country.  Here 
Jacob,  when  near  his  end,  gave  Joseph  a  por- 
tion above  his  brethren,  doubtless  including 
the  "parcel  of  ground"'  at  Shechem,  his  future 
burying-place  (comp.  John  iv.  5).  Then  he 
blessed  his  sons,  Joseph  most  earnestly  of  all, 
and  died  in  Eg>'pt.  "And  Joseph  fell  upon  his 
face,  and  wept  upon  him,  and  kissed  him" 
(1.  i).  When  he  had  caused  him  to  be  em- 
balmed by  "his  servants  the  physicians,"  he 
carried  him  to  Canaan,  and  laid  him  in  the 
cave  of  Machpelah,  the  burying-place  of  his 
fathers.  Then  it  was  that  his  brethren  feared 
that,  their  father  being  dead,  Joseph  would 
punish  them,  and  that  he  strove  to  remove 
their  fears.  We  know  no  more  of  Joseph  than 
that  he  lived  "a  hundred  and  ten  years,"  hav- 
ing been  more  than  ninety  in  Egypt ;  that  he 
"saw  Ephraim's  children  of  the  third"  [gen- 
eration], and  that  "the  children  also  of  Machir 
the  son  of  Manasseh  were  borne  upon  Joseph's 
knees and  that  dying  he  took  an  oath  of  his 
brethren  that  they  should  carry  up  his  bones 
to  the  land  of  promise :  thus  showing  in  his 
latest  action  the  faith  (Heb.  xi.  22)  which  had 
guided  his  whole  life.  Like  his  father  he  was 
embalmed,  "and  he  was  put  in  a  coffin  in 
Egypt"  (1.  26).  His  trust  Moses  kept,  and 
laid  the  bones  of  Joseph  in  his  inheritance  in 
Shechem,  in-4he  territory  of  Ephraim  his  off- 
spring. As  to  the  dynasty  which  ruled  in  Egypt 
during  Joseph's  residence,  see  Egypt.  2.  Son 
of  Heli,  and  reputed  father  of  Jesus  Christ.  All 
that  is  told  us  of  Joseph  in  the  N.  T.  may  be 
summed  up  in  a  few  words.  He  was  a  just 
man,  and  of  the  house  apd  lineage  of  David. 
The  public  registers  also  contain  his  name  un- 
der the  reckoning  of  the  house  of  David  (John 
i.  45;  Luke  iii.  23;  Matt.  i.  20;  Luke  ii.  4).  He 
lived  at  Nazareth  in  Galilee,  and  it  is  probable 
that  his  family  had  been  settled  there  for  at 
feast  two  preceding  generations,  possibly  from 
the  time  of  Matthat,  the  common  grandfather 
of  Joseph  and  Mary,  since  Mary  lived  there  too 
(Luke  i.  26,  27).  He  espoused  Mary,  the 
daughter  and  heir  of  his  uncle  Jacob,  and  be- 
fore he  took  her  home  as  his  wife  received  the 
angelic  communication  recorded  in  Matt.  i.  20. 
When  Jesus  was  12  years  old  Joseph  and  Mary 
took  him  with  them  to  keep  the  Passover  at 
Jerusalem,  and  when  they  returned  to  Naza- 
reth he  continued  to  act  as  a  father  to  the  child 
Jesus,  and  was  reputed  to  be  so  indeed.  But 
here  our  knowledge  of  Joseph  ends.    That  he 


JOSHUA 

died  before  our  Lord's  crucifixion,  is  indeed 
tolerably  certain,  by  what  is  related,  John 
xix.  27,  and  perhaps  Mark  vi.  3  may  imply 
that  he  was  then  dead.  But  where,  when,  or 
how  he  died,  we  know  not. 

Josh'ua  (savior,  or  whose  help  is  Jehovah). 
His  name  appears  in  the  various  forms  of 
Hoshea,  Oshea,  Jehoshua,  Jeshua,  and  Jesus. 
I.  The  son  of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (i 
Chr.  vii.  27),  and  was  nearly  forty  years  old 
when  he  shared  in  the  hurried  triumph  of  the 
Exodus.  He  is  mentioned  first  in  connection 
with  the  fight  against  Amalek  at  Rephidim, 
when  he  was  chosen  by  Moses  to  lead  the 
Israelites  (Ex.  xvii.  9).  When  Moses  ascended 
Mount  Sinai  to  receive  for  the  first  time  the 
two  Tables,  Joshua,  who  is  called  his  minister 
or  servant,  accompanied  him  part  of  the  way, 
and  was  the  first  to  accost  him  in  his  descent 
(Ex.  xxxii.  17).  Soon  afterwards  he  was  one 
of  the  twelve  chiefs  who  were  sent  (Num.  xiii. 
17)  to  explore  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  one  of 
the  two  (xiv.  6)  who  gave  an  encouraging  re- 
port of  their  journey.  The  40  years  of  wander- 
ing were  almost  passed,  and  Joshua  was  one 
of  the  few  survivors,  when  Moses,  shortly  be- 
fore his  death,  was  directed  (Num.  xxvii.  18) 
to  invest  Joshua  solmenly  and  publicly  with 
definite  authority,  in  connection  with  Eleazar 
the  priest,  over  the  people.  And  after  this  was 
done,  God  Himself  gave  Joshua  a  charge  by 
the  mouth  of  the  dying  Lawgiver  (Deut.  xxxi. 
14,  23).  Under  the  direction  of  God  again  re- 
newed (Josh.  i.  i),  Joshua  assumed  the  com- 
mand of  the  people  at  Shittim,  sent  spies  into 
Jericho,  crossed  the  Jordan,  fortified  a  camp 
at  Gilgal,  circumcised  the  people,  kept  the  pass- 
over,  and  was  visited  by  the  Captain  of  the 
Lord's  Host.  A  miracle  made  the  fall  of 
Jericho  more  terrible  to  the  Canaanites.  In 
the  first  attack  upon  Ai  the  Israelites  were  re- 
pulsed :  it  fell  at  the  second  assault,  and  the 
invaders  marched  to  the  relief  of  Gibeon.  In 
the  great  battle  of  Bethhoron  the  Amorites 
were  signally  routed,  and  the  south  country 
was  open  to  the  Israelites.  Joshua  returned  to 
the  camp  at  Gilgal,  master  of  half  of  Palestine. 
In.  the  north,  at  the  waters  of  Merom,  he  de- 
feated the  Canaanites  under  Jabin  king  of 
Hazor,  and  pursued  his  success  to  the  gates  of 
Zidon  and  into  the  valley  of  Lebanon  under 
Hermon.  In  six  years,  six  tribes  with  thirty- 
one  petty  chiefs  were  conquered ;  amongst 
others  the  Anakim — the  old  terror  of  Israel — 
are  especially  recorded  as  destroyed  every- 
where except  in  Philistia.  Joshua,  now  stricken 
in  years,  proceeded  in  conjunction  with 
Eleazar  and  the  heads  of  the  tribes  to  complete 
the  division  of  the  conquered  land ;  and  when 


201 


JOSHUA,  BOOK  OF 


JUDAH 


all  was  allotted,  Timnath-serah  in  Mount 
Ephraim  was  assigned  by  the  people  as 
Joshua's  peculiar  inheritance.  After  an  interval 
of  rest,  Joshua  convoked  an  assembly  from  all 
Israel.  He  delivered  two  solemn  addresses,  re- 
minding them  of  the  marvellous  fulfilment  of 
God's  promises  to  their  fathers,  and  warning 
them  of  the  conditions  on  which  their  pros- 
perity depended ;  and  lastly,  he  caused  them  to 
renew  their  covenant  with  God  at  Shechem,  a 
place  already  famous  in  connection  with  Jacob 
(Gen.  XXXV.  4),  and  Joseph  (Josh.  xxiv.  32). 
He  died  at  the  age  of  no  years,  and  was 
buried  in  his  own  city,  Timnath-serah. 

Joshua,  Book  of.  This  book  has  been  re- 
garded by  many  critics  as  a  part  of  the 
Pentateuch,  forming  with  the  latter  one  com- 
plete work ;  but  there  do  not  appear  to  be  suf- 
ficient grounds  for  this  opinion.  The  fact  that 
the  first  sentence  of  Joshua  begins  with  a  con- 
junction does  not  show  any  closer  connection 
between  it  and  the  Pentateuch  than  exists  be- 
tween Judges  and  it.  The  references  in  i.  8, 
viii.  31,  xxiii.  6,  xxiv.  26,  to  the  "book  of  the 
law"  rather  show  that  that  book  was  distinct 
from  Joshua.  Other  references  to  events  re- 
corded in  the  Pentateuch  tend  in  the  same  di- 
rection. No  quotation  (in  the  strict  modern 
sense  of  the  word)  from  the  Pentateuch  can  be 
found  in  Joshua. — The  book  may  be  regarded 
as  consisting  of  three  parts:  (I.)  The  conquest 
of  Canaan;  (II.)  The  partition  of  Canaan; 
(HI.)  Joshua's  farewell.  Nothing  is  really 
known  as  to  the  authorship  of  the  book. 
Joshua  himself  is  generally  named  as  the 
author  by  the  Jewish  writers  and  the  Christian 
Fathers ;  but  no  contemporary  assertion  or  suf- 
ficient historical  proof  of  the  fact  exists,  and  it 
can  not  be  maintained  without  qualification. 

Ju'bal,  a  son  of  Lamech  by  Adah,  and  the 
inventor  of  the  "harp  and  organ"  (Gen.  iv.  21), 
probably  general  terms  for  stringed  and  wind 
instruments. 

Jubilee,  The  Year  of,  the  fiftieth  year  after 
the  succession  of  seven  Sabbatical  years,  in 
which  all  the  land  which  had  been  alienated 
returned  to  the  families  of  those  to  whom  it 
had  been  allotted  in  the  original  distribution, 
and  all  bondmen  of  Hebrew  blood  were  lib- 
erated. The  relation  in  which  it  stood  to  the 
Sabbatical  year  and  the  general  directions  for 
its  observance  are  given  Lev.  xxv.  8-16  and 
23-55-  Its  bearing  on  lands  dedicated  to  Je- 
hovah is  stated  Lev.  xxvii.  16-25.  There  is  no 
mention  of  the  Jubilee  in  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy,  and  the  only  other  reference  to 
it  in  the  Pentateuch  is  in  Num.  xxxvi.  4.  The 
year  was  inaugurated  on  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment with  the  blowing  of  trumpets  through- 


out the  land,  and  by  a  proclamation'  of  uni- 
versal liberty.  Josephus  states  that  all  debts 
were  remitted  in  the  year  of  Jubilee  but  the 
Scripture  speaks  of  the  remission  of  debts  only 
in  connection  with  the  Sabbatical  year  (Deut. 
XV.  I,  2),  and  the  Jewish  writers  say  expressly 
that  the  remission  of  debts  was  a  point  of  dis- 
tinction between  the  Sabbatical  year  and  the 
Jubilee.  The  Jewish  writers  in  general  con- 
sider that  the  Jubilee  was  observed  till  the  de- 
struction of  the  first  temple.  The  Jubilee  is  to 
be  regarded  as  the  outer  circle  of  that  great 
Sabbatical  system  which  comprises  within  it 
the  Sabbatical  year,  the  Sabbatical  month,  and 
the  Sabbath  day.  But  the  Jubilee  is  more  im- 
mediately connected  with  the  body  politic ;  and 
it  was  only  as  a  member  of  the  state  that  each 
person  concerned  could  participate  in  its  pro- 
visions. It  was  not  distinguished  by  any  pre- 
scribed religious  observance  peculiar  to  itself, 
like  the  rites  of  the  Sabbath  day  and  of  the 
Sabbatical  month.  As  far  as  legislation  could 
go,  its  provisions  tended  to  restore  that 
equality  in  outward  circumstances  which  was 
instituted  in  the  first  settlement  of  the  land  by 
Joshua. 

Judae'a,  or  Jude'a,  a  territorial  division 
which  succeeded  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
ancient  landmarks  of  the  tribes  of  Israel  and 
Judah  in  their  respective  captivities.  The  word 
first  occurs  Dan.  v.  13  (A.  V.  "Jewry"),  and 
the  first  mention  of  the  "province  of  Judea"  is 
in  the  book  of  Ezra  (v.  8)  ;  it  is  alluded  to  in 
Neh.  xi.  3  (A.  V.  "Judah"),  and  was  the  result 
of  the  division  of  the  Persian  empire  mentioned 
by  Herodotus  (iii.  89-97),  under  Darius  (comp. 
Esth.  viii.  9;  Dan.  vi.  i).  In  the  Apocryphal 
Books  the  word  "province"  is  dropped,  and 
throughout  the  books  of  Esdras,  Tobit,  Judith, 
and  Maccabees,  the  expressions  are  the  "land 
of  Judaea,"  "Judaea"  (A.  V.  frequently 
"Jewry"),  and  throughout  the  N.  T.  In  a 
wide  and  more  improper  sense,  the  term  Judaea 
was  sometimes  extended  to  the  whole  country 
of  the  Canaanites,  its  ancient  inhabitants;  and 
even  in  the  Gospels  we  seem  to  read  of  the 
coasts  of  Judaea  "beyond  Jordan"  (Matt.  xix. 
I ;  Mark  x.  i).  Judaea  was,  in  strict  language, 
the  name  of  the  third  district,  west  of  the 
Jordan,  and  south  of  Samaria.  It  was  made  a 
portion  of  the  Roman  province  of  Syria  upon 
the  deposition  of  Archelaus,  the  ethnarch  of 
Judea,  in  A.  D.  6,  and  was  governed  by  a  pro- 
curator, who  was  subject  to  the  governor  of 
Syria. 

Ju'dah  (praised,  celebrated),  the  fourth  son 
of  Jacob  and  the  fourth  of  Leah,  the  last  before 
the  temporary  cessation  in  the  births  of  her 
children.     His  whole-brothers  were  Reuben, 


•  202 


JUDAH 


JUDAS 


Simeon,  and  Levi,  elder  than  himself — Issachar 
and  Zebulun,  younger  (see  Gen.  xxxv.  23).  Of 
Judah's  personal  character  more  traits  are  pre- 
served than  of  any  other  of  the  patriarchs,  with 
the  exception  of  Joseph.  In  the  matter  of  the 
sale  of  Joseph,  he  and  Reuben  stand  out  in 
favorable  contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  brothers. 
When  a  second  visit  to  Egypt  for  corn  had  be- 
come inevitable,  it  was  Judah  who,  as  the 
mouthpiece  of  the  rest,  headed  the  remon- 
strance' against  the  detention  of  Benjamin  by 
Jacob,  and  finally  undertook  to  be  responsible 
for  the  safety  of  the  lad  (xliii.  3-10).  And 
when,  through  Joseph's  artifice,  the  brothers 
were  brought  back  to  the  palace,  he  is  again 
the  leader  and  spokesman  of  the  band.  So  too 
it  is  Judah  who  is  sent  before  Jacob  to  smooth 
the  way  for  him  in  the  land  of  Goshen  (xlvi. 
28).  This  ascendency  over  his  brethren  is  re- 
flected in  the  last  words  addressed  to  him  by 
his  father.  His  sons  were  five.  Of  these,  three 
were  by  his  Canaanite  wife  Bath-shua.  They 
are  all  insignificant,  two  died  early ;  and  the 
third,  Shelah,  does  not  come  prominently  for- 
ward, either  in  his  person  or  his  family.  The 
other  two,  Pharez  and  Zerah,  were  illegitimate 
sons  by  the  widow  of  Er,  the  eldest  of  the 
former  family.  As  is  not  unfrequently  the 
case,  the  illegitimate  sons  surpassed  the 
legitimate,  and  from  Pharez,  the  elder,  were 
descended  the  royal  and  other  illustrious  fami- 
lies of  Judah.  The  three  sons  went  with  their 
father  into  Egypt  at  the  time  of  the  final  re- 
moval thither  (Gen.  xlvi.  12;  Ex.  i.  2).  When 
we  again  meet  with  the  families  of  Judah  they 
occupy  a  position  among  the  tribes  similar  to 
that  which  their  progenitor  had  taken  amongst 
the  patriarchs.  The  numbers  of  the  tribe  at 
the  census  at  Sinai  were  74,600  (Num.  i.  26, 
27),  considerably  in  advance  of  any  of  the 
others,  the  largest  of  which — Dan — numbered 
62,700.  On  the  borders  of  the  Promised  Land 
they  were  76,500  (xxvi.  22),  Dan  being  still  the 
nearest.  During  the  march  through  the  desert, 
Judah's  place  was  in  the  van  of  the  host,  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Tabernacle,  with  his  kins- 
men Issachar  and  Zebulun  (ii.  3-9,  x.  14).  The 
boundaries  and  contents  of  the  territory  al- 
lotted to  Judah  are  narrated  at  great  length, 
and  with  greater  minuteness  than  the  others, 
in  Josh.  XV.  20-63.  The  north  boundary,  for 
the  most  part  coincident  with  the  south 
boundary  of  Benjamin,  began  at  the  em- 
bouchure of  the  Jordan,  entered  the  hills  ap- 
parently at  or  about  the  present  road  from 
Jericho,  ran  westward  to  En-shemesh,  proba- 
bly the  present  Ain-Haud,  below  Bethany, 
thence  over  the  Mount  of  Olives  to  Enrogel, 
in  the  valley  beneath  Jerusalem ;  went  along 


the  ravine  of  Hinnom,  under  the  precipices. of 
the  city,  climbed  the  hill  in  a  N.'^W.  direction 
to  the  water  of  the  Nephtoah  (probably  Lifta), 
and  thence  by  Kirjath-Jearim  (probably 
Kuriet-el-Enab) ,  Bethshemesh  (Ain  Shems), 
Timnath,  and  Ekron  to  Jabiieel  on  the  sca- 
coast.  On  the  east  the  Dead  Sea,  and  on  the 
west  the  Mediterranean,  formed  the  bounda- 
ries. The  southern  line  is  hard  to  determine, 
since  it  is  denoted  by  places  many  of  which 
have  not  been  identified.  It  left  the  Dead  Sea 
at  its  extreme  south  end,  and  joined  the  Medi- 
terranean at  the  Wady  el-Arish.  This  terri- 
tory is  in  average  length  about  45  miles,  and 
in  average  breadth  about  50. 

Ju'dah,  Kingdom  of.  When  the  disruption 
of  Solomon's  kingdom  took  place  at  Shechem, 
only  the  tribe  of  Judah  followed  the  house  of 
David.  But  almost  immediately  afterwards, 
when  Rehoboam  conceived  the  design  of  es- 
tablishing his  authority  over  Israel  by  force  of 
arms,  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  also  is  recorded  as 
obeying  his  summons,  and  contributing  its 
warriors  to  make  up  his  army.  Two  Benjamite 
towns,  Bethel  and  Jericho,  were  included  in 
the  northern  kingdom.  A  part,  if  not  all,  of 
the  territory  of  Simeon  (i  Sam.  xxvii.  6;  i  K. 
xix.  3;  comp.  Josh.  xix.  i)  and  of  Dan  (2  Chr. 
xi.  10;  comp.  Josh.  xix.  41,  42)  was  recognized 
as  belonging  to  Judah ;  and  in  the  reigns  of 
Abijah  and  Asa  the  southern  kingdom  was  en- 
larged by  some  additions  taken  out  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Ephraim  (2  Chr.  xiii.  19,  xv.  8,  xvii. 
2).  The  kingdom  of  Judah  possessed  many  ad- 
vantages which  secured  for  it  a  lojiger  con- 
tinuance than  that  of  Israel.  A  frontier  less 
exposed  to  powerful  enemies,  a  soil  less  fertile, 
a  population  hardier  and  more  united,  a  fixed 
and  venerated  centre  of  administration  and  re- 
ligion, an  hereditary  aristocracy  in  the  sac- 
erdotal caste,  an  army  always  subordinate,  a 
succession  of  kings  which  no  revolution  inter- 
rupted: — to  these  and  other  secondary  causes 
is  to  be  attributed  the  fact  that  Judah  survived 
her  more  populous  and  more  powerful  sister 
kingdom  by  135  years,  and  lasted  from  B.  C. 
975  to  B.  C.  536. 

Ju'das,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  name 
Judah,  occurring  in  the  LXX,  and  N.  T.  i. 
The  Patriarch  Judah  (Matt.  i.  2,  3).  2.  A  man 
residing  at  Damascus,  in  "the  street  which  is 
called  Straight,"  in  whose  house  Saul  of 
Tarsus  lodged  after  his  miraculous  conversion 
(Acts  ix.  11). 

Ju'das,  surnamed  Bar'sabas,  a  leading  mem- 
ber of  the  Apostolic  church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts 
XV.  22),  endued  with  the  gift  of  prophecy  (ver. 
32),  chosen  with  Silas  to  accompany  Paul  and 
Barnabas    as    delegates    to    the    church  at 


203 


JUDAS  ISCARIOT 


JUDAS  ISCARIOT 


Antiocli,  to  make  known  the  decree  concerning 
the  terms  of  admission  of  the  Gentile  converts 
(ver.  27).  After  employing  their  prophetical 
gifts  for  the  confirmatipn  of  the  Syrian  Chris- 
tians in  the  faith,  Judas  went  back  to  Jeru- 
salem. 

Ju'das  Iscar'iot  (Judas  of  Kerioth).  He  is 
sometimes  called  "the  son  of  Simon"  (John  vi. 
71,  xiii.  2,  26),  but  more  commonly  called  (the 
three  Synoptic  Gospels  give  no  othfer  name) 
Iscariotes  (Matt.  x.  4;  Mark  iii.  ig;  Luke  vi. 
16,  &c.).  In  the  three  lists  of  the  Twelve  there 
is  added  in  each  case  the  fact  that  he  was  the 
betrayer..  The  name  Iscariot  has  received 
many  interpretations  more  or  less  conjectural. 
The  most  probable  are — (i)  From  Kerioth 
(Josh.  XV.  25),  in  the  tribe  of  Judah.  On  this 
hypothesis  his  position  among  the  Twelve,  the 
rest  of  whom  belonged  to  Galilee  (Acts  ii.  7), 
would  be  exceptional ;  and  this  has  led  to  (2) 
From  Kartha  in  Galilee  (Kartan,  A.  V.  Josh, 
xxi.  22).  (3)  From  scortea,  a  leathern  apron, 
the  name  being  applied  to  him  as  the  bearer  of 
the  bag,  and  =  Judas  witK  the  apron. — Of 
the  life  of  Judas,  before  the  appearance  of  his 
name  in  the  lists  of  the  Apostles,  we  know 
absolutely  nothing.  What  that  appearance  im- 
plies, however,  is;  that  he  had  previously  de- 
clared himself  a  disciple.  He  was  drawn,  as 
the  others  were,  by  the  preaching  of  the  Bap- 
tist, or  his  own  Messianic  hopes,  or  the 
"gracious  words"  of  the  new  Teacher,  to  leave 
his  former  life,  and  to  obey  the  call  of  the 
Prophet  of  Nazareth.  The  choice  was  not 
made,  we  must  remember,  without  a  prevision 
of  its  issue  (John.  vi.  64).  The  germs  of  the 
evil,  in  all  likelihood,  unfolded  themselves 
gradually.  The  rules  to  which  the  Twelve 
were  subject  in  their  first  journey  (Matt.  x.  9, 
10)  sheltered  him  from  the  temptation  that 
would  have  been  most  dangerous  to  him.  The 
new  form  of  life,  of  which  we  find  the  first 
traces  in  Luke  viii.  3,  brought  that  temptation 
with  it.  As  soon  as  the  Twelve  were  recog- 
nized as  a  body,  travelling  hither  and  thither 
with  their  Master,  receiving  money  and  other 
ofiferings,  and  redistributing  what  they  re- 
ceived to  the  poor,  it  became  necessary  that 
some  one  should  act  as  the  steward  and 
almoner  of  the  small  society,  and  this  fell  to 
Judas  (John  xii.  6,  xiii.  29).  The  Galilean  or 
Judaean  peasant  found  himself  intrusted  with 
larger  sums  of  money  than  before,  and  with 
this  there  'came  covetousness,  unfaithfulness, 
embezzlement.  It  was  impossible  after  this 
that  he  could  feel  at  ease  with  One  who  as- 
serted so  clearly  and  sharply  the  laws  of  faith- 
fulness, duty,  unselfishness.  The  narrative  of 
Matt,  xxvi.,  Mark  xiv.,  places  this  history  in 


close  connection  with  the  fact  of  the  betrayal, 
it  loaves  the  motives  of  the  betrayer  to  con- 
jecture. The  mere  love  of  money  may  have 
been  strong  enough  to  make  him  clutch  at  the 
bribe  ofifered  him.  Mingled  with  this  there 
may  have  been  some  feeling  of  vindictiveness, 
a  vague,  confused  desire  to  show  that  he  had 
power  to  stop  the  career  of  the  Teacher  who 
had  reproved  him.  There  may  have  been  the 
thought  that,  after  all,  the  betrayal  could  do 
no  harm,  that  his  Master  would  prove  his  in- 
nocence, or  by  some  supernatural  manifesta- 
tion efifect  his  escape.  Another  motive  has 
been  suggested  of  an  entirely  different  kind, 
altering  altogether  the  character  of  the  act. 
Not  the  love  of  money,  nor  revenge,  nor  fear, 
nor  disappointment,  but  policy,  a  subtle  plan 
to  force  on  the  hour  of  the  triumph  of  the  Mes- 
sianic kingdom,  the  belief  that  for  this  service 
he  would  receive  as  high  a  place  as  Peter,  or 
James,  or  John ;  this  it  was  that  made  him  the 
traitor.  Ingenious  as  this  hypothesis  is,  it  fails 
for  that  very  reason.  Of  the  other  motives 
that  have  been  assigned  we  need  not  care  to  fix 
on  any  one,  as  that  which  singly  led  him  on. 
During  the  days  that  intervened  between  the 
supper  at  Bethany  and  the  Paschal  or  quasi- 
Paschal  gathering,  he  appeared  to  have  con- 
cealed his  treachery.  At  the  last  Supper  he  is 
present,  looking  forward  to  the  consummation 
of  his  guilt  as  drawing  nearer  every  hour.  Then 
come  the  sorrowful  words  which  showed  him 
that  his  design  was  known.  "One  of  you  shall 
betray  me."  After  this  there  comes  on  him 
that  paroxysm  and  insanity  of  guilt  as  of  one 
whose  human  soul  was  possessed  by  the  Spirit 
of  Evil — "Satan  entered  into  him"  (John  xiii. 
27).  He  knows  that  garden  in  which  his 
Master  and  his  companions  had  so  often  rested 
after  the  weary  work  of  the  day.  He  comes, 
accompanied  by  a  band  of  officers  and  servants 
(John  xviii.  3),  with  the  kiss  which  was  proba- 
bly the  usual  salutation  of  the  disciples.  The 
words  of  Jesus,  calm  and  gentle  as  they  were, 
showed  that  this  was  what  embittered  the 
treachery,  and  made  the  suffering  it  inflicted 
more  acute  (Luke  xxii.  48).  What  followed 
in  the  confusion  of  that  night  the  Gospels  do 
not  record.  The  fever  of  the  crime  passed 
away.  There  came  back  on  him  the  recollec- 
tion of  the  sinless  righteousness  of  the  Master 
he  had  wronged  (Matt,  xxvii.  3).  He  repented, 
and  his  guilt  and  all  that  had  tempted  him  to 
it  became  hateful.  He  carried  back  the  thirty 
pieces  of  silver  to  the  chief  priests,  and  con- 
fessed his  sin,  hoping  perhaps  that  good  might 
yet  be  done  by  this  assertion  of  Christ's  in- 
nocence. Their  only  answer  was  to  throw  the 
responsibility  upon  him ;  and  casting  down  the 


204 


JUDAS  MACCABAEUS 

money  on  the  pavement  of  the  Temple,  he 
went  and  hanged  himself.  His  death  was 
made  more  horrible  to  all  the  inhabitants  of 
Jerusalem  by  the  circumstance  recorded  by  St. 
Luke  in  the  Acts;  but  most  awful  of  all  is  the 
sentence  which  was  more  than  once  pro- 
nounced upon  him  by  the  Lord,  and  with 
which  Peter  dismisses  his  name  from  the 
Apostles'  list,  "from  which  Judas  by  transgres- 
sion fell,  that  he  might  go  to  his  own  place." 
With  a  scrupulousness  which  is  the  most 
striking  example  of  religious  formalism  gloss- 
ing over  moral  deformity,  the  chief  priests  de- 
cided that  the  thirty  silver  pieces,  as  the  price 
of  blood,  must  not  be  put  back  into  the  treas- 
ury; so  they  purchased  with  them  the  potter's 
field,  without  the  city,  as  a  burial-place  for 
strangers.  It  seems  to  be  implied  in  the  narra- 
tive that  the  field  thus  purchased  was  also  the 
place  where  Judas  committed  suicide,  and  the 
double  memorial  of  the  scene  and  the  price  of 
blood  was  preserved  by  its  name,  Aceldama, 
the  field  of  blood  (Matt,  xxvii.  3-10;  Acts  i.  18, 
19).  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that 
"purchased"  in  the  latter  passage  is  an  in- 
stance of  k  common  figure  of  speech,  implying 
indirect  agency.  [Aceldama.] 
Ju'das  Maccabae'us.  [Maccabees.] 
Jude,  or  Ju'das,  Lebbeus,  and  Thadde'us 
(A.  V.  "Judas  the  brother  of  James"),  one  of 
the  Twelve  Apostles ;  a  member,  together  with 
his  namesake  "Iscariot,"  James  the  son  of 
Alphaeus,  and  Simon  Zelotes,  of  the  last  of  the 
three  sections  of  the  Apostolic  body.  The 
name  Judas  only,  without  any  distinguishing 
mark,  occurs  in  the  lists  given  by  St.  Luke  vi. 
16;  Acts  i.  13;  and  in  John  xiv.  22  (where  we 
find  "Judas  not  Iscariot"  among  the  Apostles), 
but  the  Apostle,  has  been  generally  identified 
with  "Lebl)eus  whose  surname  was  Thad- 
dcus"  (Matt.  X.  3;  Mark  iii.  18).  The  name  of 
Jude  occurs  only  once  in  the  Gospel  narrative 
(John  xiv.  22).  Nothing  is  certainly  known 
of  the  later  history  of  the  Apostle.  Tradition 
connects  him  with  the  foundation  of  the  church 
at  Edessa. 

Jude,  Epistle  of.  Its  author  was  probably 
Jude,  one  of  the  brethren  of  Jesus.  Although 
the  canonicity  of  this  Epistle  was  questioned 
in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Church,  there  never 
was  any  doubt  of  its  genuineness.  The  ques- 
tion was  never  whether  it  was  the  work  of  an 
impostor,  but  whether  its  author  was  of  sufifi- 
cient  weight  to  warrant  its  admission  into  the 
Canon.  This  question  was  gradually  decided 
in  its  favor.  There  are  no  data  from  which  to 
determine  its  date  or  place  of  writing.  Lard- 
ner  places  the  time  between  A.  D.  64  and  66, 
Davidson  before  A.  D.  70,  Credner  A.  D.  80, 


JUDGES,  BOOK  OF 

Calmet,  Estius,  Witsius,  and  Ncander,  after 
the  death  of  all  the  Apostles  but  John,  and 
perhaps  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  The  object 
of  the  Epistle  is  plainly  enough  announced, 
ver.  3:  the  reason  for  this  exhortation  is  given 
ver.  4.  The  larger  portion  of  this  Epistle  (ver. 
3-16)  is  almost  identical  in  language  and  sub- 
ject with  a  part  of  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter 
(2  Pet.  ii.  1-19). 

Judges.  The  Judges  were  temporary  and 
special  deliverers,  sent  by  God  to  deliver  the 
Israelites  from  their  oppressors,  not  supreme 
magistrates,  succeeding  to  the  authority  of 
Moses  and  Joshua.  Their  power  only  extended 
over  portions  of  the  country,  and  some  of  them 
were  contemporaneous.  Their  name  in  Hebrew 
is  Shophetim,  which  is  the  same  as  that  for 
ordinary  judges;  nor  is  it  applied  to  them  in  a 
diflferent  sense.  For,  though  their  first  work 
was  that  of  deliverers  and  leaders  in  war,  they 
then  administered  justice  to  the  people,  and 
their  authority  supplied  the  want  of  a  regular 
government.  But  the  only  recognized  central 
authority  was  still  the  oracle  at  Shiloh,  which 
sunk  into  a  system  of  priestly  weakness  and 
disorder  under  Eli  and  his  sons.  Even  while 
the  administration  of  Samuel  gave  something 
like  a  settled  government  to  the  South,  there 
was  scope  for  the  irregular  exploits  of  Samson 
on  the  borders  of  the  Philistines ;  and  Samuel 
at  last  established  his  authority  as  Judge  and 
prophet,  but  still  as  the  servant  of  Jehovah, 
only  to  see  it  so  abused  by  his  sons  as  to  ex- 
haust the  patience  of  the  people,  who  at  length 
demanded  a  King,  after  the  pattern  of  the  sur- 
rounding nations. 

Judges,  Book  of,  of  which  the  book  of  Ruth 
formed  originally  a  part,  contains  the  history 
from  Joshua  to  Samson.  As  the  history  of  the 
Judges  occupies  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
narrative,  and  is  at  the  same  time  the  history 
of  the  people,  the  title  of  the  whole  book  is 
derived  from  that  portion.  The  time  com- 
monly assigned  to  the  period  contained  in  this 
book  is  299  years.  The  dates  which  are  given 
amount  to  410  years  when  reckoned  consecu- 
tively ;  and  Acts  xiii.  20  would  show  that  this 
was  the  computation  commonly  adopted,  as 
the  450  years  seem  to  result  from  adding  40 
years  for  Eli  to  the  410  of  this  book.  But  a 
difficulty  is  created  by  xi.  26,  and  in  a  still 
greater  degree  by  i  K.  vi.  i,  where  the  whole 
period  from  the  Exodus  to  the  building  of  the 
Temple  is  stated  as  480  years.  On  the  whole, 
it  seems  safer  to  give  up  the  attempt  to  ascer- 
tain the  chronology  exactly.  The  successive 
narratives  give  us  the  history  of  only  parts  of' 
the  country,  and  some  of  the  occurrences  may 
have  been  contemporary  (x.  7). 


205 


JUDGMENT-HALL 


KID 


Judgment-hall.  The  word  Praetorium  is  so 
translated  five  times  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  N.  T. ; 
and  in  those  five  passages  it  denotes  two  dif- 
ferent places.  I.  In  John  xviii.  28,  33,  xxix.  9, 
it  is  the  residence  which  Pilate  occupied  when 
he  visited  Jerusalem.  The  site  of  Pilate's  prae- 
torium in  Jerusalem  has  given  rise  to  much 
dispute,  some  supposing  it  to  be  the  palace  of 
King  Herod,  others  the  tower  of  Antonia ;  but 
it  was  probably  the  latter,  which  was  then  and 
long  afterwards  the  citadel  of  Jerusalem.  2. 
In  Acts  xxiii.  55,  Herod's  judgment-hall  or 
praetorium  in  Caesarea  was  doubtless  a  part  of 
that  magnificent  range  of  buildings,  the  erec- 
tion of  which  by  King  Herod  is  described  in 
Josephus.  The  word  "palace,"  or  "Caesar's 
court,"  in  the  A.  V.  of  Phil.  i.  13,  is  a  transla- 
tion of  the  same  word  praetorium.  It  may 
here  have  denoted  the  quarter  of  that  detach- 
ment of  the  Praetorian  Guards  which  was  in 
immediate  attendance  upon  the  emperor,  and 
had  barracks  in  Mount  Palatine. 

Ju'dith.  I.  The  daughter  of  Beeri  the  Hit- 
tite,  and  wife  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxvi.  34).  2.  The 
heroine  of  the  apocryphal  book  which  bears  her 
name,  who  appears  as  an  ideal  type  of  piety 
(Jud.  viii.  6),  beauty  (xi.  21),  courage,  and 
chastity  (xvi.  22,  fif.). 

Ju'dith,  The  Book  of,  one  of  the  books  of  the 
Apocrypha,  like  that  of  Tobit,  belongs  to  the 
earliest  specimens  of  historical  fiction.  The 
narrative  of  the  reign  of  "Nebuchadnezzar  king 
of  Nineveh"  (i.  i),  of  the  campaign  of  Holo- 
fernes,  and  the  deliverance  of  Bethulia,  through 
the  stratagem  and  courage  of  the  Jewish 
heroine,  contains  too  many  and  too  serious 
difficulties,  both  historical  and  geographical,  to 
allow  of  the  supposition  that  it  is  either  lit- 
erally true,  or  even  carefully  moulded  on  truth. 
It  belongs  to  the  Maccabaean  period,  which 
it  reflects  not  only  in  its  general  spirit,  but 
even  in  its  smaller  traits.  The  text  exists  at 
present  in  two  distinct  recensions,  the  Greek 
and  the  Latin.  The  former  evidently  is  the 
truer  representative  of  the  original,  and  it 
seems  certain  that  the  Latin  was  derived,  in 
the  main,  from  the  Greek  by  a  series  of  suc- 
cessive alterations. 

Juniper  (i  K.  xix.  4,  5;  Ps.  cxx.  4;  Job  xxx. 
4).  The  word  which  is  rendered  in  A.  V. 
juniper  is  beyond  doubt  a  sort  of  broom, 
Genista  monosperma,  G.  raetam  of  Forskal, 
answering  to  the  Arabic  Rethem.  It  is  very 
abundant  in  the  desert  of  Sinai,  and  affords 
shade  and  protection,  both  in  heat  and  storm, 
to  travellers.  The  Rothem  is  a  leguminous 
plant,  and  bears  a  white  flower.  It  is  also  found 
in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Palestine. 

Ju'piter  (the  Greek  Zeus).    Antiochus  Epi- 


phanes  dedicated  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  to 
the  service  of  Zeus  Olympius  (2  Mace.  vi.  2), 
and  at  the  same  time  the  rival  temple  on 
Gerizim  was  devoted  to  Zeus  Xenius  (Jupiter 
hospitalis,  Vulg.).  The  Olympian  Zeus  was 
the  national  god  of  the  Hellenic  race,  as  well 
as  the  supreme  ruler  of  the  heathen  world,  and 
as  such  formed  the  true  opposite  to  Jehovah. 
The  application  of  the  second  epithet,  "the 
God  of  hospitality,"  is  more  obscure.  Jupiter 
or  Zeus  is  mentioned  in  one  passage  of  the  N. 
T.,  on  the  occasion  of  St.  Paul's  visit  to  Lystra 
(Acts  xiv.  12,  13),  where  the  expression 
"Jupiter,  which  was  before  their  city,"  means 
that  his  temple  was  outside  the  city. 


Ka'desh,  Ka'desh-bar'nea  (Kadesh  means 
holy:  it  is  the  same  word  as  the  Arabic  name 
for  Jerusalem,  El-Khuds).  This  place,  the 
scene  of  Miriam's  death,  was  the  farthest  point 
which  the  Israelites  reached  in  their  direct 
road  to  Canaan;  it  was  also  that  whence  the 
spies  were  sent,  and  where,  on  their  return,  the 
people  broke  out  into  murmuring,  upon  which 
their  strictly  penal  term  of  wandering  began 
(Num.  xiii.  3,  26,  xiv.  29-33,  xx.  i  ;  Deut.  ii.  14). 

Ked'ron,  properly  Kidron.  [Kidron.] 

Ke'rioth.  i.  A  name  which  occurs  among 
the  lists  of  the  towns  in  the  southern  district 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  25).  2.  A  city  of  Moab, 
named  by  Jeremiah  only  (Jer.  xlviii.  24). 

Kettle,  a  vessel  for  culinary  or  sacrificial 
purposes  (i  Sam.  ii.  14).  The  Hebrew  word  is 
also  rendered  "basket"  in  Jer.  xxiv.  2,  "caldron" 
in  2  Chr.  xxxv.  13,  and  "pot"  in  Job  xli.  20. 

Key.  The  key  of  a  native  Oriental  lock  is  a 
piece  of  wood,  from  7  inches  to  2  feet  in  length, 
fitted  with  wires  or  short  nails,  which,  being 
inserted  laterally  into  the  hollow  bolt  which 
serves  as  a  lock,  raises  other  pins  within  the 


Egyptian  Iron  Key. 


staple  SO  as  to  allow  the  bolt  to  be  drawn  back. 
But  it  is  not  difficult  to  open  a  lock  of  this  kind 
even  without  a  key,  viz.  with  the  finger  dipped 
in  paste  or  other  adhesive  substance.  The 
passage  Cant.  v.  4,  5,  is  thus  probably  ex- 
plained. 

Kid.  [Goat.] 

Kid,  Kidron,  or  Ked'ron),  The  Brook,  a  tor- 
rent or  valley — not  a  "brook,"  as  in  the  A.  V. — 


j206 


KING 


KING 


close  to  Jerusalem.  It  lay  between  the  city 
and  the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  was  crossed  by 
David  in  his  tlight  (2  Sam.  xv.  23,  comp.  30), 
and  by  our  Lord  on  His  way  to  Gethsemane 
(John  xviii.  i ;  comp.  'Mark  xiv.  26;  Luke  xxii. 
39).  It  is  now  commonly  known  as  the  "Val- 
ley of  Jehoshaphat."  The  distinguishing  pe- 
culiarity of  the  Kidron  valley  is  the  impurity 
which  appears  to  have  been  ascribed  to  it.  In 
the  time  of  Josiah  it  was  the  common  ceme- 
tery of  the  city  (2  K.  xxiii.  6,  comp.  Jer.  xxvi. 

23)- 

King.  [Bull] 

King,  the  name  of  the  Supreme  Ruler  of  the 
Hebrews  during  a  period  of  about  500  years 
previous  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  B.  C. 
586.  The  immediate  occasion  of  the  substitu- 
tion of  a  regal  form  of  government  for  that  of 
Judges,  seems  to  have  been  the  siege  of  Jabesh- 


Vlew  of  KedroD. 


Gilead  by  Xahash,  king  of  the  Ammonites  (l 
Sam.  xi.  I,  xii.  12),  and  the  refusal  to  allow  the 
inhabitants  of  that  city  to  capitulate,  except 
on  humiliating  and  cruel  conditions  (i  Sam.  xi. 
2,  4-6).  The  conviction  seems  to  have  forced 
itself  on  the  Israelites  that  they  could  not  resist 
their  formidable  neighbor  unless  they  placed 
themselves  under  the  sway  of  a  king,  like  sur- 
rounding nations.  Concurrently  with  this  con- 
viction, disgust  had  been  excited  by  the  cor- 
rupt administration  of  justice  under  the  sons 
of  Samuel,  and  a  radical  change  was  desired  by 
them  in  this  respect  also  (i  Sam.  viii.  3-5).  Ac- 
cordingly the  original  idea  of  a  Hebrevi^  l<ing 
was  twofold :  first,  that  he  should  lead  the 
people  to  battle  in  time  of  war;  and,  2dly,  that 
he  should  execute  judgment  and  justice  to 
them  in  war  and  in  peace  (i  Sam.  viii.  20).  In 
both  respects  the  desired  end  was  attained.  To 


form  a  correct  idea  of  a  Hebrew  king,  vvie  'must 
abstract  ourselves  from  the  notions  of  modern 
Europe,  and  realize  the  position  of  Oriental 
sovereigns.  Besides  being  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army,  supreme  judge,  and  absolute  mas- 
ter, as  it  were,  of  the  lives  of  his  subjects,  the 
king  exercised  the  power  of  imposing  taxes  on 
them,  and  of  exacting  from  them  personal 
service  and  labor.  And  the  degree  to  which 
the  exaction  of  personal  labor  might  be  carried 
on  a  special  occasion  is  illustrated  by  King 
Solomon's  requirements  for  building  the  tem- 
ple. In  addition  t-o  these  earthly  powers,  the 
king  of  Israel  had  a  more  awful  claim  to  re- 
spect and  obedience.  He  was  the  vicegerent  of 
Jehovah  (i  Sam.  x.  i,  xvi.  13),  and  as  it  were 
His  son,  if  just  and  holy  (2  Sam.  vii.  14;  Ps. 
Ixxxix.  26,  27,  ii.  6,  7).  He  had  been  set  apart 
as  a  consecrated  ruler.  Under  his  head  had 
been  poured  the  holy  anointing  oil,  which  had 
hitherto  been  reserved  exclusively  for  the 
priests  of  Jehovah.  He  had  become,  in  fact, 
emphatically  "the  Lord's  anointed."  A  ruler 
in  whom  so  much  authority,  human  and  divine, 
was  embodi.ed,  was  naturally  distinguished  by 
outward  honors  and  luxuries.  -He  had  a  court 
of  Oriental  magnificence.  When  the  power  of 
the  kingdom  was  at  its  height,  he  sat  on  a 
throne  of  ivory,  covered  with  pure  gold,  at  the 
feet  of  which  were  two  figures  of  lions.  The 
king  was  dressed  in  royal  robes  (i  K.  xxii.  10; 
2  Chr.  xviii.  9)  ;  his  insignia  were,  a  crown  or 
diadem  of  pure  gold,  or  perhaps  radiant  with 
precious  gems  (2  Sam.  i.  10,  xii.  30 ;  2  K.  xi. 
12 ;  Ps.  xxi.  3),  and  a  royal  sceptre.  Those  who 
approached  him  did  him  obeisance,  bowing 
down  and  touching  the  gi'ound  with  their  fore- 
heads (i  Sam.  xxiv.  8;  2  Sam.  xix.  24);  and 
this  was  done  even  by  a  king's  wife,  the 
mother  of  Solomon  (i  K.  i.  16).  Their  officers 
and  subjects  called  themselves  his  servants  or 
slaves,  though  they  do  not  seem  habitually  to 
have  given  way  to  such  extravagant  saluta- 
tions as  in  the  Chaldaean  and  Persian  courts 
(i  Sam.  xvii.  32,  34,  36,  xx.  8;  2  Sam,  vi.  20; 
Dan.  ii.  4).  As  in  the  East  to  this  day,  a  kiss 
was  a  sign  of  respect  and  homage  (i  Sam.  x, 
I,  perhaps  Ps.  ii.  12).  He  lived  in  a  splendid 
palace,  with  porches  and  columns  (i  K.  vii. 
2-7).  All  his  drinking  vessels  were  of  gold  (i 
K.  x.  21).  He  had  a  large  harem,  which  in  the 
time  of  Solomon  must  have  been  the  source  of 
enormous  expense.  As  is  invariably  the  case 
in  the  great  eastern  monarchies  at  present,  his 
harem  was  guarded  by  eunuchs,  translated 
"officers"  in  the  A.  V.  for  the  most  part  (i 
Sam.  viii.  15;  2  K.  xxiv.  12,  15;  i  K.  xxii.  9;  2 
K.  viii.  6,  ix.  32,  33,  xx.  18,  xxiii.  11;  Jer. 
xxxviii.  7).    The  law   of  succession  to  the 


KINGS,  BOOKS  OF 

throne  is  somewhat  obscure,  but  it  seems  most 
probable  that  the  king  during  his  lifetime 
named  his  successor.  This  was  certainly  T;he 
case  with  David  (i  K.  i.  30,  ii.  22),  and  with 
Rehoboam  (2  Chr.  xi.  21,  22).  At  the  same 
time,  if  no  partiality  for  a  favorite  wife  or  son 
intervened,  there  would  always  be  a  natural 
bias  of  affection  in  favor  of  the  eldest  son. 

Kings,  First  and  Second  Books  of,  originally 
only  one  book  in  the  Hebrew  Canon,  form  in 
the  LXX.  and  the  Vulgate  the  third  and  fourth 
Book  of  Kings  (the  Books  of  Samuel  being 
the  lirst  and  second).  It  must  also  be  remem- 
bered that  the  division  between  the  Books  of 
-Kings  and  Samuel  is  equally  artificial,  and  that 
in  point  of  fact  the  historical  books  commenc- 
ing with  Judges  and  ending  with  2  Kings  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  one  work,  giving  a  con- 
tinuous history  of  Israel  from  the  time  of 
Joshua  to  the  death  of  Jehoiachin.  The  Books 
of  Kings  contain  the  history  from  David's 
death  and  Solomon's  accession  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  and  the  desola- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  with  a  supplemental  notice 
of  an  event  that  occurred  after  an  interval  of 
twenty-six  years,  viz.  the  liberation  of  Jehoia- 
chin from  his  prison  at  Babylon,  and  a  still 
further  extension  to  Jehoiachin's  death,  the 
time  of  which  is  not  kilown,  but  which  was 
probably  not  lon^  after  his  liberation.  The 
history  therefore  comprehends  the  whole  time 
of  the  Israelitish  monarchy,  exclusive  of  the 
reigns  of  Saul  and  David.  As  regards  the 
affairs  of  foreign  nations,  and  the  relation  of 
Israel  to  them,  the  historical  notices  in  these 
books,  though  in  the  earlier  times  scanty,  are 
most  valuable,  and  in  striking  accordance  with 
the  latest  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  con- 
temporary profane  histor}^  The  names  of 
Omri,  Jehu,  Menahem,  Hoshea,  Hezekiah,  &c., 
are  believed  to  have  been  deciphered  in  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions,  which  also  contain 
pretty  full  accounts  of  the  campaigns  of 
Tiglath-Pileser,  Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and 
Esarhaddon :  Shalmaneser's  name  has  not  yet 
been  discovered,  though  two  inscriptions  in  the 
British  Museum  are  thought  to  refer  to  his 
reign.  Another  most  important  aid  to  a  right 
understanding  of  the  history  in  these  books, 
and  to  the  filling  up  of  its  outline,  is  to  be 
found  in  the  prophets,  and  especially  in  Isaiah 
and  Jeremiah. 

As  regards  the  authorship  of  the  books,  but 
little  difficulty  presents  itself.  The  Jewish  tra- 
dition, which  ascribes  them  to  Jeremiah,  is 
borne  out  by  the  strongest  internal  evidence, 
in  addition  to  that  of  the  language.  The  last 
chapter,  especially  as  compared  with  the  last 
chapter  of  the  Chronicles,  bears  distinct  traces 


KISHON 

of  having  been  written  by  one  who  did  not  go 
into  captivity,  but  remained  in  Judaea  after  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple.  This  suits  Jere- 
miah. The  events  singled  out  for  mention  in 
the  concise  narrative  are  precisely  those  of 
which  he  had  personal  knowledge,  and  in 
which  he  took  special  interest.  The  writer  in 
Kings  has  nothing  more  to  tell  us  concerning 
the  Jews  of  Chaldees  in  the  land  of  Judah, 
which  exactly  agrees  with  the  hypothesis  that 
he  is  Jeremiah,  who  we  know  was  carried 
down  into  Egypt  with  the  fugitives.  In  fact, 
the  date  of  the  writing  and  the  position  of  the 
writer  seem  as  clearly  marked  by  the  termina- 
tion of  the  narrative  at  xxv.  26,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

Sources  of  information ;  it  may  truly  be  said 
that  we  have  the  narrative  of  contemporary 
writers  throughout.  There  was  a  regular  series 
of  state-annals  both  for  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
and  for  that  of  Israel,  which  embraced  the 
whole  time  comprehended  in  the  Books  of 
Kings,  or  at  least  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Jehoiakim  (2  K.  xxiv.  5).  These  annals- are 
constantly  cited  by  name  as  "the  Book  of  the 
Acts  of  Solomon"  (i  K.  xi.  41)  ;  and  after  Solo- 
mon, "the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings 
of  Judah,  or,  Israel"  (e.  g.  i  K.  xiv.  29,  xv.  7, 
xvi.  5,  14,  20;  2  K.  x.  34,  xxiv.  5,  &c.)  ;  and  it  is 
manifest  that  the  author  of  Kings  had  them 
both  before  him,  while  he  drew  up  his  history, 
in  which  the  reigns  of  the  two  kingdoms  are 
harmonized,  and  these  annals  constantly  ap- 
pealed to.  But,  in  addition  to  these  national 
annals,  there  were  also  extant,  at  the  time  that 
the  Books  of  Kings  were  compiled,  separate 
works  of  the  several  prophets  who  had  lived  in 
Judah  and  Israel. 

Their  canonical  authority  having  never  been 
disputed,  it  is  needless  to  bring  forward  the 
testimonies  to  their  authenticity  which  may  be 
found  in  Josephus,  Eusebius,  Jerome,  Augus- 
tine, &c.  They  are  reckoned  among  the  Proph- 
ets, in  the  threefold  division  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures ;  a  position  in  accordance  with  the  sup- 
position that  they  were  compiled  by  Jeremiah 
and  contain  the  narratives  of  the  different 
prophets  in  succession.  They  are  frequently 
cited  by  our  Lord  and  by  the  Apostles. 

Ki'shon,  The  River,  a  torrent  or  winter 
stream  of  central  Palestine,  the  scene  of  two  of 
the  grandest  achievements  of  Israelite  history 
— the  defeat  of  Sisera  (Judg.  iv.),  and  the  de- 
struction of  the  prophets  of  Baal  by  Elijah  (i 
K.  xviii.  40).  The  Nahr  Mukutta,  the  modern 
representative  of  the  Kishon,  is  the  drain  by 
which  the  waters  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and 
of  the  mountains  which  enclose  that  plain,  find 
their  way  to  the  Mediterranean.    Like  most  of 


208 


KISS 


LAMECH 


the  so-called  "rivers"  of  Palestine,  the  peren- 
nial stream  forms  but  a  small  part  of  the 
Kishon.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
its  upper  portion  is  dry,  and  the  stream  con- 
fined to  a  few  miles  next  the  sea.  The  part 
of  the  Kishon  at  which  the  prophets  of  Baal 
were  slaughtered  by  Elijah  was  doubtless  close 
below  the  spot  on  Carmel  where  the  sacrifice 
had  taken  place. 

Kiss.  Kissing  the  lips  by  way  of  affection- 
ate salutation  was  customary  amongst  near 
relatives  of  both  sexes,  both  in  Patriarchal  and 
in  later  times  (Gen.  xxix.  ii ;  Cant.  viii.  i).  Be- 
tween individuals  of  the  same  sex,  and  in  a 
limited  degree  between  those  of  different  sexes, 
the  kiss  on  the  cheek  as  a  mark  of  respect  or  an 
act  of  salutation  has  at  all  times  been  cus- 
tomary in  the  East,  and  can  hardly  be  said  to 
be  extinct  even  in  Europe.  In  the  Christian 
Church  the  kiss  of  charity  was  practised  not 
only  as  a  friendly  salutation,  but  as  an  act 
symbolical  of  love  and  Christian  brotherhood 
(Rom.  xvi.  i6;  l  Cor.  xvi.  20;  2  Cor.  xiii.  12; 
I  Thess.  V.  26;  I  Pet.  v.  14).  It  was  embodied 
in  the  earlier  Christian  offices,  and  has  been 
continued  in  some  of  those  now  in  use.  Among 
the  Arabs  the  women  and  children  kiss  the 
beards  of  their  husbands  or  fathers.  The  su- 
perior returns  the  salute  by  a  kiss  on  the  fore- 
head. In  Egypt  an  inferior  kisses  the  hand  of 
a  superior,  generally  on  the  back,  but  some- 
times, as  a  special  favor,  on  the  palm  also.  To 
testify  abject  submission,  and  in  asking  favors, 
the  feet  are  often  kissed  instead  of  the  hand. 
The  written  decrees  of  a  sovereign  are  kissed 
in  token  of  respect ;  even  the  ground  is  some- 
times kissed  by  Orientals  in  the  fulness  of 
their  submission  (Gen.  xli.  40;  i  Sam.  xxiv.  8; 
Ps.  Ixxii.  9;  &c.).  Kissing  is  spoken  of  in 
Scripture  as  a  mark  of  respect  or  adoration  to 
idols  (i  K.  xix.  18;  Hos.  xiii.  2). 

Kite  (Heb.  ayyah).  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
rendered  occurs  in  three  passages.  Lev.  xi.  14, 
Deut.  xiv.  13,  and  Job  xxviii.  7:  in  the  two 
former  it  is  translated  "kite"  in  the  A.  V.,  in 
the  latter  "vulture."  It  is  enumerated  among 
the  twenty  names  of  birds  mentioned  in  Deut. 
xiv.  (belonging  for  the  most  part  to  the  order 
Raptores),  which  were  considered  unclean  by 
the  Mosaic  Law,  and  forbidden  to  be  used  as 
food  by  the  Israelites.  The  allusion  in  Job 
alone  affords  a  clew  to  its  identification.  The 
deep  mines  in  the  recesses  of  the  mountains 
from  which  the  labor  of  man  extracts  the  treas- 
ures of  the  earth  arc  there  described  as  "a  track 
which  the  bird  of  prey  hath  not  known,  nor 
hath  the  eye  of  the  ayyah  looked  upon  it."  The 
ayyah  may  possible  be  the  "kite,"  but  there  is 
no  certainty  on  the  subject. 


Kneading-troughs.  [Bread.] 

Knife,  i.  The  knives  of  the  Egyptians,  and 
of  other  nations  in  early  times,  were  prdbably 
only  of  hard  stone,  and  the  use  of  the  flint  or 
stone  knife  was  sometimes  retained  for  sacred 
purposes  after  the  introduction  of  iron  and 
steel.  Herodotus  (ii.  86)  mentions  knives  both 
of  iron  and  of  stone  in  different  stages  of  the 
same  process  of  embalming.  The  same  may 
perhaps  be  said  to  some  extent  of  the  Hebrews, 
2.  In  their  meals  the  Jews,  like  other  Orientals, 
made  little  use  of  knives,  but  they  were  re- 
quired both  for  slaughtering  animals  either  for 
food  or  sacrifice,  as  well  as  cutting  up  the  car- 
cass (Lev.  vii.  33,  34,  viii.  15,  20,  25,  ix.  13; 
Num.  xviii.  18;  i  Sam.  ix.  24,  &c.).  3.  Smaller 
knives  were  in  use  for  paring  fruit  (Joseph.), 
and  for  sharpening  pens  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23).  4. 
The  razor  was  often  used  for  Nazaritic  pur- 
poses, for  which  a  special  chamber  was  re- 
served in  the  Temple  (Num.  vi.  5,  9,  19;  Ez.  v. 
I  ;  &c.).  5.  The  pruning-hooks  of  Is.  xviii.  5 
were  probably  curved  knives.  6.  The  lancets 
of  the  priests  of  Baal  were  doubtless  pointed 
knives  (i.  K.  xviii.  28). 

Kc'rah.  i.  Third  son  of  Esau  by  Aholibamah 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  5,  14,  18;  I  Chr.  i.  35).  He  was 
born  in  Canaan  before  Esau  migrated  to  Mount 
Seir  (xxxvi.  5-9),  and  was  one  of  the  "dukes" 
of  Edom.  2.  Another  Edomitish  duke  of  this 
name,  sprung  from  Eliphaz,  Esau's  son  by 
Adah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  16).  3.  One  of  the  "sons  of 
Hebron,"  in  i  Chr.  ii.  43.  4.  Son  of  Izhar,  the 
son  Kohath,  the  son  of  Levi.  He  was  leader 
of  the  famous  rebellion  against  his  cousins 
Moses  and  Aaron  in  the  wilderness,  for  which 
he  paid  the  penalty  of  perishing  with  his  fol- 
lowers by  an  earthquake  and  flames  of  fire 
(Num.  xvi.,  xxvi.  9-11). 


Lacedomo'nians,  the  inhabitants  of  Sparta  or 
Lacedaemon,  with  whom  the  Jews  claimed 
kindred  (i  Mace.  xii.  2,  5,  6,  20,  21;  xiv.  20, 
23  ;  XV.  23  ;  2  Mace.  v.  9). 

Lakes.  [Palestine.] 

Lambs  formed  an  important  part  of  almost 
every  sacrifice  (Ex.  xxix.  38-41 ;  Num.  xxviii. 
9,  II,  xxix.  2,  13-40,  &c.).  On  the  Paschal 
Lamb,  see  Passover. 

La'mech,  properly  Lemech.  I.  The  'fifth 
lineal  descendant  from  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  18-24). 
He  is  the  only  one  except  Enoch,  of  the  pos- 
terity of  Cain,  whose  history  is  related  with 
some  detail.  His  two  wives,  Adah  and  Zillah, 
and  his  daughter  Naamah,  are,  with  Eve,  the 
only  antediluvian  women  whose  names  are 
mentioned  by  Moses.    His  three  sons,  Jabal, 


209 


LAMENTATIONS  OF  JEREMIAH 


LANGUAGE 


Jubal,  and  Tubal-Cain,  are  celebrated  in  Scrip- 
ture as  authors  of  useful  inventions.  2.  The 
father  of  Noah  (Gen.  v.  29). 

Lamentations  of  Jeremiah.  The  Hebrew 
title  of  this  book,  Ecah,  is  taken,  like  those  of 
the  five  Books  of  Moses,  from  the  Hebrew 
word  with  which  it  opens.  The  poems  included 
in  this  collection  appear  in  the  Hebrew  canon 
with  no  name  attached  to  them,  and  there  is 
no  direct  external  evidence  that  they  were 
written  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah  earlier  than 
the  date  given  in  the  prefatory  verse  which  ap- 
pears in  the  Septuagint.  The  poems  belong 
unmistakably  to  the  last  days  of  the  kingdom, 
or  the  commencement  of  the  exile.  They  are 
written  by  one  who  speaks,  with  the  vividness 
and  intensity  of  an  eye-witness,  of  the  misery 
which  he  bewails.  The  book  consists  of  fiive 
chapters,  each  of  which,  however,  is  a  separate 
poem,  complete  in  itself,  and  having  a  distinct 
subject,  but  brought  at  the  same  time  "under  a 
plan  which  includes  them  all.  A  complicated 
alphabetic  structure  pervades  nearly  the  whole 
book,  (i.)  Ch.  i.,  ii.,  and  iv.  contain  22  verses 
each,  arranged  in  alphabetic  order,  each  verse 
falling  into  three  nearly  balanced  clauses ;  ii. 
19  forms -an  exception,  as  having  a  fourth 
clause.  (2.)  Ch.  iii.  contains  three  short  verses 
under  each  letter  of  the  alphabet,  the  initial 
letter  being  three  times  repeated.  (3.)  Ch.  v. 
contains  the  same  number  of  verses  as  ch.  i., 
ii.,  iv.,  but  without  the  alphabetic  order. 
Jeremiah  was  not  merely  a  patriot-poet,  weep- 
ing over  the  ruin  of  his  country.  He  was  a 
prophet  who  had  seen  all  this  coming,  and  had 
foretold  it  as  inevitable.  He  had  urged  submis- 
sion to  the  Chaldaeans  as  the  only  mode  of 
diminishing  the  terrors  of  that  "day  of  the 
Lord."  All  feeling  of  exultation  in  which,  as 
mere  prophet  of  evil,  he  might  have  indulged 
at  the  fulfilment  of  his  forebodings,  was  swal- 
lowed up  in  deep,  ov.erwhelming  sorrow.  There 
are  perhaps  few  portions  of  the  O.  T.  which 
appear  to  have  done  the  work  they  were  meant 
to  do  more  efifectually  than  this.  The  book 
has  supplied  thousands  with  the  fullest  utter- 
ance for  their  sorrows  in  the  critical  periods  of 
national  or  individual  sufifering.  W e  may  well 
believe  that  it  soothed  the  weary  years  of  the 
Babylonian  exile.  On  the  ninth  day  of  the 
month  of  Ab  (July-August),  the  Lamentations 
,  of  Jeremiah  were  read,  year  by  year,  with  fast- 
ing and  weeping,  to  commemorate  the  misery 
out  of  which  the  people  had  been  delivered.  It 
enters  largely  into  the  order  of  the  Latin 
Church  for  the  services  of  Passion-week.  The 
LXX.  group  the  writings  connected  with  the 
name  of  Jeremiah  together,  but  the  Book  of 
Baruch  comes  between  the  prophecy  and  the 

2 


Lamentation.  On  the  hypothesis  of  some 
writers  that  Jer.  Hi.  was  originally  the  introduc- 
tion to  the  poem,  it  would  follow  that  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  Vulg.  and  the  A.  V.  corre- 
sponds more  closely  than  any  other  to  that 
which  we  must  look  on  as  the  original  one. 

Lamp.  I.  That  part  of  the  golden  candle- 
stick belonging  to  the  Tabernacle  which  bore 


Assyrian  Terra  Cotta  and 
Glass  Lamps. 


Chaldean  Lamps. 


the  light;  also  of  each  of  the  ten  candlesticks 
placed  by  Solomon  in  the  Temple  before  the 
Holy  of  Holies  (Ex.  xxv.  37;  i  K.  vii.  49;  2 
Chr.  iv.  20,  xiii.  11  ;  Zech.  iv.  2).  The  lamps 
were  lighted  every  evening,  and  cleansed  every 
morning  (Ex.  xxx.  7,  8).  2.  A  torch  or  flam- 
beau, such  as  was  carried  by  the  soldiers  of 
Gideon  (Judg.  vii.  16,  20;  comp.  xv.  4).  The 
use  of  lamps  fed  with  oil  in  marriage  proces- 
sions is  alluded  to  in  the  parable  of  the  ten 
virgins  (Matt.  xxv.  i).  Modern  Egyptian  lamps 
consist  of  small  glass  vessels  with  a  tube  at 
the  bottom  containing  a  cotton-wick  twisted 
round  a  piece  of  straw.  For  night-travelling,  a 
lantern  composed  of  waxed  cloth  strained  over 
a  sort  of  cylinder  of  wire-rings,  and  a  top  and 
bottom  of  perforated  copper.    This  would,  in 


Lamp  with  Christian  Inscription. 


form  at  least,  answer  to  the  lamps  within 
pitchers  of  Gideon. 

Lancet.  This  word  is  found  in  1  K.  xviii. 
28  only.  The  Hebrew  term  is  Romach,  which 
is  elsewhere  rendered,  and  appears  to  mean,  a 
javelin,  or  light  spear.  In  the  original  edition 
of  the  A.  V.  (i^ii)  the  words  is  "lancers." 

Language.    [Tongues,  Confusion  of.] 

10 


LAODICEA 


LAYER 


Laodice'a,  a  town  in  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia,  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Maeander,  on 
a  small  river  called  the  Lycus,  with  Colossae 
and  Hierapolis  a  few  miles  distant  to  the  west. 
From  the  third  chapter  and  seventeenth  verse 
of  Revelation  we  should  gather  it  was  a  place 


Laodicea. 

of  great  wealth.  Christianity  was  introduced 
into  Laodicea,  not,  however,  as  it  would  seem, 
through  the  direct  agency  of  St.  Paul.  But 
the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  at  Ephesus  (Acts 
xviii.  19-xix.  41)  must  inevitably  have  resulted 
in  the  formation  of  churches  in  the  neighbor- 
ing cities,  especially  where  Jews  were  settled ; 
and  there  were  Jews  in  Laodicea.  One  Bib- 
lical subject  of  interest  is  connected  with 
Laodicea.  From  Col.  iv.  16  it  appears  that  St. 
Paul  wrote  a  letter  to  this  place  when  he 
wrote  the  letter  to  Colossae. 


Lapwing  or  IIoopoo. 


Lapwing  (Heb.  duciphath)  occurs  only  in 
Lev.  xi.  19,  and  in  the  parallel  passage  of  Deut. 
xiv.  18,  amongst  the  list  of  those  birds  which 
were  forbidden  by  the  law  of  Moses  to  be 
eaten  by  tJie  Israelites.  Commentators  gen- 
erally agree  that  the  Hoopoe  is  the  bird  in- 


tended. The  Hoopoe  is  not  now  eaten  except 
occasionally  in  those  countries  where  it  is 
abundantly  found — Kgypt,  France,  Spain,  &c., 
&c.  The  hoopoe  is  an  occasional  visitor  to 
England,  arriving  for  the  most  part  in  the 
autumn.  Its  crest  is  very  elegant ;  the  long 
feathers  forming  it  are  each  of  them  tipped 
with  black. 

Latchet,  the  thong  or  fastening  by  which 
the  sandal  was  attached  to  the  foot.  It  occurs 
in  the  proverbial  expression  in  Gen.  xiv.  23, 
and  is  there  used  to  denote  something  trivial 
or  worthless.  Another  semi-proverbial  ex- 
pression in  Luke  iii.  16  points  to  the  fact  that 
the  office  of  bearing  and  unfastening  the 
shoes  of  great  personages  fell  to  the  meanest 
slaves. 

Latin,,  the  language  spoken  by  the  Romans, 
is  mentioned  only  in  John  xix.  20,  and  Luke 
xxiii.  38. 

Lattice.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  three 
Hebrew  words,    i.  Eshnab,  which  occurs  but 


A  Brazen  Laver  on  Wheels. 

twice,  Judg.  V.  28,  and  Prov.  vii.  6,  and  in  the 
latter  passage  is  translated  "casement"  in  the 
A.  V.  In  both  instances  it  stands  in  parallel- 
ism with  "window."  2.  Kharaccim  (Cant.  ii. 
9)  is  apparently  synonymous  with  the  preced- 
ing, though  a  word  of  later  date.  3.  Sebacah, 
is  simply  "a  network"  placed  before  a  window 
or  balcony.  Perhaps  the  network  through 
which  Ahaziah  fell  and  received  his  mortal  in- 
jury was  on  the  parapet  of  his  palace  (2  K. 
I.  2). 

Laver.  i.  In  the  Tabernacle,  a  vessel  of 
brass  containing  water  for  the  priests  to  wash 
their  hands  and  feet  before  offering  sacrifice. 
It  stood  in  the  court  between  the  altar  and  the 
door  of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxx.  19,  21.)  It 
rested  on  a  basis,  i.  e.  a  foot,  though  by  some 
explained  to  be  a  cover  of  copper  or  brass, 
which,  as  well  as  tTie  laver  itself,  was  made 
from  the  mirrors  of  the  women  who  assembled 
at   the   door   of   the   Tabernacle-court  (Ex. 


211 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


xxxviii.  8).  The  form  of  the  laver  is  not  speci- 
fied, but  may  be  assumed  to  have  been  circular. 
Like  the  other  vessels  belonging  to  the  Taber- 
nacle, it  was,  together  with  its  "foot,"  conse- 
crated with  oil  (Lev.  viii.  lo,  ii).  2.  In  Solo- 
mon's Temple,,  besides  the  great  molten  sea, 
there  were  ten  lavers  of  brass,  raised  on  bases 
(i  K.  vii.  27,  39),  five  on  the  N.  and  Sj  sides 
respectively  of  the  court  of  the  priests.  Each 
laver  contained  40  of  the  measures  called 
"bath."  They  were  used  for  washing  the  ani- 
mals to  be  ofYered  in  burnt-offerings  (2  Chr.  iv. 
6.)  The  dimensions  of  the  bases  wit-h  the  la- 
vers, as  given  in  the  Hebrew  text,  are  4  cubits 
in  length  and  breadth,  and  3  in  height.  There 
were  to  each  4  wheels  of  13/2  cubit  in  diameter, 
with  spokes,  &c.,  all  cast  in  one  piece. 

Law  of  Moses.  It  will  be  the  object  of  this 
article  to  give  a  brief  analysis  of  its  substance, 
to  point  out  its  main  principles,  and  to  explain 
the  position  which  it  occupies  in  the  progress 
of  Divine  Revelation.  In  order  to  do  this  the 
more  clearly,  it  seems  best  to  speak  of  the 
Law,  1st,  in  relation  to  the  past;  2dly,  in  its 
own  intrinsic  character ;  and  3dly,  in  its  re- 
lation to  the  future,  (a.)  In  reference  to  the 
past,  it  is  all-important,  for  the  proper  under- 
standing of  the  Law,  to  remember  its  entire 
dependence  on  the  Abrahamic  Covenant,  and 
its  adaptation  thereto  (see  Gal.  iii.  17-24). 
That  covenant  had  a  twofold  character.  It 
contained  the  "spiritual  promise"  of  the  Mes- 
siah, which  was  given  to  the  Jews  as  repre- 
sentatives of  the  whole  human  race.  But  it 
contained  also  the  temporal  promises  sub- 
sidiary to  the  former.  These  promises  were 
special,  given  distinctly  to  the  Jews  as  a  na- 
tion. It  follows  that  there  should  be  in  the 
Law  a  corresponding  duality  of  nature,  (b.) 
The  nature  of  this  relation  of  the  Law  to  the 
promise  is  clearly  pointed  out.  The  belief  in 
God  as  the  Redeemer  of  man,  and  the  hope  of 
His  manifestation  as  such  in  the  person  of  the 
Messiah,  involved  the  belief  that  the  Spiritual 
Power  must  be  superior  to  all  carnal  obstruc- 
tions, and  that  there  was  in  man  a  spiritual 
element  which  could  rule  his  life  by  com- 
munion with  a  Spirit  from  above.  But  it  in- 
volved also  the  idea  of  an  antagonistic  Power 
of  Evil,  from  which  man  was  to  be  redeemed, 
existing  in  each  individual,  and  existing  also 
in  the  world  at  large,  (c.)  Nor  is  it  less  es- 
sential to  remark  the  period  of  the  history  at 
which  it  was  given.  It  marked  and  deter- 
mined the  transition  of  Israel  from  the  condi- 
tion of  a  tribe  to  that  of  a  nation,  and  its 
definite  assumption  of  a  distinct  position  and 
office  in  the  history  of  the  world,  (d.)  Yet, 
though  new  in  its  general  conception,  it  was 

2 


probably  not  wholly  new  in  its  materials. 
There  must  necessarily  have  been,  before  the 
law,  commandments  and  revelations  of  a  frag- 
mentary character,  under  which  Israel  had 
hitherto  grown  up.  So  far  therefore  as  they 
were  consistent  with  the  objects- of  the  Jewish 
law,  the  customs  of  Palestine  and  the  laws  of 
Egypt  would  doubtless  be  traceable  in  the 
Mosaic  system,  (e.)  In  close  connection  with, 
and  almost  in  consequence  of,  this  reference 
to  antiquity,  we  find  an  accommodation  of  the 
Law  to  the  temper  and  circumstances  of  the 
Israelites,  to  which  our  Lord  refers  in  the  case 
of  divorce  (Matt.  xix.  7,  8)  as  necessarily  in- 
terfering with  its  absolute  perfection.  In 
many  cases  it  rather  should  be  said  to  guide 
and  modify  existing  usages  than  actually  to 
sanction  them ;  and  the  ignorance  of  their  ex- 
istence may  lead  to  a  conception  of  its  ordi- 
nances not  only  erroneous,  but  actually  the  re- 
verse of  the  truth.  Nor  is  it  less  noticeable 
that  the  degree  of  prominence,  given  to  each 
part  of  the  Mosaic  system,  has  a  similar  ref- 
erence to  the  period  at  which  the  nation  had 
arrived.  The  ceremonial  portion  is  marked 
out  distinctly  and  with  elaboration ;  the  moral 
and  criminal  law  is  clearly  and  sternly  de- 
cisive ;  even  the  civil  law,  so  far  as  it  relates 
to  individuals,  is  systematic ;  because  all  these 
were  called  for  by  the  past  growth  of  the 
nation,  and  needed  in  order  to  settle  and  de- 
velop its  resources.  But  the  political  and  con- 
stitutional law  is  comparatively  imperfect ;  but 
the  law  is  directed  rather  to  sanction  the 
various  powers  of  the  state  than  to  define  and 
balance  their  operations,  (f.)  In  close  con- 
nection with  this  subject  we  observe  also  the 
gradual  process  by  which  the  Law  was  re- 
vealed to  the  Israelites.  In  Ex.  xx.-xxiii.,  in 
direct  connection  with  the  revelation  from 
Mount  Sinai,  that  which  may  be  called  the 
rough  outline  of  the  Mosaic  Law  is  given  by 
God,  solemnly  recorded  by  Moses,  and  ac- 
cepted by  the  people.  In  Ex.  xxv.-xxxi.  there 
is  a  similar  outline  of  the  Mosaic  ceremonial. 
On  the  basis  of  these  it  may  be  conceived  that 
the  fabric  of  the  Mosaic  system  gradually 
grew  up  under  the  requirements  of  the  time. 
The  first  revelation  of  the  Law  in  anything 
like  a  perfect  form  is  found  in  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy.  Yet  even  then  the  revelation 
was  not  final ;  it  was  the  duty  of  the  prophets 
to  amend  and  explain  it  in  special  points  (Ez. 
xviii.),  and  to  bring  out  more  clearly  its  great 
principles. 

The  leading  principle  of  the  whole  of  the 
Mosaic  Law  is  its  theocratic  character,  its  ref- 
erence (that  is)  of  all  action  and  thoughts  of 
men  directly  and  immediately  to  the  will  of 

12 


THE  'vrm 

Of  THE, 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


LAZARUS 


God.    It  follows  from  this,  that  it  is  to  be  re- 
garded not  merely  as  a  law,  that  is,  a  rule  of 
conduct,  based  on  known  truth  and  acknowl- 
edged authorit}',  but  also  as  a  Revelation  of 
God's  nature  and  His  dispensations.    But  this 
theocratic  character  of  the  law  depends  neces- 
sarily on  the  belief  in  God,  as  not  only  the 
Creator  and  Sustainer  of  the  world,  but  as,  by 
special  covenant,  the  head  of  the  Jewish  na- 
tion. This  immediate  reference  to  God  as  their 
King  is  clearly  seen  as  the  groundwork  of 
their  whole  polity.    From  this  theocratic  na- 
ture of  the  law  follow  important  deductions 
with  regard  to  (a)  the  view  which  it  takes  of 
political  society;  (b)  the  extent  of  the  scope 
of  the  law ;  (c)  the  penalties  by  which  it  is  en- 
forced; and  (d)  the  character  which  it  seeks 
to  impress  on  the  people,    (a)  The  IMosaic 
Law  seeks  the  basis  of  its  polity,  first,  in  the 
absolute  sovereignty  of  God,  next  in  the  rela- 
tionship   of   each    individual    to    God,  and 
through  God  in  his  countrymen.    It  is  clear 
that  such  a  doctrine,  while  it  contradicts  none 
of  the  common  theories,  yet  lies  beneath  them 
all.    (b.)  The  law,  as  proceeding  directly  from 
God,  and  referring  directly  to  Him,  is  neces- 
sarily absolute  in  its  supremacy  and  unlimited 
in  its  scope.    It  is  supreme  over  the  gover- 
nors, as  being  only  the  delegates  of  the  Lord, 
and   therefore    it   is  incompatible  with  any 
despotic  authority  in  them.    On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  supreme  over  the  governed,  recog- 
nizing no  inherent  rights  in  the  individual,  as 
prevailing  against  or  limiting  the  law.    It  reg- 
ulated the  whole  life  of  an  Israelite.    His  ac- 
tions were  rewarded  and  punished  with  great 
minuteness  and  strictness ;  and  that  according 
to  the  standard,  not  of  their  consequences,  but 
ot  their  intrinsic  morality.    His  religious  wor- 
ship was  defined  and  enforced  in  an  elaborate 
and  unceasing  ceremonial,    (c.)  The  penalties' 
and  rewards  by  which  the  law  is  enforced  are 
such  as  depend  on  the  direct  theocracy.  With 
regard  to  individual  actions,  it  may  be  noticed 
that,  as  generally  some  penalties  are  inflicted 
by  the  subordinate,  and  some  only  by  the  su- 
preme authority,  so  among  the  Israelites  some 
penalties  came  from  the  land  of  man,  some  di- 
rectly from  the  providence  of  God.    But  per- 
haps the  most  important  consequence  of  the 
theocratic  nature  of  the  law  was  the  peculiar 
character  of  goodness  which  it  sought  to  im- 
press on  the  people.   The  Mosaic  Law,  begin- 
ning with  piety,  as  its  first  object,  enforces 
most  emphatically  the  purity  essential  to  those 
who,  by  their  union  with  God,  have  recovered 
the  hope  of  intrinsic  goodness,  while  it  views 
righteousness  and  love  rather  as  deductions 
from  these  than  as  independent  objects.  The 


appeal  is  not  to  any  dignity  of  human  nature, 
but  to  the  obligations  of  communion  with  a 
Holy  God.  The  subordination,  therefore,  of 
this  idea  also  to  the  religious  idea  is  enforced ; 
and  so  long  as  the  due  supremacy  of  the  latter 
was  preserved,  all  other  duties  would  find  their 
places  in  proper  harmony.  [Sacrifice.]  (c.) 
The  question  has  been  frequently  discussed 
how  far  the  Mosaic  Law  has  any  obligation  or 
existence  under  the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel. 
As  a  means  of  justification  or  salvation,  it 
ought  never  to  have  been  regarded,  even  be- 
fore Christ ;  it  needs  no  proof  to  show  that  still 
less  can  this  be  so  since  He  has  come.  But 
yet  the  question  remains  whether  it  is  binding 
on  Christians,  even  when  they  do  not  depend 
on  it  for  salvation.  It  seems  clear  enough, 
that  its  formal  coercive  authority  as  a  whole 
ended  with  the  close  of  the  Jewish  dispensa- 
tion. It  referred  throughout  to  the  Jewish 
covenant,  and  in  many  points  to  the  constitur 
tion,  the  customs,  and  even  the  local  circum- 
stances of  the  people.  That  covenant  was 
preparatory  to  the  Christian,  in  which  it  is  now 
absorbed ;  those  customs  and  observances 
have  passed  away.  It  follows,  by  the  very 
nature  of  the  case,  that  the  formal  obligation 
to  the  Law  must  have  ceased  with  the  basis  on 
which  it  is  grounded.  But  what  then  becomes 
of  the  declaration  of  our  Lord,  that  He  came 
"not  to  destroy  the  Law,  but  to  perfect  it,"  and 
that  "not  one  jot  or  one  tittle  of  it  shall  pass 
away"?  what  of  the  fact,  consequent  upon  it, 
that  the  Law  has  been  reverenced  in  all  Chris- 
tian churches,  and  had  an  important  influence 
on  much  Christian  legislation?  The  explana- 
tion of  the  apparent  contradiction  lies  in  the 
difference  between  positive  and  moral  obliga- 
tion. To  apply  this  principle  practically  there 
is  need  of  much  study  and  discretion,  in  order 
to  distinguish  what  is  local  and  temporary 
from  what  is  universal,  &nd  what  is  mere  ex- 
ternal form  from  what  is  the  essence  of  an  or- 
dinance. 

Lawyer.  The  title  "lawyer"  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  equivalent  to  the  title  "scribe," 
both  on  account  of  its  etymological  meaning, 
and  also  because  the  man,  who  is  also  called 
a  "lawyer"  in  Matt.  xxii.  35  and  Luke  x.  25,  is 
called  "one  of  the  scribes"  in  Mark,  xii.  28. 
■Laying  on  of  Hands.  [Baptism.] 
Laz'arus,  another  form  of  the  Hebrew  name 
Eleazar.  i.  Lazarus  of  Bethany,  the  brother 
of  Martha  and  Mary  (John  xi.  i.)  All  that  we 
know  of  him  is  derived  from  the  Gospel  of  St. 
John,  and  that  records  little  more  than  the 
facts  of  his  death  and  resurrection.  The  lan- 
guage of  John  xi.  I, 'implies  that  the  sisters 
were  the  better  known.    Lazarus  is  "of  Beth- 


213 


LEAF 


LEAVEN 


any,  of  the  village  of  Mary  and  her  sister  Mar- 
tha." From  this,  and  from  the  order  of  the 
three  names  in  John  xi.  5,  we  may  reasonably 
infer  that  Lazarus  was  the  youngest  of  the 
family.  All  the  circumstances  of  John  xi.  and 
xii.  point  to  wealth  and  social  position  above 
the  average.  2.  The  name  of  a  poor  man  in 
the  well-known  parable  of  Luke  xvi.  19-31. 
The  name  of  Lazarus  has  been  perpetuated  in 
an  institution  of  the  Christian  Church.  The 
leper  of  the  Middle  Ages  appears  as  a  Laz- 
zaro.  Among  the  orders,  half  military  and 
half  monastic,  of  the  12th  century,  was  one 
which  bore  the  title  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
Lazarus  (A.  D.  1 119),  whose  special  work  it 
was  to  minister  to  the  lepers,  first  of  Syria, 
and  afterwards  of  Europe.  The  use  of  laza- 
retto and  lazar-house  for  the  leper-hospitals 
then  founded  in  all  parts  of  Western  Christen- 
dom, no  less  than  that  of  lazzarone  for  the 
mendicants  of  Italian  towns,  are  indications  of 
the  effect  of  the  parable  upon  the  mind  of  Eu- 
rope in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  thence  upon  its 
later  speech. 

Lead,  one  of  the  most  common  of  metals, 
found  generally  in  veins  of  rocks,  though  sel- 
dom in  a  metallic  state,  and  most  commonly 
in  combination  with  sulphur.  It  was  early 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  the  allusions  to  it 
in  Scripture  indicate  that  the  Hebrews  were 
well  acquainted  with  its  uses.  The  rocks  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Sinai  yielded  it  in  large 
quantities,  and  it  was  found  in  Egypt.  That 
it  was  common  in  Palestine  is  shown  by  the 
expression  in  Ecclus.  xlvii.  18  (comp.  i  K.  x. 
27).  In  modern  metallurgy  lead  is  used  with 
tin  in  the  composition  of  solder  for  fastening 
metals  together.  That  the  ancient  Hebrews 
were  acquainted  with  the  use  of  solder  is  evi- 
dent from  Isaiah  xli.  7,  No  hint  is  given  as  to 
the  composition  of  the  solder,  but  in  all  prob- 
ability lead  was  one  of  the  materials  employed, 
its  usages  for  such  a  purpose  being  of  great 
antiquity.  In  Job  xix.  24  the  allusion  is  sup- 
posed to  be  to  the  practice  of  carving  inscrip- 
tions upon  stone  and  pouring  molten  lead  into 
the  cavities  of  the  letters,  to  render  them  leg- 
ible, and  at  the  same  time  preserve  them  from 
the  action  of  the  air. 

Leaf,  Leaves.  The  word  occurs  in  the  A.  V. 
either  in  the  singular  or  plural  number  in  three 
different  senses,  i.  Leaf  of  a  tree.  The  olive- 
leaf  is  mentioned  in  Gen.  viii.  II.  Fig-leaves 
formed  the  first  covering  of  our  parents  in 
Eden.  The  righteous  are  often  compared  to 
green  leaves  (Jer.  xvii.  8).  The  ungodly,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  "as  an  oak  whose  leaf 
fadeth."  2.  Leaves  of  doors.  The  Hebrew 
word,  which  occurs  very  many  times  in  the 

2 


Bible,  and  which  in  i  K.  vi.  32  (margin)  and 
34  is  translated  "leaves"  in  the  A.  V.,  signifies 
beams,  ribs,  sides,  &c.  3.  "Leaves  of  a  book 
or  roll  occurs  in  this  sense  only  in  Jer.  xxxvi. 
23.  The  Hebrew  word  (literally  doors)  would 
perhaps  be  more  correctly  translated  columns. 

Le'ah,  the  daughter  of  Laban  (Gen.  xxix. 
16).  The  dulness  or  weakness  of  her  eyes 
was  so  notable,  that  it  is  mentioned  as  a  con- 
trast to  the  beautiful  form  and  appearance  of 
her  younger  sister  Rachel.  Her  father  took 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  which  the  local 
marriage-rite  afforded  to  pass  her  off  in  her 
sister's  stead  on  the  unconscious  bridegroom, 
and  excused  himself  to  Jacob  by  alleging  that 
the  custom  of  the  country  forbade  the  younger 
sister  to  be  given  first  in  marriage.  Jacob's 
preference  of  Rachel  grew  into  hatred  of  Leah, 
after  he  had  married  both  sisters.  Leah,  how- 
ever, bore  to  him  in  quick  succession  Reuben, 
Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  then  Issachar,  Zebulun, 
and  Dinah,  before  Rachel  had  a  child.  She 
died  some  time  after  Jacob  reached  the  south 
country  in  which  his  father  Isaac  lived.  She 
was  buried  in  the  family  grave  in  Machpelah 
(ch.  xlix.  31). 

Leather.  The  notices  of  leather  in  the 
Bible  are  singularly  few ;  indeed  the  word  oc- 
curs but  twice  in  the  A.  V.,  and  in  each  in- 
stance in  reference  to  the  same  object,  a  girdle 
(2  K.  i.  8 ;  Matt.  iii.  4).  There  are,  however, 
other  instances  in  which  the  word  "leather" 
might  with  propriety  be  substituted  for  "skin" 
(Lev.  xi.  32,  xiii.  48,  Num.  xxxi.  20). 

Leaven.  Various  substances  were  known 
to  have  fermenting  qualities ;  but  the  ordinary 
leaven  consisted  of  a  lump  of  old  dough  in  a 
high  state  of  fermentation,  which  was  inserted 
into  the  mass  of  dough  prepared  for  baking. 
The  use  of  leaven  was  strictly  forbidden  in  all 
offerings  made  to  the  Lord  by  fire.  It  is  in 
reference  to  these  prohibitions  that  Amos  (iv. 
5)  ironically  bids  the  Jews  of  his  day  to  "offer 
a  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  with  leaven."  In 
other  instances,  where  the  offering  was  to  be 
consumed  by  the  priests,  and  not  on  the  altar, 
leaven  might  be  used.  Various  ideas  were  as- 
sociated with  the  prohibition  of  leaven  in  the 
instances  above  quoted.  But  the  most  promi- 
nent idea,  and  the  one  which  applies  equally 
to  all  the  cases  of  prohibition,  is  connected 
with  the  corruption  which  leaven  itself  had 
undergone,  and  which  it  communicated  to 
bread  in  the  process  of  fermentation.  It  is  to 
this  property  of  leaven  that  our  Saviour  points 
when  he  speaks  of  the  "leaven  (i.  e.  the  corrupt 
doctrine)  of  the  Pharisees  and  of  the  Sad- 
ducees"  (Matt.  xvi.  6)  ;  and  St.  Paul,  when  he 
speaks  of  the  "old  leaven"  (i  Cor.  v.  7). 

14 


LEBANAH 


LEEKS 


Leb'anah  in  Ezr.  ii.  45. 

Leb'anon,  a  mountain  range  in  the  north  of 
Palestine.  The  name  Lebanon  signifies 
"white,"  and  was  applied  either  on  account  of 
the  snow,  which,  during  a  great  part  of  the 
year,  covers  its  whole  summit,  or  on  account 
of  the  white  color  of  its  limestone  cliflfs  and 
peaks.  It  is  the  "white  mountain" — the  Mont 
Blanc  of  Palestine.    Lebanon  is  represented  in 


The  Mountain  Range  of  Lebanon. 


Scripture  as  lying  upon  the  northern  border  of 
the  land  of  Israel  (Deut.  i.  7,  xi.  24;  Josh.  i.  4). 
Two  distinct  ranges  bear  this  name.  They  run 
in.parallel  lines  from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.  for  about 
90  geog.  miles,  enclosing  between  them  a  long 
fertile  valley  from  5  to  8  miles  wide,  anciently 
called  Coele-Syria.  The  western  range  is  the 
"Libanus"  of  the  old  geographers,  and  the 
Lebanon  of  Scripture.  The  eastern  range  was 
called  "Anti-Libanus"  by  geographers,  and 
"Lebanon  toward  the  sun-rising"  by  the  sa- 
cred writers  (Josh.  xiii.  5).  The  average  ele- 
vation of  the  western  range  is  from  6000  to 
.8000  ft. ;  but  two  peaks  rise  considerably 
higher.  On  the  summits  of  both  these  peaks 
the  snow  remains  in  patches  during  the  whole 
summer.  The  line  of  cultivation  runs  along 
at  the  height  of  about  6000  ft. ;  and  below  this 
the  features  of  the  western  slopes  are  entirely 
dififerent.  The  rugged  limestone  banks  are 
scantily  clothed  with  the  evergreen  oak,  and 
the  sandstone  with  pines ;  while  every  avail- 
able spot  is  carefully  cultivated.  The  cultiva- 
tion is  wonderful.  Fig-trees  cling  to  the  naked 
rock ;  vines  are  trained  along  narrow  ledges ; 
long  ranges  of  mulberries,  on  terraces  like 
steps  of  stairs,  cover  the  more  gentle  declivi- 
ties; and  dense  groves  of  olives  fill  up  the  bot- 
toms of  the  glens.  Hundreds  of  villages  are 
seen ;  while  convents,  no  less  numerous,  are 
perched  on  the  top  of  every  peak.  Lebanon 
also  abounds  in  olives,  figs,  and  mulberries ; 
while  some  remnants  exist  of  the  forest  of 
pine,  oak,  and  cedar,  which  formerly  covered 

2 


it  (i  K.  V.  6;  Ps.  xxix.  5;  Is.  xiv.  8;  Ezr.  iii,  7). 
Considerable  numbers  of  wild  beasts  still  in- 
habit its  retired  glens  and  higher  peaks;  jack- 
als, hyenas,  wolves,  bears,  and  panthers  (2  K. 
xiv.  9;  Cant.  iv.  8;  Hab.  ii.  17).  Along  the 
base  of  Lebanon  runs  the  irregular  plain  of 
Phoenicia  ;  nowhere  more  than  two  miles  wide, 
and  often  interrupted  by  bold  rocky  spurs,  that 
dip  into  the  sea.  Lebanon  was  originally  in- 
habited by  the  Hivites  and  Giblites  (Judg.  iii. 
3;  Josh.  xiii.  5,  6).  The  whole  mountain 
range  was  assigned  to  the  Israelites,  but  was 
never  conquered  by  them  (Josh.  xiii.  2-6;  Judg. 
iii.  1-3).  During  the  Jewish  monarchy  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  subject  to  the  Phoenicians 
(i  K.  v.  2-6;  Ezr.  iii.  7).  From  the  Greek 
conquest  until  modern  times  Lebanon  had  no 
separate  history.  The  main  chain  of  the 
Eastern  range  commences  in  the  plateau  of 
Bashan,  near  the  parallel  of  Caesarea-Philippi, 
runs  north  to  Hermon,  and  then  north-east  in 
a  straight  line  till  it  sinks  down  into  the  great 
plain  of  Emesa,  not  far  from  the  site  of  Rib- 
iah.  Hermon  is  the  loftiest  peak ;  the  next 
highest  is  a  few  miles  north  of  the  site  of 
Abila,  beside  the  village  of  Bludan,  and  has  an 
elevation  of  about  7000  feet.  The  rest  of  the 
ridge  averages  about  5000  ft. ;  it  is  in  general 
bleak  and  barren,  with  shelving  gray  declivi- 
ties, gray  cliffs,  and  gray  rounded  sumfnits. 
Here  and  there  we  meet  with  thin  forests  of 
dwarf  oak  and  juniper.  The  western  slopes 
descend  abruptly  into  the  Buka'a ;  but  the  fea- 
tures of  the  eastern  are  entirely  different. 
Three  side  ridges  here  radiate  from  Hermon, 


Common  Leek. 


like  the  ribs  of  an  open  fan,  and  form  the  sup- 
porting walls  of  three  great  terraces. 

Leeks  (Heb.  chatsir).  The  word  chatsir, 
which  in  Num.  xi.  5  is  translated  leeks,  occurs 
twenty  times  in  the  Hebrew  text.  The  He- 
brew term,  which  properly  denotes  grass,  is 
derived  from  a  root  signifying  "to  be  green," 
and  may  therefore  stand  in  this  passage  for 

15 


LEES 


LEPER 


any  green  food,  lettuce,  endive,  &c. ;  it  would 
thus  be  applied  somewhat  in  the  same  manner 
as  we  use  the  term  "greens;"  yet  as  the  chatsir 
is  mentioned  together  with  onions  and  garlic 
in  the  text,  and  as  the  most  ancient  versions 
unanimously  understand  leeks  by  the  Hebrew 
word,  we  may  be  satisfied  with  our  own  trans- 
lation. There  is,  however,  another  and  a  very 
ingenious  interpretation  of  chatsir,  first  pro- 
posed by  Hengstenberg  and  received  by  Dr. 
Kitto,  which  adopts  a  more  literal  translation 
of  the  original  word,  for,  says  Dr.  Kitto, 
"among  the  wonders  in  the  natural  history  of 
Egypt,  it  is  mentioned  by  travellers  that  the 
common  people  there  eat  with  special  relish  a 
kind  of  grass  similar  to  clover."  This  plant  is 
similar  to  clover,  but  its  leaves  more  pointed, 
and  great  quantities  of  it  are  eaten  by  the  peo- 
ple. The  leek  is  too  well  known  to  need  de- 
scription. 

Lees.  The  Hebrew  shemer  bears  the  radi- 
cal sense  of  preservation,  and  was  applied  to 
"lees"  from  the  custom  of  allowing  the  wine 
to  stand  on  the  lees  in  order  that  its  color  and 
body  might  be  better  preserved.  Hence  the 
expression  "wine  on  the  lees,"  as  meaning  a 
generous,  full-bodied  liquor  (Is.  xxv.  6).  Be- 
fore the  wine  was  consumed,  it  was  necessary 
to  strain  off  the  lees ;  such  wine  was  then 
termed  "well  refined"  (Is.  xxv.  6).  To  drink 
the  lees,  or  "dregs,"  was  an  expression  for  the 
endurance  of  extreme  punishment  (Ps.  Ixxv. 
8). 


Lentils. 


Legion,  the  chief  subdivision  of  the  Roman 
army,  containing  about  6ooo  infantry,  with  a 
cantingent  of  cavalry.  The  term  does  not  oc- 
cur in  the  Bible  in  its  primary  sense,  but  ap- 
pears to  have  been  adopted  in  order  to  express 
any  large  number,  with  the  accessory  ideas  of  | 


order  and  subordination  (Matt.  xxvi.  53 ;  Mark 
V.  9). 

Lentils.  The  word  occurs  in  the  four  fol- 
lowing passages : — Gen.  xxv.  34,  2  Sam.  xvii. 
28,  xxiii.  II  and  Ez.  iv.  9.  There  are  three  or 
four  kinds  of  lentils,  all  of  which  are  still  much 


The  Syrian  Leopard. 


esteemed  in  those  countries  where  they  are 
grown,  viz.  the  South  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
North  Africa ;  the  red  lentil  is  still  a  favorite 
article  of  food  in  the  East ;  it  is  a  small  kind, 
the  seeds  of  which,  after  being  decorticated, 
are  commonly  sold  in  the  bazaars  of  India.  The 
modern  Arabic  name  of  this  plant  is  identical 
with  the  Hebrew;  it  is  known  in  Egypt  and 
Arabia,  Syria,  &c.,  by  the  name  'Adas.  Lentil 
bread  is  still  eaten  by  the  poor  of  Egypt. 

Leopard  is  invariably  given  by  the  A.  V.  as 
the  translation  of  the  Hebrew  word,  which  oc- 
curs in  the  seven  following  passages : — Is.  xi. 
6;  Jer.  v.  6,  xiii.  23;  Dan.  vii.  6;  Hos.  xiii.  7; 
Cant.  iv.  8;  Hab.  i.  8.  Leopard  occurs  also 
in  Ecclus.  xxviii.  23,  and  in  Rev.  xiii.  2.  From 
Cant.  iv.  8,  we  learn  that  the  hilly  ranges  of 
Lebanon  were  in  ancient  times  frequented  by 
these  animals.  They  are  now  not  uncommon- 
ly seen  in  and  about  Lebanon,  and  the  south- 
ern maritime  mountains  of  Syria.  Under  the 
name  namer,  which  means  "spotted,"  it  is  not 
improbable  that  another  animal,  namely,  the 
cheetah  (Gueparda  jubata),  may  be  included; 
which  is  tamed  by  the  Mohammedans  of  Syria, 
who  employ  it  in  hunting  the  gazelle. 

Leper,  Leprosy.  The  predominant  and 
characteristic  form  of  leprosy  in  Scripture  is  a 
white  variety,  covering  either  the  entire  body, 
or  a  large  tract  of  its  surface,  which  has  ob- 
tained the  name  of  lepra  Mosaica.  Such  were 
the  cases  of  Moses,  Miriam,  Naaman,  and 
Gehazi  (Ex.  iv.  6;  Num.  xii.  10;  2  K.  v.  I,  27; 
comp.  Lev.  xiii.  13).  But,  remarkably 
enough,  in  the  Mosaic  ritual-diagnosis  of  the 
6 


THE  ASCENSION  OP  JESUS  CHRIST.    ADRIAEN  VON  DER  WERFF.    AFTER  THE 

PAINTING   IN  MUNICH. 


THE  L[r::;.nY 

OF  THE 


LEPER 


LEVIATHAN 


disease  (Lev.  xiii.,  xiv.),  this  kind,  when  over- 
spreading the  whole  surface,  appears  to  be  re- 
garded as  "clean"  (xiii.  12,  13,  16,  17).  The 
Egyptian  bondage,  with  its  studied  degrada- 
tions and  privations,  and  especially  the  work 
of  the  kiln  under  an  Egyptian  sun,  must  have 
had  a  frightful  tendency  to  generate  this  class 
of  disorders ;  hence  IManetho  asserts  that  the 
Egyptians  drove  out  the  Israelites  as  infected 
with  leprosy — a  strange  reflex,  perhaps,  of  the 
Mosaic  narrative  of  the  "plagues"  of  Egypt, 
yet  probably  also  containing  a  germ  of  truth. 
The  sudden  and  total  change  of  food,  air, 
dwelling,  and  mode  of  life,  caused  by  the  Ex- 
odus, to  this  nation  of  newly-emancipated 
slaves,  may  possibly  have  had  a  further  ten- 
dency to  produce  skin-disorders,  and  severe  re- 
pressive-measures may  have  been  required  in 
the  desert-moving  camp  to  secure  the  public 
health,  or  to  allay  the  panic  of  infection.  Hence 


Lepers  Outside  the  Gate  of  Jerusalem. 

it  is  possible  that  many,  perhaps  most  of  this 
repertory  of  symptoms  may  have  disappeared 
with  the  period  of  the  Exodus,  and  the  snow- 
white  form,  which  had  pre-existed,  may  alone 
have  ordinarily  continued  in  a  later  age.  But 
it  is  observable  .that,  amongst  these  Levitical 
symptoms,  the  scaling,  or  peeling  of¥  of  the 
surface,  is  nowhere  mentioned,  nor  is  there 
any  expression  in  the  Hebrew  text  which 
points  to  exfoliation  of  the  cuticle.  The  prin- 
cipal morbid  features  are  a  rising  or  swelling, 
a  scab  or  baldness,  and  a  bright  or  white  spot 
(xiii.  2).  But  especially  a  white  swelling  in 
the  skin,  with  a  change  of  the  hair  of  the  part 
from  the  natural  black  to  white  or  yellow  (3. 
4,  10,  20,  25,  30),  or  an  appearance  of  a  taint 
going  "deeper  than  the  skin,"  or  again,  "raw 
flesh"  appearing  in  the  swelling  (10,  14,  15), 
were  critical  signs  of  pollution.  The  mere 
swelling,  or  scab,  or  bright  spot,  was  remanded 


for  a  week  as  doubtful  (4,  21,  26,  31),  and  for 
a  second  such  period,  if  it  had  not  yet  pro- 
nounced (5).  If  it  then  spread  (7,  22,  27,  35), 
it  was  decided  as  polluting.  But  if  after  the 
second  period  of  quarantine  the  trace  died 
away  and  showed  no  symptoms  of  spreading, 
it  was  a  mere  scab,  and  the  patient  was  ad- 
judged clean  (6,  23,  34).  This  tendency  to 
spread  seems  especially  to  have  been  relied  on. 
A  spot  most  innocent  in  all  other  respects,  if  it 
"spread  much  abroad,"  was  unclean ;  whereas, 
as  before  remarked,  the  man  so  wholly  over- 
spread with  the  evil  that  it  could  find  no 
farther  range,  was  on  the  contrary  "clean" 
(12,  13).  It  is  clear  that  the  leprosy  of  Lev. 
xiii.,  xiv.,  means  any  severe  disease  spreading 
on  the  surface  of  the  body  in  the  way  de- 
scribed, and  so  shocking  of  aspect,  or  so  gen- 
erally suspected  of  infection,  that  public  feel- 
ing called  for  separation. — It  is  now  undoubt- 
ed that  the  "leprosy"  of  modern  Syria,  and 
which  has  a  wide  range  in  Spain,  Greece,  and 
Norway,  is  the  Elephantiasis  Graecorum.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  brought  home  by  the  cru- 
saders into  the  various  countries  of  AVestern 
and  Northern  Europe.  It  certainly  was  not 
the  distinctive  white  leprosy,  nor  do  any  of  the 
described  symptoms  in  Lev.  xiii.  point  to'  ele- 
phantiasis. "White  as  snow"  (2  K.  v.  27) 
would  be  as  inapplicable  to  elephantiasis  as 
to  small-pox. 

Le'vi.  The  name  of  the  third  son  of  Jacob 
by  his  wife  Leah.  The  name,  derived  from 
lavah,  "to  adhere,"  gave  utterance  to  the  hope 
of  the  mother  that  the  affections  of  her  hus- 
band, which  had  hitherto  rested  on  the  fa- 
vored Rachel,  would  at  last  be  drawn  to  her. 
"This  time  will  my  husband  be  joined  unto 
me,  because  I  have  born  him  three  sons" 
(Gen.  xxix.  34).  The  new-born  child  was  to 
be  a  fresh  link  binding  the  parents  to  each 
other  more  closely  than  before.  Levi,  with 
his  brother  Simeon,  avenged  with  a  cruel 
slaughter  the  outrage  of  their  sister  Dinah. 
[Dinah. J  Levi,  with  his  three  sons,  Gershon, 
Kohath,  Merari.  went  down  to  Egypt  with  his 
father  Jacob  (Gen.  xlvii.  11).  When  Jacob's 
death  draws  near,  and  the  sons  are  gathered 
round  him,  Levi  and  Simeon  hear  the  old 
crime  brought  up  again  to  receive  its  sen- 
tence. They,  no  less  than  Reuben,  the  inces- 
tuous first-born,  had  forfeited  the  privileges 
of  their  birthright  (Gen.  xlix.  5-7).  [Levites.] 

Levi'athan  occurs  five  times  in  the  text  of 
the  A.  v.,  and  once  in  the  margin  of  Job  iii. 
8,  where  the  text  has  "mourning."  In  the 
Hebrew  Bible  the  world  Hvyathan,  which  is, 
with  the  foregoing  exception,  aVways  left  un- 
translated in  the  A.  V.  is  found  onlv  in  the 


217 


LEVITES 


LEVITICUS 


following  passages :  Job  iii.  8,  xli.  i Ps. 
Ixxiv.  14,  civ.  26;  Is.  xxvii.  i.  In  the  margin 
of  Job  iii.  8,  and  text  of  Job  xli.  i,  the  crocodile 
is  most  clearly  the  animal  denoted  by  the 
Hebrew  word.  Ps.  Ixxiv.  14,  also  clearly  points 
to  this  same  saurian.  The  context  of  Ps.  civ. 
26  seems  to  show  that  in  this  passage  the  name 
represents  some  animal  of  the  whale  tribe ;  but 
it  is  somewhat  uncertain  what  animal  is  de- 
noted in  Is.  xxvii.  i.  As  the  term  leviathan  is 
evidently  used  in  no  limited  sense,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  the  "leviathan  the  piercing 
serpent,"  or  "leviathan  the  crooked  serpent," 
may  denote  some  species  of  the  great  rock- 
snakes  which  are  common  in  South  and  West 
Africa. 

Le'vites  (descendants  of  Levi)..  The  analogy 
of  the  names  of  the  other  tribes  of  Israel  would 
lead  us  to  include  under  these  titles  the  whole 
tribe  that  traced  its  descent  from  Levi.  Some- 
times the  word  extends  to  the  whole  tribe,  the 
priests  included  (Num.  xxxv.  2;  Josh.  xxi.  3, 
41 ;  Ex.  vi.  25 ;  Lev.  xxv.  32,  &c.).  Sometimes 
again  it  is  added  as  an  epithet  of  the  smaller 
portion  of  the  tribe,  and  we  read  of  "the  priests 
the  Levites"  (Josh.  iii.  3;  Ez.  xliv.  15).  There 
is  no  trace  of  the  consecrated  character  of  the 
Levites  till  the  institution  of  an  hereditary 
priesthood  in  the  family  of  Aaron,  during  the 
first  withdrawal  of  Moses  to  the  solitude  of 
Sinai  (xxviii.  i).  The  next  extension  of  the 
idea  of  the  priesthood  grew  out  of  the  terrible 
crises  of  Ex.  xxxii.  The  tribe  stood  forth, 
separate  and  apart,  recognizing  even  in  this 
stern  work  the  spiritual  as  higher  than  the 
natural.  From  this  time  they  occupied  a  dis- 
tinct position.  The  tribe  of  Levi  was  to  take 
the  place  of  that  earlier  priesthood  of  the  first- 
born as  representatives  of  the  holiness  of  the 
people.  As  the  Tabernacle  was  the  sign  of  the 
presence  among  the  people  of  their  unseen 
King,  so  the  Levites  were,  among  the  other 
tribes  of  Israel,  as  the  royal  guard  that  waited 
exclusively  on  Him.  The  Levites  had  no  ter- 
ritorial possessions.  In  place  of  them  they 
were  to  receive  from  the  others  the  tithes  of 
the  produce  of  the  land,  from  which  they,  in 
their  turn,  ofTered  a  tithe  to  the  priests,  as  a 
recognition  of  thejr  higher  consecration  (Num. 
xviii.  21,  24,  26;  Neh.  x.  37).  Distinctness  and 
diffusion  were  both  to  be  secured  by  the  as- 
signment to  the  whole  tribe  of  forty-eight 
cities,  with  an  outlying  "suburb"  (Num.  xxxv. 
2)  of  meadow  land  for  the  pasturage  of  their 
f!ocks  and  herds.  The  reverence  of  the  people 
for  them  was  to  be  heightened  by  the  selection 
of  six  of  these  as  cities  of  refuge.  Through  the 
whole  land  the  Levites  were  to  take  the  place 
of  the  old  household  priests,  sharing  in  all 


festivals  and  rejoicings  (Deut.  xii.  19,  xiv.  26, 
27,  xxvi.  ii).  Every  third  year  they  were  to 
have  an  additional  share  in  the  produce  of  the 
land  (Deut.  xiv.  28,  xxvi.  12).  To  "the  priests 
the  Levites"  was  to  belong  the  office  of  pre- 
serving, transcribing,  and  interpreting  the  law 
(Deut.  xvii.  9-12,  xxxi.  26).  The  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  and  the  policy  pursued  by  Jero- 
boam, led  to  a  great  change  in  the  position  of 
the  Levites.  Tliey  were  the  witnesses  of  an 
appointed  order  and  of  a  central  worship.  He 
wished  to  make  the  priests  the  creatures  and 
instruments  of  the  king,  and  to  establish  a 
provincial  and  divided  worship.  The  natural 
result  was,  that  they  left  the  cities  assigned  to 
them  in  the  territory  of  Israel,  and  gathered 
round  the  metropolis  of  Judah  (2  Chr.  xi.  13, 
14).  In  the  kingdom  of  Judah  they  were, 
from  this  time  forward,  a  powerful  body, 
politically,  as  well  as  ecclesiastically.  On  the 
return  from  Babylon,  the  Levites  take  their 
old  places  in  the  Temple  and  in  the  villages 
near  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  29),  and  are  present 
in  full  array  at  the  great  feast  of  the  Dedica- 
tion of  the  Wall.  The  two  prophets  who  were 
active  at  the  time  of  the  Return,  Haggai  and 
Zechariah,  if  they  did  not  belong  to  the  tribe, 
helped  it  forward  in  the  work  of  restoration. 
The  last  prophet  of  the  O.  T.  sees,  as  part  of 
his  vision  of  the  latter  days,  the  time  when  the 
Lord  "shall  purify  the  sons  of  Levi"  (Mai.  iii. 
3).  During  the  period  that  followed  the  Cap- 
tivity they  contributed  to  the  formation  of  the 
so-called  Great  Synagogue.  They,  with  the 
priests,  formed  the  majority  of  the  permanent 
Sanhedrim,  and  as  such  had  a  large  share  in 
the  administration  of  justice  even  in  capital 
cases.  They  take  no  prominent  part  in  the 
Maccabaean  struggles,  though  they  must  have 
been  present  at  the  great  purification  of  the 
Temple.  They  appear  but  seldom  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  N.  T. 

Levit'icus.  The  Book,  which  is  so  called 
because  it  relates  principally  to  the  Levites 
and  Priests,  contains  the  religious  laws  of 
Israel.  Those  critics  even  who  are  in  favor 
of  different  documents  in  the  Pentateuch  as- 
sign nearly  the  whole  of  this  book  to  one 
writer,  the  Elohist,  or  author  of  the'  original 
document.  We  must  not  quit  this  book  with- 
out a  word  on  what  may  be  called  its  spiritual 
meaning.  That  so  elaborate  a  ritual  looked 
be3^ond  itself  we  cannot  doubt.  It  was  a 
prophecy  of  things  to  come ;  a  shadow  whereof 
the  substance  was  Christ  and  His  kingdom. 
We  may  not  always  be  able  to  say  what  tlie 
exact  relation  is  between  the  type  and  the 
antitype.  But  we  cannot  read  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  and  not  acknowledge  that  the 
18 


LIBERTINES 

Levitical  priests  "served  the  pattern  and  type 
of  heavenly  things" — that  the  sacrifices  of  the 
law  pointed  to  and  found  their  interpretation 
in  the  Lamb  of  God — that  the  ordinances  of 
outward  purification  signified  the  true  inner 
cleansing  of  the  heart  and  conscience  from 
dead  works  to  serve  the  living  God.  One  idea 
moreover  penetrates  the  whole  of  this  vast  and 
burdensome  ceremonial,  and  gives  it  a  real 
glory  even  apart  from  any  prophetic  signifi- 
cance.   Holiness  is  its  character. 

Libertines.  This  word,  which  occurs  once 
only  in  the  N.  T.  (Acts  vi.  9),  is  the  Latin 
Libertini,   that   is,   "freedmen."    They  were 


Scarlet  Lily. 


probably  Jews  who,  having  been  taken  pris- 
oners by  Pompey  and  other  Roman  generals 
in  the  Syrian  wars,  had  been  reduced  to 
slavery,  and  had  afterwards  been  emancipated, 
and  returned,  permanently  or  for  a  time,  to 
the  country  of  their  fathers. 

Lice.  This  word  occurs  in  the  A.  V.  only 
in  Ex.  viii.  16-18,  and  in  Ps.  cv.  31 ;  both  of 
which  passages  have  reference  to  the  third 
great  plague  of  Egypt.  The  Hebrew  word  has 
given  occasion  to  whole  pages  of  discussion. 
Seme  commentators,  and  indeed  modern 
writers  generally,  suppose  that  gnats  are  the 
animals  intended  by  the  original  word ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Jewish  Rabbis, 
Josephus,  and  others,  are  in  favor  of  the  trans- 
lation of  the  A.  V.  Upon  the  whole  it  appears 
that  there  is  not  sufficient  authority  for  de- 
parting from  the  translation  of  the  A.  V. 

Lily.  Although  there  is  little  doubt  that  the 
Hebrew  word  denotes  some  plant  of  the  lily 
species,  it  is  by  no  means  certain  what  indi- 
vidual of  this  class  it  especially  designates.  If 
the  lily  of  the  O.  T.  and  of  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount  be  identical,  which  there  seems  no 
reason  to  doubt,  the  plant  designated  by  these 
terms  must  have  been  a  conspicuous  object  on 


LION 

the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret  (Matt. 

vi.  28 ;  Luke  xii.  27)  ;  it  must  have  have 
flourished  in  the  deep  broad  valleys  of  Pales- 
tine (Cant.  ii.  i),  among  the  thorny  shrubs 
(ib.  ii.  2)  and  pastures  of  the  desert  (ib.  ii.  16, 

iv.  5,  vi.  3),  and  must  have  been  remarkable 
for  its  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth  (Hos.  xiv. 
5;  Ecclus.  xxxix.  14).  That  its  flowers  were 
brilliant  in  color  would  seem  to  be  indicated 
in  Matt.  vi.  28,  where  it  is  compared  with  the 
gorgeous  robes  of  Solomon ;  and  that  this 
color  was  scarlet'  or  purple  is  implied  in  Cant. 

v.  13.  There  appears  to  be  no  species  of  lily 
which  so  completely  ansvvers  all  these  require- 
ments as  the  Scarlet  Martagon,  which  grows 
in  profusion  in  the  Levant.  But  direct  evi- 
dence on  the  point  is  still  to  be  desired  from 
the  observation  of  travellers. — The  Phoenician 
architects  of  Solomon's  temple  decorated  the 
capitals  of  the  columns  with  *'lily-work,"  that 
is,  with  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  lily  (i  K. 

vii.  ),  corresponding  to  the  lotus-headed  capi- 
tals of  Egyptian  architecture.  The  rim  of  the 
"brazen  sea"  was  possibly  wrought  in  the 
form  of  the  recurved  margin  of  a  lily  flower 
(i  K.  vii.  26). 


Lily  of  Palestine. 


Lime.  This  substance  is  noticed  only  three 
times  in  the  Bible,  viz.  in  Deut.  xxvii.  2,  4  (A. 
V.  "plaister"),  in  Is.  xxxiii.  12,  and  in  Am.  ii.  i. 

Linen.  As  Egypt  was  the  great  centre  of 
the  linen  manufacture  of  antiquity,  it  is  in  con- 
nection with  that  country  that  we  find  the  first 
allusion  to  it  in  the  Bible.  Joseph,  when  pro- 
moted to  the  dignity  of  ruler  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  was  arrayed  "in  vestures  of  fine  linen" 
(Gen.  xli.  42),  and  among  the  offerings  for  the 
tabernacle  of  the  things  which  the  Israelites 
had  brought  out  of  Egypt  were  "bine,  and  pur- 
ple, and  scarlet,  and  fine  linen"  (Ex.  xxv.  4, 
xxxv.  6). 

Lion.   At  present  lions  do  not  exist  in  Pales- 


LIZARD 


LOCUST 


tine ;  but  they  must  in  ancient  times  have  been 
numerous.  The  names  Lebaoth  (Josh.  xv. 
32),  Beth-Lebaoth  (Josh.  xix.  6),  Arieh  (2  K. 
XV.  25),  and  Laish  (Judg.  xviii.  7;  i  Sam.  xxv. 
44),  were  probably  derived  from  the  presence 
of  or  connection  with  Hons,  and  point  to  the 
fact  that  they  were  at  one  time  common.  They 
had  their  lairs  in  the  forests  which  have  van- 
ished with  them  (Jer.  v.  6,  xii.  8;  Am.  iii.  4),  in 
the  tangled  brushwood  (Jer.  iv.  7,  xxv.  38 ;  Job 
xxxviii.  40),  and  in  the  caves  of  the  mountains 
(Cant.  iv.  8;  Ez.  xix.  9;  Nah.  ii.  12).  The 
canebrake  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  the 
"pride"  of  the  river,  was  their  favorite  haunt 
(Jer.  xlix.  19,  1.  44;  Zech.  xi.  3).  The  lion  of 
Palestine  was  in  all  probability  the  Asiatic 
variety,  described  by  Aristotle  and  Pliny  as 
distinguished  by  its  short  curly  mane,  and  by 
being  shorter  and  rounder  in  shape,  like  the 
sculptured  lion  found  at  Arban.  It  was  less 
daring  than  the  longer  maned  species,  but 
when  driven  by  hunger  it  not  only  ventured 


Tbe  Syrian  Hon. 


to  attack  the  flocks  in  the  desert  in  presence  of 
the  shepherd  (Is.  xxxi.  4;  i  Sam.  xvii.  34),  but 
laid  waste  towns  and  villages  (2  K.  xvii.  25, 
26;  Prov.  xxii.  13,  xxvi.  13),  and  devoured 
men  (i  K.  xiii.  24,  xx.  36;  2  K.  xvii.  25;  Ez. 
xix.  3,  6).  Among  the  Hebrews,  and  through- 
out the  O.  T.,  the  lion  was  the  achievement  of 
the  princely  tribe  of  Judah,  while  in  the  clos- 
ing book  of  the  canon  it  received  a  deeper  sig- 
nificance as  the  emblem  of  Him  who  "pre- 
vailed to  open  the  book  and  loose  the  seven 
seals  thereof"  (Rev.  v.  5).  On  the  other  hand 
its  fierceness  and  cruelty  rendered  it  an- ap- 
propriate metaphor  for  a^fierce  and  malignant 
enemy  (Ps.  vii.  2,  xxii.  21,  Ivii.  4;  2  Tim.  iv. 
17),  and  hence  for  the  arch-fiend  himself  (i 
Pet.  v.  8.  The  figure  of  the  lion  was  employed 
as  an  ofnament  both  in  architecture  and 
sculpture. 

Liz'ard.  Lizards  of  various  kinds  abound  in 
Egypt,  Palestine  and  Arabia.    The  lizard  de- 


noted by  the  Hebrew  word  is  probably  the 
Fan-Foot  Lizard,  which  is  common  in  Egypt 
and  in  parts  of  Arabia,  and  perhaps  is  also 
found  in  Palestine.  It  is  reddish  brown, 
spotted  with  white.    The  Geckos  live  on  in- 


Lizard. 


sects  and  worms,  which  they  swallow  whole. 
They  derive  their  name  from  the  peculiar 
sound  which  some  of  the  species  utter. 
Loaves.  [Bread.] 

Lock.  Where  European  locks  have  not  been 
introduced,  the  locks  of  Eastern  houses  are 
usually  of  wood,  and  consist  of  a  partly  hol- 
low bolt  from  14  inches  to  2  feet  long  for  ex- 
ternal doors  or  gates,  or  from  7  to  9  inches  for 
interior  doors.  The  bolt  passes  through  a 
groove  in  a  piece  attached  to  the  door  into  a 
socket  in  the  door-post. 

Locust,  a  well-known  insect,  which  commits 
terrible  ravages  on  vegetation  in  the  countries 
which  it  visits.  In  the  Bible  there  are  fre- 
quent allusions  to  locusts ;  and  there  are  nine 
or  ten  Hebrew  words  which  are  supposed  to 
denote  dififerent  varieties  or  species  of  this 
family.  Locusts  occur  in  great  numbers,  and 
sometimes  obscure  the  sun  (Ex.  x.  15;  Jer. 


Locusts. 


xlvi.  23;  Judg.  vi.  5,  vii.  12;  Joel  ii.  10;  Nah.  iii. 
15).  Their  voracity  is  alluded  to  in  Ex.  x.  12, 
15;  Joel  i.  4,  7,  12,  and  ii.  3;  Deut.  xxviii.  38; 
Ps.  Ixxviii.  46,  cv.  34;  Is.  xxxiii.  4.  They  are 
compared  to  horses — Joel  ii.  4;  Rev.  ix.  7. 
They  make  a  fearful  noise  in  their  flight  (Joel 
ii.  5;  Rev.  ix.  9).    They  have  no  king  (Prov. 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF  TKE 


LOOKING-GLASSES 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


XXX.  27).  Their  irresistible  progress  is  referred 
to  in  Joel  ii.  8,  9.  ■  They  enter  dwellings,  and 
devour  even  the  woodwork  of  houses  (Ex.  x. 
6;  Joel  ii.  9,  10).  They  do  not  fly  in  the  night 
(Nah.  iii.  17).  The  sea  destroys  the  greater 
number  (Ex.  x.  19;  Joel  ii.  20).  Their  dead 
bodies  taint  the  air  (Joel  ii.  20).  The  A.  V. 
is  "clearly  in  error  in  translating  this  word 
"beetle ;"  it  occurs  only  in  Lev.  xi.  22,  but  it  is 
clear  from  the  context  that  it  denotes  some 
species  of  winged  insect  which  the  Israelites 
were  allowed  to  use  as  food.  Locusts  were 
used  as  food  (Lev.  xi.  21,  22  ;  ]\Iatt.  iii.  4;  Mark 
i.  6).  There  are  different  ways  of  preparing 
locusts  for  food :  sometimes  they  are  ground 
and  pounded,  and  then  mipced  with  flour  and 
water  and  made  into  cakes,  or  they  are  salted 
and  then  eaten ;  sometimes  smoked ;  boiled  or 
roasted ;  stewed,  or  fried  in  butter.  From 
ignorance  of  this  fact,  some  persons  have 
erroneously  asserted  that  the  locusts  which 
formed  part  of  the  food  of  the  Baptist  were 
not  the  insect  of  that  name,  but  the  long  sweet 


Locust  Flying. 

pods  of  the  locust-tree,  "St.  John's  bread,"  as 
the  monks  of  Palestine  call  it. 

Looking-glasses.  [Mirrors.] 

Lord?  [God.] 

Lord's  Day,  The  (Rev.  i.  10  only),  the  week- 
ly festival  of  our  Lord's  resurrection,  and 
identified  with  "the  first  day  of  the  week,"  or 
'^Sunday,"  of  every  age  of  the  Church.  Scrip- 
ture says  very  little  concerning  this  day.  But 
that  little  seems  to  indicate  that  the  divinely 
inspired  apostles,  by  their  practice  and  by 
their  precepts,  marked  the  first  day  of  the 
week  as  a  day  for  meeting  together  to  break 
bread,  for  communicating  and  reteiving  in- 
struction, for  laying  up  offerings  in  store  for 
charitable  purposes,  for  occupation  in  holy 
thought  and  prayer.  The  first  day  of  the  week 
so  devoted  seems  also  to  have  been  the  day  of 
the  Lord's  Resurrection.  [Sabbath.] 

Lord's  Supper.  The  words  which  thus  de- 
scribe the  great  central  act  of  the  worship  of 


the  Christian  Church  occur  but  in  one  single 
passage  of  the  N.  T.  (i  Cor.  xi.  20).  I.  It  was 
instituted  on  that  night  when  Jesus  and  his 
disciples  met  together  to  eat  the  Passover 
(Matt.  xxvi.  19;  Mark  xiv.  16;  Luke  xxii.  13). 
The  Paschal  feast  was  kept  by  the  Jews  of 
that  period  in  the  following  order:  (i)  The 
members  of  the  company  that  were  joined  for 
this  purpose  met  in  the  evening  and  reclined 
on  couches  (comp.  Matt.  xxvi.  20;  Luke  xxii. 
14;  and  John  xiii.  23,  25).  The  head  of  the 
household,  or  celebrant  began  by  a  form  of 
blessing  "for  the  day  and  for  the  wine,"  pro- 
nounced over  a  cup,  of  which  he  and  the  others 
then  drank.  (2)  All  who  were  present  then 
washed  their  hands ;  this  also  having  a  special 
benediction.  (3)  The  table  was  then  set  out 
with  the  paschal  lamb,  unleavened  bread,  bit- 
ter herbs,  and  the  dish  known  as  Charoseth,  a 
sauce  made  of  dates,  figs,  raisins,  and  vinegar, 
and  designed  to  commemorate  the  mortar  of 
their  bondage  in  Egypt.  (4)  The  celebrant 
first,  and  then  the  others,  dipped  a  portion  of 
the  bitter  herbs  into  the  Charoseth  and  ate 
them.  (5)  The  dishes  were  then  removed,  and 
a  cup  of  wine  again  brought.  Then  followed 
an  interval  which  was  allowed  theoretically 
for  the  questions  that  might  be  asked  by  chil- 
dren or  proselytes,  who  were  astonished  at 
such  a  strange  beginning  of  a  feast,  and  the 
cup  was  passed  round  and  drunk  at  the  close 
of  it.  (6)  The  dishes  being  brought  on  again, 
the  celebrant  repeated  the  commemorative 
words  which  opened  what  was  strictly  the 
paschal  supper,  and  pronounced  a  solemn 
thanksgiving,  followed  by  Ps.  cxiii.  and  cxiv. 

(7)  Then  came  a  second  washing  of  the  hands, 
with  a  short  form  of  blessing  as  before,  and 
the  celebrant  broke  one  of  the  two  loaves  or 
cakes  of  unleavened  bread,  and  gave  thanks 
over  it.  All  then  took  portions  of  the  bread, 
and  dipped  them,  together  with  the  bitter 
herbs,  into  the  Charoseth,  and  so  ate  them. 

(8)  After  this  they  ate  the  flesh  of  the  paschal 
lamb,  with  bread,  &c.,  as  they  liked,;  and  after 
another  blessing,  a  third  cup,  known  especially 
as  the  "cup  of  blessing,"  was  handed  round. 

(9)  This  was  succeeded  by  a  fourth  cup,  and 
the  recital  of  Ps.  cxv.-cxviii.  followed  by  a 
prayer,  and  this  was  accordingly  known  as  the 
cup  of  the  Hallel,  or  of  the  Song.  (10)  There 
might  be,  in  conclusion,  a  fifth  cup,  provided 
that  the  "great  Hallel"  (possibly  Psalms  cxx.- 
cxxxviii.)  was  sung  over  it.  The  narratives  of 
the  Gospels  show  how  strongly  the  disciples 
were  impressed  with  the  words  which  had 
given  a  new  meaning  to  the  old  familiar  acts. 
They  had  looked  on  the  bread  and  the  wine 
as  memorials  of  the  deliverance  from  Egypt. 


221 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


LOT 


They  were  now  told  to  partake  of  them  "in 
remembrance"  of  their  Master  and  Lord.  The 
words,  -"This  is  my  body,"  gave  to  the  un- 
leavened bread  a  new  character.  They  had 
been  prepared  for  language  that  would  other- 
wise have  been  so  startling,  by  the  teaching  of 
John  (vi.  32-58),  and  they  were'thus  taught  to 
see  in  the  bread  that  was  broken  the  witness 
of  the  closest  possible  union  and  incorporation 
with  their  Lord.  The  cup  which  was  "the 
new  testament  in  His  blood,"  would  remind 
them,  in  like  manner,  of  the  wonderful 
prophecy  in  which  that  new  covenant  had 
been  foretold  (Jer.  xxxi.  31-34).  IL  In  the 
account  given  by  the  writer  of  the  Acts  o-f  the 
life  of  the  first  disciples  at  Jerusalem,  a  promi- 
nent place  is  given  to  this  act,  and  to  the 
phrase  which  indicated  it.  He  describes  the 
l3aptized  members  of  the  Church  as  continuing 
steadfast  in  or  to  the  teaching  of  the  apostles, 
in  fellowship  with  them  and  with  each  other, 
and  in  breaking  of  bread  and  in  prayers  (Acts 
ii.  42).  The  congregation  assembling  in  each 
place  would  corrie  to  be  known  as  "the 
Church"  in  this  or  that  man's  house  (Rom. 
xvi.  5,  23 ;  I  Cor.  xvi.  19;  Col.  iv.  15;  Philem. 
ver.  2).  When  they  met,  the  place  of  honor 
would  naturally  be  taken  by  one  of  the 
apostles,  or  some  elder  representing  him.  It 
would  belong  to  him  to  pronounce  the  bless- 
ing and  thanksgiving,  with  which  the  meals  of 
devout  Jews  always  began  and  ended.  The 
bread  (unless  the  converted  Jews  were  to 
think  of  themselves  as  keeping  a  perpetual 
passover)  would  be  such  as  they  habitually 
used.  The  wine  (probably  the  common  red 
wine  of  Palestine,  Prov.  xxiii.  31)  would,  ac- 
cording to  their  usual  practice,  be  mixed  with 
water.  At  some  time,  before  or  after  the  meal 
of  which  they  partook  as  such,  the  bread  and 
the  wine  would  be  given  with  some  special 
form  of  words  or  acts,  to  indicate  its  character. 
New  converts  would  need  some  explanation  of 
the  meaning  and  origin  of  the  observance. 
What  would  be  so  fitting  and  so  much  in  har- 
mony with  the  precedents  of  the  Paschal  feast 
as  the  narrative  of  what  had  passed  on  the 
night  of  its  institution  (i  Cor.  xi.  23-27)? 
With  this  there  would  naturally  be  associated 
(as  in  Acts  ii.  42)  prayers  for  themselves  and 
others.  Their  gladness  would  show  itself  in 
the  psalms  and  hymns  with  which  they  praised 
God  (Heb.  ii.  46,  47;  James  v.  13).  The 
analogy  of  the  Passover,  the  general  feeling 
of  the  Jews,  and  the  practice  of  the  Essenes 
may  possibly  have  suggested  ablutions,  par- 
tial or  entire,  as  a  preparation  for  the  feast 
(Heb.  X.  22;  John  xiii.  1-15).  At  some  point 
in  the  feast  those  who  were  present,  men  and 


women  sitting  apart,  would  rise  to  salute  each 
other  with  the  "holy  kiss"  (i  Cor.  xvi.  20;  2 
Cor.  xiii.  12). 

Lot,  the  son  of  Haran,  and  therefore  the 
nephew  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  27,  31).  His 
sisters  were  Milcah  the  wife  of  Nahor,  and 
Iscah,  by  some  identified  with  Sarah.  Haran 
died  before  the  emigration  of  Terah  and  his 
family  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  (ver.  28),  and 
Lot  was  therefore  born  there.  He  removed 
with  the  rest  of  his  kindred  to  Charran,  and 
again  subsequently  with  Abraham  and  Sarai 
to  Canaan  (xii.  4,  5).  With  them  he  took 
refuge  in  Egypt  from  a  famine,  and  with  them 
returned,  first  to  the  "South"  (xiii.  i),  and 
then  to  their  original  settlement  between 
Bethel  and  Ai  (ver.  3,  4).,  But  the  pastures  of 
th-e  hills  of  Bethel,  which  had  with  ease  con- 
tained the  two  strangers  on  their  first  arrival, 
were  not  able  any  longer  to  bear  them,  so 
much  had  their  possessions  of  sheep,  goats, 
and  cattle  increased.  Accordingly  they  sepa- 
rated, Lot  choosing  the  fertile  plain  of  the 
Jordan,  and  advancing  as  far  as  Scdom  (Gen. 
xiii.  10-14).  The  next  occurrence  in  the  life 
of  Lot  is  his  capture  by  the  four  kings  of  the 
East,  and  his  rescue  by  Abram  (Gen.  xiv.). 
The  last  scene  preserved  to  us  in  the  history 
of  Lot  is  too  well  known  to  need  repetition. 
He  is  still  living  in  Sodom  (Gen.  xix.).  But 
in  the  midst  of  the  licentious  corruption  of 
that  city,  he  preserves  some  of  the  delightful 
characteristics  of  his  wandering  life,  his'fervent 
and  chivalrous  hospitality  (xix.  2,  8),  the  un- 
leavened bread  of  the  tent  of  the  wilderness, 
the  water  for  the  feet  of  the  wayfarers,  afiford- 
ing  his  guests  a  reception  identical  with  that 
which  they  had  experienced  that  very  morn- 
ing in  Abraham's  tent  on  the  heights  of  Heb- 
ron (comp.  xviii.  3,  6).  His  deliverance  from 
the  guilty  and  condemned  city  points  the  allu- 
sion of  St.  Peter  (2  Pet.  ii.  6-9).  Where  Zoar 
was  situated,  in  which  he  found  a  temporary 
refuge  during  the  destruction  of  the  other 
cities  of  the  plain,  we  do  not  know  with  abso- 
lute certainty.  The  end  of  Lot's  wife  is  com- 
monly treated  as  one  of  the  difficulties  of  the 
Bible.  But  it  surely  need  not  be  so.  It  can- 
not be  necessary,  as  some  have  done,  to  create 
the  details  of  the  story  where  none  are  given. 
On  these  points  the  record  is  silent.  The  value 
and  the  significance  of  the  story  to  us  are  con- 
tained in  the  allusion  of  Christ  (Luke  xvii.  32). 
Later  ages  have  not  been  satisfied  so  to  leave 
the  matter,  but  have  insisted  on  identifying 
the  "pillar"  with  some  one  of  the  fleeting 
forms  which  the  perishable  rock  of  the  south 
end  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  constantly  assuming 
in  its  process  of  decomposition  and  liquefac- 


222 


LUCIFER 


LUKE,  GOSPEL  OF 


tion.  From  the  incestuous  intercourse  between 
Lot  and  his  two  daughters  sprang  the  nations 
of  Moab  and  Ammon. 

Lu'cifer,  found  in  Is.  xiv.  12,  coupled  with 
the  epithet  ''son  of  the  morning,"  clearly  sig- 
nifies a  "bright  star,"  and  probably  what  we 
call  the  morning  star.  In  this  passage  it  is  a 
symbolical  representation  of  the  king  of 
Babylon,  in  his  splendor  and  in  his  fall.  Its 
application,  from  St.  Jerome  downwards,  to 
Satan  in  his  fall  from  heaven,  arises  probably 
from  the  fact  that  the  Babylonian  Empire  is 
in  Scripture  represented  as  the  type  of  tyran- 
nical and  self-idolizing  power,  and  especially 
connected  with  the  empire  of  the  Evil  One  in 
the  xA.pocalypse. 

Luke  (light  giving),  or  Lii'cas,  is  an  ab- 
breviated form  of  Lucanus.  It  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  Lucius  (Acts.  xiii.  i  ;  Rom. 
xvi.  21),  which  belongs  to  a  different  person. 
The  name  Luke  occurs  three  times  in  the  N. 
T.  (Col.  iv.  14;  2  Tim.  iv.  11  ;  Philem.  24),  and 
probably  in  all  three,  the  third  evangelist  is  the 
person  spoken  of.  Combining  the  traditional 
element  with  the  scriptural,  we  are  able  to 
trace  the  following  dim  outline  of  the  Evan- 
gelist's life.  He  was  not  born  a  Jew,  for  he  is 
not  reckoned  among  them  "of  the  circum- 
cision" by  St.  Paul  (comp.  Col.  iv.  11  with 
ver.  14).  ♦The  date  of  his  conversion  is  uncer- 
tain. He  joined  St.  Paul  at  Troas.  and  shared 
his  journey  into  Macedonia.  The  sudden 
transition  to  the  first  person  plural  in  Acts  xvi. 
9,  is  most  naturally  explained,  after  all  the  ob- 
jections that  have  been  urged,  by  supposing 
that  Luke,  the  writer  of  the  Acts,  formed  one 
of  St.  Paul's  company  from  this  point.  As  far 
as  Philippi  the  Evangelist  journeyed  with  the 
Apostle.  The  resumption  of  the  third  person 
on  Paul's  departure  from -that  place  (xvii.  i) 
would  show  that  Luke  was  now  left  behind. 
During  the. rest  of  St.  Paul's  second  mission- 
ary journey  we  hear  of  Luke  no  more.  But  of 
the  third  journey  the  same  indication  reminds 
us  that  Luke  is  again  of  the  company  (Acts 
XX.  5),  having  joined  it  apparently  at  Philippi, 
where  he  had  been  left.  With  the  Apostle  he 
passed  through  Miletus,  Tyre,  and  Caesarea  to 
Jerusalem  (xx.  5,  xxi.  18).  He  again  appears 
in  the  company  of  Paul  in  the  memorable 
journey  to  Rome  (Acts  xxvii.  i).  He  remained 
at  his  side  during  his  first  imprisonment  (Col. 
iv.  14;  Philem.  24)  ;  and  if  it  is  to  be  supposed 
that  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  was  writ- 
ten during  the  second  imprisonment,  then  the 
testimony  of  that  Epistle  (iv.  11)  shows  that 
he  continued  faithful  to  the  Apostle  to  the  end 
of  his  afflictions.  As  to  his  age  and  death, 
there  is  the  utmost  uncertainty.    He  probably 


died  a  martyr,  between  A.  D.  75  and  A.  D. 
100. 

Luke,  Gospel  of.  The  third  Gospel  is 
ascribed,  by  the  general  consent  of  ancient 
Christendom,  to  "the  beloved  physician," 
Luke,  the  friend  and  companion  of  the  Apostle 
Paul.  I.  Date  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke. — From 
Acts  i.  I,  it  is  clear  that  the  Gospel  described 
as  "'the  former  treatise"  was  written  before  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  but  how  much  earlier 
is  uncertain.  Perhaps  it  was  written  at 
Caesarea  during  St.  Paul's  imprisonment 
there,  A.  D.  58-60.  II.  Place  where  the  Gospel 
was  written. — If  the  time  has  been  rightly  in- 
dicated, the  place  would  be  Caesarea.  III. 
Origin  of  the  Gospel. — The  preface,  contained 
in  the  first  four  verses  of  the  Gospel,  describes 
the  object  of  its  writer.  Here  are  several  facts 
to  be  observed.  There  were  many  narratives 
of  the  life  of  our  Lord  current  at  the  early 
time  when  Luke  wrote  his  Gospel.  The  ground 
of  fitness  for  the  task  St.  Luke  places  in  his 
having  carefully  followed  out  the  whole  course 
of  events  from  the  beginning.  He  does  not 
claim  the  character  of  an  eye-witness  from  the 
first ;  but  possibly  he  may  have  been  a  witness 
of  some  part  of  our  Lord's  doings.  The  ancient 
opinion,  that  Luke  wrote  his  Gospel  under  the 
influence  of  Paul,  rests  on  the  authority  of 
Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  Origen,  and  Eusebius. 
The  two  first  assert  that  we  have  in  Luke  the 
Gospel  preached  by  Paul ;  Origen  calls  it  "the 
Gospel  quoted  by  Paul,"  alluding  to  Rom.  ii. 
16;  and  Eusebius  refers  Paul's  words,  "ac- 
cording to  my  Gospel"  (2  Tim.  ii.  8),  to  that 
of  Luke,  in  which  Jerome  concurs.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  preface  is  against  the  notion  of 
any  exclusive  influence  of  St.  Paul.  The  four 
verses  could  not  have  been  put  at  the  head  of  a 
history  composed  under  the  exclusive  guidance 
of  Paul  or  of  any  one  apostle,  and  as  little 
could  they  have  introduced  a  gospel  simply 
communicated  by  another.  The  truth  seems 
to  be  that  St.  Luke,  seeking  information  from 
every  quarter,  sought  it  from  the  preaching 
of  his  beloved  master,  St.  Paul ;  and  the  apostle 
in  his  turn  employed  the  knowledge  acquired 
from  other  sources  by  his  disciple.  Upon  the 
question  whether  Luke  made  use  of  the  Gos- 
pels of  Matthew  and  Mark,  see  Gospels.  IV. 
Purpose  for  which  the  Gospel  was  written. — 
The  Evangelist  professes  to  write  that 
Theophilus  "might  know  the  certainty  of  those 
things  wherein  he  had  been  instructed"  (i.  4). 
This  Theophilus  was  probably  a  native  of 
Italy,  and  perhaps  an  inhabitant  of  Rome,  for 
in  tracing  St.  Paul's  journey  to  Rome,  places 
which  an  Italian  might  be  supposed  not  to 
know  are  described  minutely  (Acts  xxvii.  8, 


223 


LUNATICS 

12,  i6)  ;  but'^when  he  comes  to  Sicily  and  Italy 
this  is  neglected.  Hence  it  would  appear  that 
the  person  for  whom  Luke  wrote  in  the  first 
instance  was  a  Gentile  reader ;  and  accordingly 
we  find  traces  in  the  Gospel  of  a  leaning 
towards  Gentile  rather  than  Jewish  converts. 

Lyd'da,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name  (Acts  ix. 
32,  35,  38),  which  appears  in  the  Hebrew  rec- 
ords as  Lod,  a  town  of  Benjamin,  founded  by 
Shamed  or  Shamer  ( i  Chr.  viii.  12 ;  Ezr.  ii.  33 ; 
Neh.  vii.  37,  xi.  35).  It  is  9  miles  from  Joppa, 
and  is  the  first  town  on  the  northernmost  of  the 
two  roads  between  that  place  and  Jerusalem. 
The  watercourse  outside  the  town  is  said  still  to 
bear  the  name  of  Abi-Butrus  (Peter),  in  mem- 
ory of  the  Apostle. 

Lunatics,  This  word  is  used  twice  in  the  N. 
T.  (Matt.  iv.  24,  xvii.  15).  It  is  evident  that 
the  word  itself  refers  to  some  disease,  affecting 
both  the  body  and  the  mind,  which  might  or 
might  not  be  a  sign  of  possession.  By  the 
description  of  Mark  ix.  17-26,  it  is  concluded 
that  this  disease  was  epilepsy. 


M. 


Maccabees  (a  hammer),'  The.  This  title, 
which  was  originally  the  surname  of  Judas, 
one  of  the  sons  of  Mattathias,  was  afterwards 
extended  to  the  heroic  family  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  noblest  representatives.  Although 
the  name  Maccabees  has  gained  the  widest 
currency,  that  of  Asmonaeans,  or  Hasmon- 
aeans,  is  the  proper  name  of  the  family,  which 
is  derived  from  Cashmon,  great-grandfather  of 
Mattathias.  i.  The  Maccabees  were  a  family 
of  Jews  who  resisted  the  authority  of  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes,  king  of  Assyria,  and  his  suc- 
cessors who  had  usurped  authority  over  the 
Jews,  conquered  Jerusalem  and  strove  to  in- 
troduce Idolatrous  worship  (v.  62).  The 
standard  of  independence  was  first  raised  by 
Mattathias,  a  priest  of  the  course  of  Joiarib, 
which  was  the  first  of  the  twenty-four  courses 
(l  Chr.  xxiv.  7),  and  consequently  of  the 
noblest  blood.  He  seems,  however,  to  have 
been  already  advanced  in  years  when  the  ris- 
ing was  made,  and  he  did  not  long  survive  the 
fatigues  of  active  service.  He  died  B.  C.  166. 
2.  Mattathias  himself  named  Judas — apparently 
his  third  son — as  his  successor  in  directing  the 
war  of  independence  (i  Mace.  ii.  66).  After 
gaining  several  victories  over  the  other  gen- 
erals of  Antiochus,  and  defeating  Lysias, 
whom  Antiochus  Epiphanes  left  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Palestinian  provinces,  Judas  was 
able  to  occup}'  Jerusalem,  except  the  "tower" 
(i  Mace.  vi.  18,  19),  and  purified  the  Temple 
(i  Mace.  iv.  36,  41-53)  on  the  25th  of  Cisleu, 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 

exactly  three  years  after  its  profanation  (i 
Mace.  i.  59).  This  victory  was  the  greatest  of 
Judas's  successes,  and  practically  decided  the 
question  of  Jewish  independence,  but  it  was 
followed  by  an  unexpected  reverse.  A  new 
invasion  under  Bacchides  took  place.  Judas 
was  able  only  to  gather  a  small  force  to  meet 
the  sudden  danger,  and  he  fell  at  Eleasa,  the 
Jewish  Thermopylae,  fighting  at  desperate 
odds  against  the  invaders  (B.  C.  161).  3.  After 
the  death  of  Judas  the  patriotic  party  offered 
the  command  to  Jonathan,  surnamed  Apphus 
(the  wary),  the  youngest  son  of  Mattathias. 
After  two  or  three  campaigns  Bacchides  ac- 
cepted terms  which  Jonathan  proposed ;  and 
upon  his  departure  Jonathan  "judged  the  peo- 
ple at  Michmash"  (i  Mace.  ix.  73),  and  grad- 
ually extended  his  power.  The  claim  of  Alex- 
ander Balas  to  the  Syrian  crown  gave  a  new 
importance  to  Jonathan  and  his  adherents.  The 
success  of  Alexander  led  to  the  elevation  of 
Jonathan,  who  assumed  the  high-priestly  office 
(i  Mace.  X.  21)  ;  and  not  long  after  he  placed 
the  king  under  fresh  obligations  by  the  defeat 
of  ApoUonius,  a  general  of  the  younger 
Demetrius  (i  Mace.  x.).  After  the  death  of 
Alexander,  Jonathan  attached  himself  to  Anti- 
ochus VI.  He  at  last  fell  a  victim  to  the 
treachery  of  Tryphon,  who  put  him  to  death 
B.  C.  144  (i  Mace.  xi.  8-xii.  4).  4.  As  soon  as 
Simon,  the  last  remaining  brother  of  the  Mac- 
cabaean  family,  heard  of  the  detention  of  Jona- 
than in  Ptolemais  by  Tryphon,  he  placed  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  patriot  party.  He  made 
overtures  to  Demetrius  II.  (B.  C.  143),  which 
were  favorably  received,  and-  the  independence 
of  the  Jews  was  at  length  formally  recognized. 
The  long  struggle  was  now  triumphantly 
ended,  and  it  remained  only  to  reap  the  fruits 
of  victory.  With  two  of  his  sons  he  was  mur- 
dered at  Dok  by  Ptolemaeus,  B.  C.  135  (i 
Mace.  xvi.  11-16).  5.  The. treason  of  Ptole- 
maeus failed  in  its  object.  Johannes  Hyrcanus, 
one  of  the  sons  of  Simon,  escaped  from  the 
plot  by  which  his  life  was  threatened,  and  at 
once  assumed  the  government  (B.  C.  135).  He 
reduced  Idumaea,  confirmed  the  alliance  with 
Rome,  and  at  length  succeeded  in  destroying 
Samaria,  the  hated  rival  of  Jerusalem,  B.  C. 
109.  John  escaped  the  fate  of  all  the  older 
members  of  his  family,  and  died  in  peace,  B.  C. 
106-5.  His  eldest  son  Aristobulus  L,  who  suc- 
ceeded, was  the  first  who  assumed  the  kingly 
title,  though  Simon  had  enjoyed  the  fulness 
of  the  kingly  power. 

Maccabees,  Books  of.  Four  books  which 
bear  the  common  title  of  "Maccabees"  are 
found  in  some  MSS.  of  the  LXX.  Two  of 
these  were  included  in  the  early  current  Latin 


224 


I 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 

versions  of  the  Bible,  and  thence  passed  into 
the  Vulgate.  As  forming  part  -of  the  Vulgate 
they  were  received  as  canonical  by  the  council 
of  Trent,  and  retained  among  the  apocrypha  by 
the  reformed  churches.  The  two  other  books 
obtained  no  such  wide  circulation,  and  have 
only  a  secondary  connection  with  the  Mac- 
cabaean  history,  i.  The  First  Book  of  Mac- 
cabees contains  a  history  of  the  patriotic  strug- 
gle, from  the  first  resistance  of  Mattathias  to 
the  settled  sovereignty  and  death  of  Simon,  a 
period  of  thirty-three  years  (B.  C.  168-135). 
The  opening  chapter  gives  a  short  summary 
of  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
describes  at  greater  length  the  oppression  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The  great  subject  of 
the  book  begins  with  the  enumeration  of  the 
Maccabaean  family  (ii.  1-5),  which  is  followed 
by  an  account  of  the  part  which  the  aged  ]\Iat- 
tathias  took  in  rousing  and  guiding  the  spirit 
of  his  countrymen  (ii.  6-70).  The  remainder 
of  the  narrative  is  occupied  with  the  exploits 
of  his  five  sons.  Each  of  the  three  divisions 
into  which  the  main  portion  of  the  book  thus 
naturally  falls,  is  stamped  with  an  individual 
character  derived  from  its  special  hero.  The 
great  marks  of  trustworthiness  are  everywhere 
conspicuous.  Victory  and  failure  and  de- 
spondency are,  on  the  whole,  chronicled  with 
the  same  candor.  There  is  no  attempt  to  bring 
into  open  display  the  working  of  Providence. 
The  testimony  of  antiquity  leaves  no  doubt 
but  that  the  book  was  first  written  in  Hebrew. 
Its  whole  structure  points  to  Palestine  as  the 
place  of  its  composition.  There  is,  however, 
considerable  doubt  as  to  its  date.  Perhaps  we 
may  place  it  between  B.  C.  120-100.  The  date 
and  person  of  the  Greek  translator  are  wholly 
undetermined.  2.  The  Second  Book  of  Mac- 
cabees.— The  history  of  the  Second  Book  of 
the  Maccabees  begins  some  years  earlier  than 
that  of  the  First  Book,  and  closes  with  the  vic- 
tory of  Judas  Maccabaeus  over  Nicanor.  It 
thus  embraces  a  period  of  twenty  years,  from 
B.  C.  180  (?)  to  B.  C.  161.  The  writer  himself 
distinctly  indicates  the  source  of  his  narrative 
— "the  five  books  of  Jason  of  Cyrene"  (ii.  23), 
of  which  he  designed  to  furnish  a  short  and 
agreeable  epitome  for  the  benefit  of  those  who 
would  be  deterred  from  studying  the  larger 
work.  His  own  labor,  which  he  describes  in 
strong  terms  (ii.  26,  27;  comp.  xv.  38,  39),  was 
entirely  confined  to  condensation  and  selec- 
tion; all  investigation  of  detail  he  declares  to 
be  the  peculiar  duty  of  the  original  historian. 
Of  Jason  himself  nothing  more  is  known  than 
may  be  gleaned  from  this  mention  of  him.  The 
district  of  Cyrene  was  most  closely  united  with 
that  of  Alexandria.   In  both  the  predominance 


MACEDONIA 

of  Greek  literature  and  the  Greek  language 
was  absolute.  The  work  of  Jason  must  there- 
fore have  been  composed  in  Greek ;  and  the 
style  of  the  epitome  proves  beyond  doubt  that 
the  Greek  text  is  the  original.  It  is  scarcely 
less  certain  that  the  book  was  compiled  at 
Alexandria. — The  Second  Book  of  Maccabees 
is  not  nearly  so  trustworthy  as  the  First.  In 
the  Second  Book  the  groundwork  of  facts  is 
true,  but  the  dress  in  which  the  facts  arc  pre- 
sented is  due  in  part  at  least  to  the  narrator. 
It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the  error  with 
regard  to  the  first  campaign  of  Lysias  arose 
from  the  mode  in  which  it  was  introduced  by 
Jason  as  a  prelude  to  the  more  important  meas- 
ures of  Lysias  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
Eupator.  In  other  places  (as  very  obviously 
in  xiii.  19,  f¥.)  the  compiler  may  have  disre- 
garded the  historical  dependence  of  events 
while  selecting  those  which  were  best  suited 
for  the  support  of  his  theme.  The  latter  half 
of  the  book'(cc.  viii.-xv.)  is  to  be  regarded  not 
as  a  connected  and  complete  history,  but  as  a 
series  of  special  incidents   from   the  life  of 


Coin  of  Macedon.    Head  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Judas,  illustrating  the  providential  interference 
of  God  in  behalf  of  His  people,  true  in  sub-' 
stance,  but  embellished  in  form.  3.  The  Third 
Book  of  the  Maccabees  contains  the  history  of 
events  which  preceded  the  great  Maccabaean 
struggle,  beginning  with  B.  C.  217.  4.  The 
Fourth  Book  of  Maccabees  contains  a  rhet- 
orical narrative  of  the  martyrdom  of  Eleazar 
and  of  the  "Maccabaean  family,"  following  in 
the  main  the  same  outline  as  2  Mace. 

Macedo'nia,  the  first  part  of  Europe  which 
received  the  Gospel -directly  from  St.  Paul,  and 
an  important  scene  of  his  subsequent  mission- 
ary labors  and  those  of  his  companions.  Three 
Roman  provinces,  all  very  familiar  to  us  in  the 
writings  of  St.  Paul,  divided  the  whole  space 
between  the  basin  of  the  Danube  and  Cape 
Matapan.  The  border  town  of  Illyricum  was 
Lissus  on  the  Adriatic.  The  boundary  line  of 
Achaia  nearly  coincided,  except  in  the  western 
portion,  with  that  of  the  kingdom  of  modern 
Greece,  and  ran  in  an  irregular  line  from  the 
Acroceraunian  promontory  to  the  bay  of  Ther- 
mopylae and  the  north  of  Euboea.  By  sub- 
tracting these  two  provinces,  we  define  Mace- 


225 


i 


MACEDONIAN 


MAGI 


donia.  The  account  of  St.  Paul's  first  journey 
through  Macedonia  (Acts  xvi.  lo-xvii.  15)  is 
marked  by  copious  detail  and  well-defined  in- 
cidents. At  the  close  of  this  journey  he  re- 
turned from  Corinth  to  Syria  by  sea.  On  the 
next  occasion  of  visiting  Europe,  though  he 
both  went  and  returned  through  Macedonia 
(Acts  XX.  1-6),  the  narrative  is  a  very  slight 
sketch,  and  the- route  is  left  uncertain,  except 
as  regards  Philippi.  The  character  of  the -Mace- 
donian Christians  is  set  before  us  in  Scripture 
in  a  very  favorable  light.  The  candor  of  the 
Bereans  is  highly  commended  (Acts  xvii.  11)  ; 
the  Thessalonians  were  evidently  objects  of  St. 
Paul's  peculiar  af¥ection  (i  Thess.  ii.  8,  17-20^ 

iii.  10)  ;  and  the  Philippians,  besides  their  gen- 
eral freedom  from  blame,  are  noted  as  remark- 
able for  their  liberality  and  self-denial  (Phil. 

iv.  10,  14-19;  see  2  Cor.  ix.  2,  xi.  9). 
Macedo'nian  occurs  in  A.  V.  only  in  Acts 

xxvii.  2;  Esth.  xvi.  10,  14.  In  tl\e  other  cases 
(Acts  xvi.  9,  xix.  29,  2  Cor.  ix.  2,  4)  our  trans- 
lators render  it  "of  Macedonia." 

Madness.  In  Scripture  "madness"  is  recog- 
nized as  a  derangement,  proceeding  either 
from  weakness  and  misdirection  of  intellect, 
or  from  ungovernable  violence  of  passion.  In 
one  passage  alone  (John  x.  20)  is  madness  ex- 
pressly connected  with  demoniacal  possession 
by  the  Jews  in  their  cavil  against  our  Lord ;  in 
none  is  it  referred  to  any  physical  causes. 

Mag'dala  (a  tower).  The  name  Magdala  does 
not  really  exist  in  the  Bible.  It  is  found  in  the 
received  Greek  text  and  the  A.  V.  of  Matt.  xv. 
39  only;  but  the  chief  MSS.  and  versions  ex- 
hibit the  name  as  "Magadan."  Into  the  lim- 
its of  Magadan  Christ  came  by  boat,  over  the 
lake  of  Gennesareth,  after  His  miracle  of  feed- 
ing the  four  thousand  on  the  mountain  of  the 
eastern  side  (Matt.  xv.  39)  ;  and  from  thence, 
after  a  short  encounter. with  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees.  He  returned  in  the  same  boat  to 
the  opposite  shore.  In  the  present  text  of  the 
parallel  narrative  of  St.  Mark  (viii.  10)  we  find 
the  "parts  of  Dalmanutha,"  on  the  western 
edge  of  the  lake  of  Gennesareth.  The  Mag- 
dala, which  conferred  her  name  on  "Mary  the 
Magdal-ene,"  one  of  the  numerous  Migdols,  i. 
e.  towers,  which  stood  in  Palestine,  was  prob- 
ably the  place  of  that  name  which  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  as  near 
Tiberias,  and  this  again  is  as  probably  the 
modern  el-Mejdel,  a  miserable  little  Muslim 
T^illage,  on  the  water's-edge  at  the  south-east 
corner  of  the  plain  of  Gennesareth.  By  the 
Jews  the  word  megaddela  is  used  to  denote  a 
person  who  platted  or  twisted  hair,  a  practice 
then  much  in  use  amongst  women  of  loose 
character. 


Magi  (A.  V.  "wise  men").  I.  In  the  He- 
brew text  of  the  O.  T.  the  word  occurs  but 
twice,  and  then  only  incidentally.  In  Jer. 
xxix.  3  and  13  we  meet,  among  the  Chaldaean 
officers  sent  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Jerusalem, 
one  with  the  name  or  title  of  Rab-mag.  This 
word  is  interpreted  as  equivalent  to  chief  of 
the  Magi.  Historically  the  Magi  are  con- 
spicuous chiefly  as  a  Persian  religious  caste. 
Herodotus  connects  them  with  another  peo- 
ple by  reckoning  them  among  the  six  tribes 
of  the  Medes  (i.  loi).  They  appear  in  his  his- 
tory of  Astyages  as  interpreters  of  dreams  (i. 
120),  the  name  having  apparently  lost  its 
ethnological  and  acquired  a  caste  significance. 
But  as  they  appear  in  Jeremiah  among  the 
retinue  of  the  Chaldaean  king,  we  must  sup- 
pose Nebuchadnezzar's  conquests  led  him  to 
gather  around  him  the  wise  men  and  religious 
teachers  of  the  nations  which  he  subdued,  and 
that  thus  the  sacred  tribe  of  the  Medes  rose 
under  his  rule  to  favor  and  power.  The  Magi 
took  their  places  among  "the  astrologers  and 
star-gazers  and  monthly  prognosticators."  It 
is  with  such  men  that  we  have  to  think  of 
Daniel'  and  his  fellow-exiles  as  associated.  The 
office  which  Daniel  accepted  (Dan.  v.  11)  was 
probably  identical  with  that  of  the  Rab-mag 
who  first  came  before  us.  The  name  of  the 
Magi  does  not  meet  us  in  the  Biblical  account 
of  the  Medo-Persian  kings.  II.  The  word 
■presented  itself  to  the  Greeks  as  connected 
with  a  foreign  system  of  divination,  and  it 
soon  became  a  by-word  for  the  worst  form  of 
imposture.  This  is  the  predominant  meaning 
of  the  word  as  it  appears  in  the  N.  T.  The 
noun  and  the  verb  derived  from  it  are  used  by 
St.  Luke  in  describing  the  impostor,  who  is 
therefore  known  distinctively  as  Simon  INIagus 
(Acts  viii.  9).  Another  of  the  same  class 
(Bar-jesus)  is  described  (Acts  xiii.  8)  as  hav- 
ing, in  his  cognomen  Elymas,  a  title  which 
was  equivalent  to  INIagus.  III.  In  one  mem- 
orable instance,  however,  the  word  retains  its 
better  meaning.  In  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew 
ii.  1-12)  the  Magi  appear  as  "wise  men" — 
properly  Magians — who  were  guided  by  a  star 
from  "the  East"  to  Jerusalem,  where  they 
suddenly  appeared  in  the  days  of  Herod  the 
Great,  inquiring  for  the  new-born  king  of  the 
Jews,  whom  they  had  come  to  worship.  As 
to  the  country  from  which  they  came,  opin- 
ions vary  greatly ;  but  their  following  the 
guidance  of  a  star  seems  to  point  to  the  banks 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  where  astronomy 
was  early  cultivated  by  the  Chaldaeans.  The 
religion  of  Zoroaster  remaining  pure  from  the 
grosser  forms  of  idolatry  preserved  the  hope 
of  a  great  deliverer,  who  should  reform  the 


226 


MAGIC 


MAGIC 


world,  and  establish  a  reign  of  universal 
peace.  That  some  tradition,  influenced  pos- 
sibly by  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion,  went  so 
far  as  to  make  this  deliverer  a  "king  of  the 
Jews,"  seems  a  fair  inference  from  the  direct 
form  ^of  their  'inquiry  for  Him.  As  to  the 
sign  which  guided  them,  the  chief  difficulties 
have  arisen  from  the  attempt  to  find  a  natural 
explanation;  for  the  plain  narrative  of  St. 
]\Iatthew  evidently  represents  it  as  a  miracle 
vouchsafed  for  the  occasion.  The  ingenious 
conjecture  of  certain  atronomers  that  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  star  was  caused  by  a  remark- 
able conjunction  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  is  now 
exploded.  The  approach  of  the  two  planets 
was  not  at  all  near  enough  for  them  to  be  mis- 
taken for  a  single  star ;  nor  could  habitual 
observers  of  the  heavens  fail  to  recognize  the 
positions  of  such  well-known  planets.  Be-* 
sides,  their  "standing  over  the  place  where  the 
young  child  was,"  so  as  to  define  the  spot  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  is  utterly  inconceiv- 
able. It  only  remains  for  us  to  be  content 
with  the  obvious  explanation  that  some  new 
luminary,  whether  meteoric  or  celestial,  was 
made  to  appear,  in  a  manner  distinct  enough 
to  the  eyes  of  practised  astronomers,  express- 
ly to  guide  the  sages  on  their  way.  According 
to  a  late  tradition,  the  Magi  are  represented 
as  three  kings,  named  Caspar,  Melchior,  and 
Belthazar,  who  take  their  place  among  the 
objects  of  Christian  reverence,  and  are  hon- 
ored as  the  patron  saints  of  travellers.  Among 
other  relics  supplied  to  meet  the  demands  of 
the  market  which  the  devotion  of  Helena  had 
created,  the  bodies  of  the  Magi  were  discov- 
ered somewhere  in  the  East,  were  brought  to 
Constantinople,  were  thence  transferred  to 
Milan,  and  were  in  1162  finally  deposited  in 
the  cathedral  of  Cologne,  \yhere  the  shrine  of 
the  Three  Kings  is  shown  as  the  greatest  of 
its  many  treasures. 

Magic,  Magicians.  The  magical  arts  spoken 
of  in  the  Bible  are  those  practised  by  the 
Egyptians,  the  Canaanites,  and  their  neigh- 
bors, the  Hebrews,  the  Chaldaeans,  and  prob- 
ably the  Greeks.  With  the  lowest  race  magic 
is  the  chief  part  of  religion.  The  Hebrews 
had  no  magic  of  their  own.  It  was  so  strict- 
ly forbidden  by  the  Law  that  it  could  never 
afterwards  have  had  any  recognized  existence, 
save  in  times  of  general  heresy  or  apostasy, 
and  the  same  was  doubtless  the  case  in  the 
patriarchal  ages.  The  magical  practices  which 
obtained  among  the  Hebrews  were  therefore 
borrowed  from  the  nations  around.  From  the 
first  entrance  into  the  Land  of  Promise  until 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  we  have  constant 
glimpses  of  magic  practised  in  secret,  or  re- 


sorted to,  not  alone  by  the  common,  but  also 
by  the  great.  The  worship  or  use  of  tcraphim 
after  the  occupation  of  the  Promised  Land 
cannot  be  doubted  to  have  been  one  of  the 
corrupt  practices  of  those  Hebrews  who  leant 
to  idolatry,  but  did  not  abandon  their  belief 
in  the  God  of  Israel.  By  the  Israelites  they 
were  consulted  for  oracular  answers.  This 
was  apparently  done  by  the  Danites  who  asked 
Micah's  Levite  to  inquire  as  to  the  success  of 
their  spying  expedition  (Judg.  xviii.  5,  6).  In 
later  times  this  is  distinctly  stated  of  the  Is- 
raelites where  Zechariah  says,  "For  the  Tera- 
phim  have  spoken  vanity,  and  the  diviners 
have  seen  a  lie,  and  have  told  false  dreams" 
(x.  2).  The  Law  contains  very  distinct  prohibi- 
tions of  all  magical  arts.  Besides  several  pas- 
sages condemning  them,  in  one  place  there  is 
a  specification  which  is  so  full  that  it  seems 
evid-ent  that  its  object  is  to  include  every  kind 
of  magical  art.  The  Israelites  are  commanded 
in  the  place  referred  to  not  to  learn  the  abomi- 
nations of  the  peoples  of  the  Promised  Land. 
Then  follows  this  prohibition:  "There  shall 
not  be  found  with  thee  one  who  offereth  his 
son  or  his  daughter  by  fire,  a  practiser  of  divi- 
nations, a  worker  of  hidden  arts,  an  augurer, 
an  enchanter,  or  a  fabricator  of  charms,  or  an 
inquirer  by  a  familiar  spirit,  or  a  wizard,  or  a 
consulter  of  the  dead."  It  is  added  that  these 
are  abominations,  and  that  on  account  of  their 
practice  the  nations  of  Canaan  were  to  be 
driven  out  (Deut.  xviii.  9-14,  esp.  10,  li).  The 
history  of  Balaam  shows  the  belief  of  some 
ancient  nations  in  the  powers  of  soothsayers. 
In  the  later  days  of  the  two  kingdoms  magical 
practices  of  many  kinds  prevailed  among  the 
Hebrews,  as  we  especially  learn  from  the  con- 
demnation of  them  by  the  prophets.  Every 
form  of  idolatry  which  the  people  had  adopted 
in  succession  doubtless  brought  with  it  its 
magic,  which  seems  always  to  have  remained 
with  a  strange  tenacity  that  probably  made  it 
outlive  the  false  worship  with  which  it  was 
connected.  Ezekiel,  as  we  should  have  ex- 
pected, af¥ords  some  remarkable  details  of  the 
magic  of  his  time,  in  the  clear  and  forcible 
descriptions  of  his  visions.  From  him  we 
learn  that  fetishism  was  among  the  idolatries 
which  the  Hebrews,  in  the  latest  days  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  had  adopted  from  their 
neighbors,  like  the  Romans  in  the  age  of  gen- 
eral corruption  that  caused  the  decline  of  their 
empire  (viii.  7-12).  This  idolatry  was  probab- 
ly borrowed  from  Egypt,  for  the  description 
perfectly  answers  to  that  of  the  dark  sanc- 
tuaries of  Egyptian  temples,  with  the  sacred 
animals  portrayed  upon  their  walls,  and  does 
not  accord  with  the  character  of  the  Assyrian 


227 


MAGOG 


MAMMON 


sculptures,  where  creeping  things  are  not  rep- 
resented as  objects  of  worship.  In  the  N.  T. 
we  read  very  little  of  magic.  Our  Lord  is  not 
said  to  have  been  opposed  by  magicians,  and 
the  Apostles  and  other  early  teachers  of  the 
Gospel  seem  to  have  rarely  encountered  them. 
Our  examination  of  the  various  notices  of 
magic  in  the  Bible  gives  us  this  general  re- 
sult: They  do  not,  as  far  as  we  can  under- 
stand, once  state  positively  that  any  but  illu- 
sive results  were  produced  by  magical  rites. 
They  therefore  afford  no  evidence  that  man 
can  gain  supernatural  powers  to  use  at  his  will. 
This  consequence  goes  some  way  towards 
showing  that  we  may  conclude  that  there  is 
no  such  thing  as  real  magic ;  for  although  it 
is  dangerous  to  reason  on  negative  evidence, 
yet  in  a  case  of  this  kind  it  is  especially  strong. 
[Divination;  Magi.] 

Ma'gog.  In  Gen.  x.  2  Magog  appears  as  the 
second  son  of  Japheth  in  connection  with 
Gomer  (the  Cimmerians)  and  Madai  (the 
Medes)  :  in  Ez.  xxxviii.  2,  xxxix.  i,  6,  it  ap- 
pears as  a  country  or  people  of  which  Gog  was 
the  prince,  in  conjunction  with  Meshech  (the 
Moschici),  Tubal  (the  Tibareni),  and  Rosh 
(the  Roxolani).  In  the  latter  of  these  senses 
there  is  evidently  implied  an  etymological 
connection  between  Gog  and  Ma-gog,  the  Ma 
being  regarded  by  Ezekiel  as  a  prefix  signifi- 
cant of  a  country.  In  this  case  Gog  contains 
the  original  element  of  the  name,  which  may 
possibly  have  its  origin  in  some  Persian  root. 
The  notices  of  Magog  would  lead  us  to  fix  a 
northern  locality :  it  is  expressly  stated  by 
Ezekiel  that  he  was  to  come  up  from  "the 
sides  of  the  north"  (xxxix.  2),  from  a  country 
adjacent  to  that  of  Togarmah  or  Armenia 
(xxxviii.  6),  and  not  far  from  "the  isles"  or 
maritime  regions  of  Europe  (xxxix.  6).  The 
people  of  Magog  further  appear  as  having  a 
force  of  cavalry  (xxxviii.  15),  and  as  armed 
with  the  bow  (xxxix.  3).  From  the  above 
data,  we  may  conclude  that  Magog  represents 
the  important  race  of  the  Scythians. 

Makke'dah,  a  place  memorable  in  the  annals 
of  the  conquest  of  Canaan  as  the  scene  of  the 
execution  by  Joshua  of  the  five  confederate 
kings  (Josh.  x.  10-30).  It  unquestionably  oc- 
curred in  the  afternoon  of  that  tremendous 
day,  which  "was  like  no  day  before  or  after 
it."  After  the  execution  of  the  chiefs  Joshua 
turns  to  the  town  itself.  To  force,  the  walls, 
to  put  the  king  and  all  the  inhabitants  to  the 
sword  (ver.  28),  is  to  that  indomitable  en- 
ergy, still  fresh  after  the  gigantic  labors  and 
excitements  of  the  last  twenty-four  hours,  the 
work  of  an  hour  or  two.  The  taking  of  Mak- 
kedah  was  the  first  in  that  series  of  sieges  and 


destructions  by  which  the  Great  Captain  pos- 
sessed himself  of  the  main  points  of  defence 
throughout  this  portion  of  the  country.  The 
catalogue  of  the  cities  of  Judah  in  Joshua 
(xv.  41)  place  it  in  the  maritime  plain,  but  its 
site  is  uncertain. 

Mal'achi  (that  is,  the  angel  or  messenger  of 
Jehovah)  is  the  last,  and  is  therefore  called 
"the  seal"  of  the  prophets,  and  his  prophedes 
constitute  the  cjosing  book  of  tli,e  canon.  Of 
his  personal  history  nothing  is  known.  That 
Malachi  was  contemporary  with  Neheman  is 
rendered  probable  by  a  comparison  of  ii.  8 
with  Neh.  xiii.  15;  i.  10-16  with  Neh.  xiii.  23, 
&c. ;  and  iii.  7-12  with  Neh.  xiii.  10,  &c.  That 
he  prophesied  after  the  times  of'Haggai  and 
Zechariah  is  inferred  from  his  omitting  to 
mention  the  restoration  of  the  Temple,  and 
from  no  allusion  being  made  to  him  by  Ezra. 
The  capitivity  was  already  a  thing  of  the  long 
past,  and  is  not  referred  to.  The  existence  of 
the  Temple-service  is  presupposed  in  i.  10,  iii. 
I,  10.  The  Jewish  nation  had  still  a  political 
chief  (i.  8),  distinguished  by  the  same  title 
as  that  borne  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  26). 
Hence  we  may  conclude  that  Malachi  deliv- 
ered his  prophecies  after  the  second  return 
of  Nehemiah  from  Persia  (Neh.  xiii.  6),  and 
subsequently  to  the  32d  year  of  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus  (B.  C.  420).  From  the  striking 
parallelism  between  the  state  of  things  indi- 
cated in  Malachi's  prophecies  and  that  actually 
existing  on  Nehemiah's  return  -from  the  court 
of  Artaxerxes,  it  is  on  all  accounts  highly 
probable  that  the  efforts  of  the  secular  gover- 
nor were  on  this  occasion  seconded  by  the 
preaching  of  "Jehovah's  messenger,"  and  that 
Malachi  occupied  the  same  position  with  re- 
gard to  the  reformation  under  Nehemiah, 
which  Isaiah  held  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  and 
Jeremiah  in  that  of  Josiah.  The  last  chapter 
of  canonical  Jewish  history  is  the  key  to  the 
last  chapter  of  its  prophecy. 

Mal'chus,  the  name  of  the  servant  of  the 
high-priest  whose  right  ear  Peter  cut  off  at  the 
time  of  the  Saviour's  apprehension  in  the  gar- 
den (Matt.  xxvi.  51;  Mark  xiv.  47;  Luke  xxii. 
49-51;  John  xviii.  10).  He  was  the  personal 
servant  of  the  high-priest,  and  not  one  of  the 
bailififs  or  apparitors  of  the  Sanhedrim.  It 
is  noticeable  that  Luke  the  physician  is  the 
only  one  of  the  writers  who  mentions  the  act 
of  healing. 

Mam'mon  (Matt.  vi.  24;  Luke  xvi.  9),  a 
word  which  often  occurs  in  the  Chaldee  Tar- 
gums  of  Onkelos,  and  later  writers,  and  in  the 
Syraic  Version,  and  which  signifies  "riches." 
It  is  used  in  St.  Matthew  as  a  personification 
of  riches. 


228 


THE  ItERAHY 
OF  THE 


MAN 


MANDRAKES 


Man.  Four  Hebrew  terms  are  rendered 
"man"  in  the  A.  \'.  i.  Adam..  The  name  of 
the  man  created  in  the  image  of  God.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  derived  from  adam,  "he  or  it  was 
red  or  ruddy,"  like  Edom.  2.  Ish,  "man," 
,  "woman,"  "men."  3.  Geber,  "a  man,"  from 
gabar,  "to  be  strong,"  generally  with  refer- 
ence to  his  strength.  4.  Methim,  "men,"  al- 
'  ways  masculine.  Perhaps  it  may  be  derived 
from  the  root  muth,  "he  died." 

Manas'seh,  that  is,  forgetting,  the  eldest 
son  of  Joseph,  by  his  wife  Asenath  (Gen.  xli. 
51,  xlvi.  20),  so  called  by  Joseph  because  "God 
hath-made-me-forget  all  my  toil  and  all  my 
father's  house."  The  position  of  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh  during  the  march  to  Canaan  was 
with  Ephraim  and  Benjamin  on  the  west  side 
of  the  sacred  Tenjt..  The  chief  of  the  tribe  at 
the- time  of  the  census  at  Sinai  was  Gamaliel 
ben-Pedahzur,  and  its  numbers  were  then  32,- 
200  (Num.  i.  10,  35.  ii.  20,  21,  vii.  54-59)-  In 
the  division  of  the  Promised  Land  half  of  the 
tribe  of  I\Ianasseh  settled  east  of  the  Jordan, 
in  the  district  embracing  the  hills  of  Gilead 
with  their  inaccessible  heights  and  impassable 
ravines,  and  the  almost  impregnable  tract  of 
Argob  (Josh.  xiii.  29-33).  Here  they  throve 
exceedingly,  pushing  their  way  northward 
over  the  rich  plains  of  Jaulan  and  Jediir  to  the 
foot  of  Mount  Hermon  (l  Chr.  v.  23).  But 
they  gradually  assimilated  themselves  to  the 
did  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  on  them 
descended  the  punishment  which  was  ordained 
to  be  the  inevitable  consequence  of  such  mis- 
doing. They,  first  of  all  Israel,  were  carried 
away  by  Pul  and  Tiglath-Pileser,  and  settled  in 
the  Assyrian  territories  (i  Chr.  v.  25,  26).  The 
other  half  tribe  settled  to  the  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan, north  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xvii.). 

Manas'seh.  The  thirteenth  king  of  Judah, 
son  of  Hezekiah  and  Hephzibah  (2  K.  xxi.  i), 
ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  12.  His  ac- 
cession was  the  signal  for  an  entire  change  in 
the  religious  administration  of  the  kingdom. 
Idolatry  was  again  established,  and  he  conse- 
crated idolatrous  altars  in  the  Sanctuary  itself 
(2  Chr.  xxxiii.  4).  Every  faith  was  tolerated 
but  the  old  faith  of  Israel.  This  was  aban- 
doned and  proscribed.  The  aged  Isaiah,  ac- 
cording to  the  old  Jewish  tradition,  was  put  to 
death.  [Isaiah.]  But  the  persecution  did  not 
stop  there.  It  attacked  the  whole  order  of 
the  true  prophets,  and  those  who  followed 
them.  Retribution  came  soon  in  the  natural 
sequence  of  events.  The  Babylonian  alliance, 
which  the  king  had  formed,  bore  the  fruits 
which  had  been  predicted.  The  rebellion  of 
Merodach-Baladan  was  crushed,  and  then  the 
wrath  of  the  Assyrian  king  fell  on  those  who 


had  supported  him.  Judaea  was  again  overrun 
by  the  Assyrian  armies,  and  this  time  the  in- 
vasion was  more  successful  than  that  of  San- 
nacherib.  The  city  apparently  was  taken. 
The  king  himself  was  made  prisoner  and  car- 
ried ofif  to  Babylon  in  the  22d  year  of  his  reign, 
according  to  a  Jewish  tradition.  There  his 
e3'es  were  opened,  and  he  repented,  and  hii\ 
prayer  was  heard,  and  the  Lord  delivered  him 
(2  Chr.  xxiii.  12,  13).  The  period  that  followed 
is  dwelt  upon  by  the  writer  of  2  Chr.  as  one 
of  a  great  change  for  the  better.  The  com- 
passion or  death  of  Esarhaddon  led  to  his  re- 
lease, and  he  returned  after  some  uncertain 
interval  of  time  to  Jerusalem.  The  old  faith 
of  Israel  was  no  longer  persecuted.  Foreign 
idolatries  were  no  longer  thrust,  in  all  their 
foulness,  into  the  Sanctuary  itself.  The  altar 
of  the  Lord  was  again  restored,  and  peace-of- 
ferings and  thank-offerings  sacrificed  to  Je- 
hovah (2  Chr.  xxxiii.  15,  16).  The  other  facts 
known  of  Manasseh's  reign  connect  them- 
selves with  the  state  of  the  world  round  him. 
The  Assyrian  monarchy  was  tottering  to  its 
fall,  and  the  king  of  Judah  seems  to  have 
thought  that  it  was  still  possible  for  him  to 
rule  as  the  head  of  a  strong  and  independent 
kingdom.  As  one  of  its  consequences,  it  in- 
volved probably  the  supply  of  troops  from 
Judah  to  serve  in  the  armies  of  the  Egyptian 
king.  If  this  was  the  close  of  Manasseh's 
reign,  we  can  understand  how  it  was  that  on 
his  death  he  was  buried  as  Ahaz  had  been,  not 
with  the  burial  of  a  king,  in  the  sepulchres  of 
the  house  of  David,  but  in  the  garden  of  Uzza 
(2  K.  xxi.  26),  and  that  long  afterwards,  in 
spite  of  his  repentance,  the  Jews  held  his  name 
in  abhorrence. 

Manas'ses.  i.  Manasseh,  king  of  Judah 
(Matt.  i.  10),  to  whom  the  apocryphal  prayer 
is  attributed.  2.  Manasseh,  the  son  of  Jo- 
seph (Rev.  vii.  6). 

Manasses,  The  Prayer  of.  The  repentance 
and  restoration  of  Manasseh  (2  Chr.  xxxiii.  12, 
fif.)  furnished  the  subject  of  many  legendary 
stories.  "His  prayer  unto  his  God"  was  still 
preserved  "in  the  book  of  the  kings  of  Israel" 
when  the  Chronicles  were  compiled  (2  Chr. 
xxxiii.  18),  and,  after  this  record  was  lost,  the 
subject  was  likely  to  attract  the  notice  of  later 
writers.  "The  Prayer  of  Manasseh,"  which 
is  found  in  some  MSS.  of  the  LXX.,  is  the 
work  of  one  who  has  endeavored  to  express, 
not  without  true  feeling,  the  thoughts  of  the 
repentant  king. 

Mandrakes  are  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxx.  14, 
15,  16,  and  in  Cant.  vii.  13.  From  the  former 
passage  we  learn  that  they  were  found  in  the 
fields  of  Mesopotamia,  where  Jacob  and  his 


229 


MANEH 

wives  were  at  one  time  living,  and  that  the 
fruit  was  gathered  "in  the  days  of  wheat-har- 
vest," i.  e.  in  May.  From  Cant.  vii.  13  we 
learn  that  the  plant  in  question  was  strong 
scented,  and  that  it  grew  in  Palestine.  The 
translation  in  the  A.  V.  is  probably  correct.  It 
has  been  objected  that  the  mandrake  is  far 
from  odoriferous,  the  whole  plant  being,  in  Eu 


Mandrake. 

ropean  estimation  at  all  events,  very  fetid. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  well  known  that 
the  mandrakes  are  prized  by  the  Arabs  for 
their  odor,  and  that  Orientals  set  an  especial 
value  on  strongly-smelling  things  that  to  more 
delicate  European  senses  are  unpleasing.  That 
the  fruit  was  fit  to  be  gathered  at  the  time  of 
wheat-harvest  is  clear  from  the  testimony  of 
several  travellers.  The  mandrake  is  closely 
allied  to  the  well-known  deadly  nightshade. 
Ma'neh.  [Weights  and  Measures.] 
Manger.  This  word  occurs  only  in  connec- 
tion with  the  birth  of  Christ  in  Luke  ii.  7,  12, 
16.  The  word  in  classical  Greek  undoubtedly 
means  a  manger,  crib,  or  feeding  trough ;  but 
according  to  Schleusner  its  real  signification 
in  the  N.  T.  is  the  open  court-yard,  attached 
to  the  inn  or  khan,  into  which  the  cattle  would 
be  shut  at  night,  and  where  the  poorer  travel- 
lers might  unpack  their  animals  and  take  up 
their  lodging,  when  they  were  either  by  want 
of  room  or  want  of  means  excluded  from  the 
house. 

Manna.  The  most  important  passages  of 
the  O.  T.  on  this  topic  are  the  following:  Ex. 
xvi.  14-36;  Num.  xi.  7-9;  Deut.  viii.  3,  16;  Josh. 
V.  12;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  24,  25;  Wisd.  xvi.  20,  21. 
From  these  passages  we  learn  that  the  manna 
came  every  morning  except  the  Sabbath,  in 
the  form  of  a  small  round  seed  resembling  the 
hoar  frost ;  that  it  must  be  gathered  early,  be- 
fore the  sun  became  so  hot  as  to  melt  it ;  that 
it  must  be  gathered  every  day  except  the  Sab- 


MANSLAYER 

bath ;  that  the  attempt  to  lay  aside  for  a  suc- 
ceeding day,  except  on  the  day  immediately 
preceding  the  Sabbath,  failed  by  the  substance 
becoming  wormy  and  offensive ;  that  it  was 
prepared  for  food  by  grinding  and  baking ;  that 
its  taste  was  like  fresh  oil,  and  like  wafers 
made  with  honey,  equally  agreeable  to  all  pal- 
ates; that  the  whole  nation  subsisted  upon  it 
for  forty  years;  that  it  suddenly  ceased  when 
they  first  got  the  new  corn  of  the  land  of 
Canaan ;  and  that  it  was  always  regarded  as  a 
miraculous  gift  directly  from  God,  and  not  as 
a  product  of  nature.  The  natural  products  of 
the  Arabian  deserts  and  other  Oriental  re- 
gions, which  bear  the  name  of  manna,  have 
not  the  qualities  or  uses  ascribed  to  the  manna 
of  Scripture.  The  manpa  of  Scripture  we  re- 
gard as  wholly  miraculous,  and  not  in  any  re- 
spect a  product  of  nature.  The  Hebrew  word 
man,  by  which  this  substance  is  always  desig- 
nated in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  is  the  neuter 
interrogative  pronoun  (what?);  and  the  name 
is  derived  from  the  inquiry  (man  hu,  what  is 
this?)  which  the  Hebrews  made-  when  they 
first  saw  it  upon  the  ground.  The  substance 
now   called   Manna   in   the   Arabian  desert 


Tamarisk  or  Manna  Tree. 

through  which  the  Israelites  passed  is  col- 
lected in  the  month  of  June  from  the  tarfa  or 
Tamarisk  shrub. 

Manslayer.  The  cases  of  manslaughter 
mentioned  appear  to  be  a  sufficient  example 
of  the  intention  of  the  lawgiver,  a.  Death  by 
a  blow  in  a  sudden  quarrel  (Num.  xxxv.  22). 
b.  Death  by  a  stone  or  missile  thrown  at  ran- 
dom (ib.  22,  23).  c.  By  the  blade  of  an  axe 
flying  from  its  handle  (Deut.  xix.  5).  d. 
Whether  the  case  of  a  person  killed  by  fall- 
ing from  a  roof  unprovided  with  a  parapet  in- 
volved the  guilt  of  manslaughter  on  the  owner, 


230 


MANTLE 

is  not  clear;  but  the  law  seems  intended  to 
prevent  the  imputation  of  malice  in  any  such 
case,  by  preventing  as  far  as  possible  the  oc- 
currence of  the  fact  itself  (Deut.  xxii.  8).  In 
all  these  and  the  like  cases  the  manslayer  was 
allowed  to  retire  to  a  city  of  refuge. 

Mantle,  the  word  employed  in  the  A.  V.  to 
translate  no  less  than  four  Hebrew  terms,  en- 
tirely distinct  and  independent  both  in  deriva- 
tion and  meaning,  i.  S'mioah.  This  word 
occurs  but  once,  viz.  Judg.  iv.  i8,  where  it  de- 
notes the  thing  with  which  Jael  covered  Sisera. 
2.  Mail.  (Rendered  "mantle"  in  i  Sam.  xv. 
27,  xxviii.  14;  Ezr.  ix.  3,  5,  &c.).  This  word  is 
in  other  passages  of  the  A.  V.  rendered  "coat," 
"  cloak,"  and  "robe."  3.  Ala'aiaphah  (Is.  iii. 
22  only).  Apparently  some  article  of  a  lady's 
dress.  4.  Addereth  (rendered  "mantle"  in  i 
K.  xix.  13,  19;' 2  K.  ii.  8,  13,  14;  elsewhe. 
"garment"  and  "robe").  By  it.  and  it  only,  is 
denoted  the  cape  or  wrapper  which,  with  the 
exception  of  a  strip  of  skin  or  leather  round 
his  loins,  formed,  as  we  have  every  reason  to 
believe,  the  sole  garment  of  the  prophet  Elijah. 
It  was  probably  of  sheepskin,  such  as  is  worn 
by  the  modern  dervishes. 

Ma'rah,  that  is,  bitterness,  a  place  which  lay 
in  the  wilderness  of  Shur  or  Etham,  three 
days'  journey  distant  (Ex.  xv.  23,  24;  Num. 
xxxiii.  8)  from  the  place  at  which  the  Israel- 
ites crossed  the  Red  Sea,  and  where  was  a 
spring  of  bitter  water,  sweetened  subsequent- 
ly by  the  casting  in  of  a  tree  which  "the  Lord 
showed"  to  Moses. 

Marble.  The  Heb.  shesh,  the  generic  term 
for  marble,  may  probably  be  taken  to  mean 
almost  any  shining  stone.  The  so-called  mar- 
ble of  Solomon's  architectural  works,  may 
thus  have  been  limestone.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  Herod,  both  in  the  Temple  and 
elsewhere,  employed  Parian  or  other  marble. 
The  marble  pillars  and  tesserae  of  various 
colors  of  the  palace  at  Susa  came  doubtless 
from  Persia  itself  (Esth.  i.  6). 

Mark.  Mark  the  Evangelist  is  probably  the 
same  as  "John  whose  surname  was  INIark" 
(Acts  xii.  12,  25).  John  was^the  Jewish  name, 
and  Mark  (Marcus),  a  name  of  frequent  use 
among  the  Romans,  was  adopted  afterwards, 
and  gradually  superseded  the  other.  John 
Mark  was  the  son  of  a  certain  Mary,  who 
dwelt  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  therefore  prob- 
ably born  in  that  city  (Acts  xii.  12).  He  was 
the  cousin  of  P.arnabas  (Col.  iv.  10).  It  was 
to  Mary's  house,  as  to  a  familiar  haunt,  that 
Peter  came  after  his  deliverance  from  prison 
(Acts  xii.  12),  and  there  found  "many  gath- 
ered together  praying;"  and  probably  John 
.Mark  was  converted  by  Peter  from  meeting: 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 

him  in  his  mother's  house,  for  he  speaks  of 
"Marcus  my  son"  (i  Pet.  v.  13).  The  theory 
that  he  was  one  of  the  seventy  disciples 
is  without  any  warrant.  Another  theory,  that 
an  event  of  the  night  of  our  Lord's  betrayal, 
related  by  Mark  alone,  is  one  that  befell  him- 
self, must  not  be  so  promptly  dismissed  (Mark 
xiv.  51,  52).  The  detail  of  facts  is  remark- 
ably minute ;  the  name  only  is  wanting.  The 
most  probable  view  is,  that  St.  Mark  sup- 
pressed his  own  name,  whilst  telling  a  story 
which  he  had  the  best  means  of  knowing. 
Anxious  to  work  for  Christ,  he  went  with  Paul 
and  Barnabas  as  their  "minister"  on  their  first 
journey ;  but  at  Perga  he  turned  back  (Acts 
xii.  25,  xiii.  13).  On  the  second  journey 
Paul  would  not  accept  him  again  as  a  com- 
panion, but  Barnabas  his  kinsman  was  more 
indulgent ;  and  thus  he  became  the  cause  of 
the  memorable  "sharp  contention"  between 
them  (Acts  xv.  36-40).  Whatever  was  the 
cause  of  Mark's  vacillation,  it  did  not  separate 
him  forever  from  Paul,  for  we  find  him  by  the 
side  of  that  Apostle  in  his  first  imprisonment 
at  Rome  (Col;  iv.  10;  Philem.  24).  In  the 
former  place  a  possible  journey  of  Mark  to 
Asia  is  spoken  of.  Somewhat  later  he  is  with 
Peter  at  Babylon  (i  Pet.  v.  13).  On  his  re- 
turn to  Asia  be  seems  to  have  been  with  Tim- 
othy at  Ephesus  when  Paul  wrote  to  him  dur- 
ing his  second  imprisonment  (2  Tim.  iv.  11). — 
The  relation  of  Mark  to  Peter  is  of  great  im- 
portance for  our  view  of  his  Gospel.  Ancient 
writers  with  one  consent  make  the  Evangelist 
the  Interpreter  of  the  Apostle  Peter.  Some 
explain  this  word  to  mean  that  the  office  of 
Mark  was  to  translate  into  the  Greek  tongue 
the  Aramaic  discourses  of  the  Apostle ;  whilst 
others  adopt  the  more  probable  view  that 
Mark  wrote  a  Gospel  which  conformed  more 
exactly  than  the  others  to  Peter's  preaching, 
and  thus  "interpreted"  it  to  the  church  at 
large.  The  report  that  Mark  was  the  compan- 
ion of  Peter  at  Rome,  is  no  doubt  of  great  an- 
tiquity. Sent  on  a  mission  to  Egypt  by  Peter, 
Mark  there  founded  the  church  of  Alex- 
andria, and  preached  in  various  places,  then 
returned  to  Alexandria,  of  which  church  he 
was  bishop,  and  suffered  a  martyr's  death. 
But  none  of  these  later  details  rest  on  sound 
authority. 

Mark,  Gospel  of.  The  characteristics  of  this 
Gospel,  the  shortest  of  the  four  inspired  rec- 
ords, will  appear  from  the  discussion  of  the 
various  questions  that  have  been  raised  about 
it.  Whilst  Mark  goes  over  the  same  ground 
for  the  most  part  as  the  other  Evangelists, 
and  especially  Matthew,  there  are  many  facts 
thrown  in  which  prove  that  we  are  listening  to 


^31 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


MARRIAGE 


an  independent  witness.  Thus  the  humble 
origin  of  Peter  is  made  known  through  him 
(i.  16-20),  and  his  connection  with  Capernaum 
(i.  29)  ;  he  tells  us-  that  Levi  was  "the  son  of 
Alphaeus"  (ii.  14),  that  Peter  was  the  name 
given  by  our  Lord  to  Simon  (iii.  16),  and 
Boanerges  a  surname  added  by  Him  to  the 
names  of  two  others  (iii.  17)  ;  he  assumes  the 
existence  of  another  body  of  disciples  wider 
than  the  Twelve  (iii.  32,  iv.  10,  36,  viii.  34,  xiv. 
51,  52)  ;  we  owe  to  him  the  name  of  Jairus 
(v.  22)  the  word  "carpenter"  applied  to  our 
Lord  (vi.  3),  the  nation  of  the  "Syrophoe- 
nician"  woman  (vii.  26)  ;  he  substitutes  Dal- 
manutha  for  the  "Magdala"  of  Matthew  (viii. 
10)  ;  he  names  Bartimaeus  (x.  46)  ;  he  alone 
mentions  that  our  Lord  would  not  suflfer  any 
man  to  carry  any  vessel  through  the  Temple 
(xi.  16) ;  and  that  Simon  of  Cyrene  was  the 
father  of  Alexander  and  Rufus~(xv.  21).  All 
these  are  tokens  of  an  independent  writer,  dif- 
ferent from  Matthew  and  Luke,  and  in  the  ab- 
sence of  other  traditions,  it  is  natural  to  look 
to  Peter.  The  Gospel  of  Mark  contains 
scarcely  any  events  that  are  not  recited  by  the 
others.  There  are  verbal  coincidences  with 
each  of  the  others,  and  sometimes  peculiar 
words  from  both  meet  together  in  the  parallel 
place  in  ]\Iark.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
unmistakable  marks  of  independence.  The 
hypothesis  which  best  meets  these  facts  is, 
that  whilst  the  matter '  common  to  all  three 
Evangelists,  or  to  two  of  them,  is  derived  from 
the  oral  teaching  of  the  Apostles,  which  they 
had  purposely  reduced  to  a  common  form,  our 
Evangelist  writes  as  an  independent  witness  to 
the  truth,  and  not  as  a  compiler ;  and  that  the 
tradition  that  the  Gospel  was  written  under 
the  sanction  of  Peter,  and  its  matter  in  some 
degree  derived  from  him,  is  made  probable  by 
the  evident  traces  of  an  eye-witness  in  many 
of  the  narratives.  The  Evangelist  scarcely  re- 
fers to  the  O.  T.  in  his  own  person.  The  word 
Law  does  not  once  occur.  The  genealogy  of 
our  Lord  is  likewise  omitted.  Other  matters 
interesting  chiefly  to  the  Jews  are  likewise 
omitted ;  such  as  the  references  to  the  O.  T. 
and  Law  in  Matt.  xii.  5-7,  the  reflections  on 
the  request  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  for  a 
sign,  Matt.  xii.  38-45 ;  the  parable  of  the 
king's  son.  Matt.  xxii.  1-14;  and  the  awful 
denunciation  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  in 
Matt,  xxiii.  The  time  when  the  Gospel  was 
written  is  uncertain.  It  is  not  likely  that  it 
dates  before  the  reference  to  Mark  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (iv.  10),  where  he  is 
only  introduced  as  a  relative  of  Barnabas,  as 
if  this  were  his  greatest  distinction;  and  this 
epistle  was  written  about  A.  D.  62.    On  the 


other  hand,  it  was  written  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  (xiii.  13,  24-30,  33,  &c.). 
Probably,  therefore,  it  was  written  between  A. 
D.  63  and  70.  The  place  is  as  uncertain  as 
the  time.  Clement,  Eusebius,  Jerome,  and 
Epiphanius,  pronounce  for  Rome,  and  many 
moderns  take  the  same  view.  Chrysostom 
thinks  Alexandria ;  but  this  is  not  confirmed 
by  other  testimony.  The  Gospel  was  written 
in  Greek ;  of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt  if 
ancient  testimony  is  to  weigh.  Baronius  in- 
deed, on  the  authority  of  an  old  Syriac  trans- 
lation, asserts  that  Latin  was  the  original  lan- 
guage. The  purpose  of  the  Evangelist  seems 
to  be  to  place  before  us  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
earthly  acts  of  Jesus.  The  style  is  peculiarly 
suitable  to  this.  He  uses  the  present  tense, 
instead  of  the  narrative  aorist,  almost  in  every 
chapter.  Precise  and  minute  details  as  to  per- 
sons, places,  and  numbers,  abound  in  the  nar- 
rative. All  these  tend  to  give  force  and  vivid- 
ness to  the  picture  of  the  human  life  of  our 
Lord.  On  the  other  side,  the  facts  are  not 
very  exactly  arranged.  Its  conciseness  some- 
times makes  this  Gospel  more  obscure  than 
the  others  (i.  13,  ix.  5,  6,  iv.  10-34).  Though 
this  Gospel  has  little  historical  matter  which 
is  not  shared  with  some  other,  it  would  be  a 
great  error  to  suppose  that  the  voice  of  Mark 
could  have  been  silenced  without  injury  to  the 
divine  harmony.  It  is  the  history  of  the  war 
of  Jesus  against  sin  and  evil  in  the  world  dur- 
ing the  time  that  He  dwelt  as  a  Man  among 
men.  Its  motto  might  well  be,  as  Lange  ob- 
serves, those  words  of  Peter :  "How  God 
anointed  Jesus  of  Nazareth  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  with  power ;  who  went  about  doing 
good,  and  healing  all  that  were  oppressed  of 
the  devil ;  for  God  was  with  Him"  (Acts  x.  38). 

Ma'roth,  one  of  the  towns  of  the  western 
lowlands  of  Judah  whose  names  are  alluded  to 
or  played  upon  by  the  prophet  Micah  (i.  12). 

Marriage.  The  topics  which  this  subject 
presents  to  our  consideration  in  connection 
with  Biblical  literature  may  be  arranged  under 
five  heads :  I.  Its  origin  and  history. — The 
institution  of  marriage  dates  from  the  time  of 
man's  original  creation.  No  sooner  was  the 
formation  of  woman  efifected,  than  Adam  rec- 
ognized in  that  act  the  will  of  the  Creator  as 
to  man's  social  condition.  "Therefore  shall  a 
man  leave  his  father  and  his  mother,  and  shall 
cleave  unto  his  wife:  and  they  shall  be  one 
flesh"  (ii.  24).  From  these  words,  coupled 
with  the  circumstances  attendant  on  the  for- 
mation of  the  first  woman,  we  may  evolve  the 
following  principles:  (i)  The  unity  of  man 
and  wife,  as  implied  in  her  being  formed  out  of 
man,  and  as  expressed  in  the  words  "one 


232 


Of  THt 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


flesh" ;  (2)  the  indissolubleness  of  the  mar- 
riage bond,  except  on  the  strongest  grounds 
(comp.  Matt.  xix.  9) ;  (3)  monogamy,  as  the 
original  law  of  marriage;  (4)  the  social  equal- 
ity of  man  and  wife;  (5)  the  subordination  of 
the  wife  to  the  husband  (i  Cor.  xi.  8,  9:  i  Tim. 
ii.  13) ;  and  (6)  the  respective  duties  of  man 
and  wife.  In  the  patriarchal  age  Polyg- 
amy prevailed  (Gen.  xvi.  4,  xxv.  i,  6,  xxviii.  9, 
xxix.  23,  28;  I  Chr.  vii.  14),  but  to  a  great 
extent  divested  of  the  degradation  which  in 
modern  times  attaches  to  that  practice.  Di- 
vorce also  prevailed  in  the  patriarchal  age, 
though  but  one  instance  of  it  is  recorded  (Gen. 
xxi.  14).  The  Mosaic  law  aimed  at  mitigat- 
ing rather  than  removing  evils  which  were  in- 
separable from  the  state  of  society  in  that 
day.  In  the  post-Babylonian  period  monog- 
amy appears  to  have  become  more  prevalent 
than  at  any  previous  time :  indeed  we  have  no 
instance  of  poh'gamy  during  this  period  on 
record  in  the  Bible,  all  the  marriages  noticed 
being  with  single  wives  (Tob.  i.  9,  ii.  11; 
Susan,  vers.  29,  63 ;  ]\Iatt.  xviii.  25 ;  Luke  i.  5 ; 
Acts  V.  i).  The  practice  of  polygamy  never- 
theless still  existed ;  Herod  the  Great  had  no 
less  than  nine  wives  at  one  time.  The  abuse 
of  divorce  continued  unabated.  Our  Lord  and 
His  Apostles  re-established  the  integrity  and 
sanctity  of  the  marriage-bond  by  the  follow- 
ing measures:  (i)  by  the  confirmation  of  the 
original  charter  of  .marriage  as  the  basis,  on 
which  all  regulations  were  to  be  framed  (Matt, 
xix.  4,  5)  ;  (2)  by  the  restriction  of  divorce  to 
the  case  of  fornication,  and  the  prohibition  of 
remarriage  in  all  persons  divorced  on  improper 
grounds  (^latt.  v.  32,  xix.  9;  Rom.  vii.  3;  i 
Cor.  vii.  10,  11);  and  (3)  by  the  enforcement 
of  moral  purity  generally  (Heb.  xiii.  4,  &c.), 
and  especially  by  the  formal  condemnation  of 
fornication,  which  appears  to  have  been  classed 
among  acts  morally  indifferent  by  a  certain 
party  in  the  Church  (Acts  xv.  20).  In  the 
Hebrew  commonwealth  marriage  was  prohib- 
ited (i.)  between  an  Israelite  and  a  non-Israel- 
ite, and  (ii.)  between  an  Israelite  and  one  of 
his  own  community.  There  were  three  grades 
of  prohibition — total  in  regard  to  the  Canaan- 
ites  on  either  side;  total  on  the  side  of  the 
males  in  regard  of  the  Ammonites  and  Moab- 
ites;  and  temporary  on  the  side  of  the  males 
in  regard  of  the  Edomites  and  Egyptians,  mar- 
riages with  females  in  the  two  latter  instances 
being  regarded  as  legal.  The  progeny  of  il- 
legal marriages  between  Israelites  and  non- 
Israelites  was  described  as  (A.  V.  "bastard" ; 
Deut.  xxiii.  2).  The  regulations  relative  to 
marriage  between  Israelites  and  Israelites  was 
based  on  considerations  of  relationship.  The 


most  important  passage  relating  to  these  is 
contained  in  Lev.  xviii.  6-18,  wherein  we  have 
in  the  first  place  a  general  prohibition  against 
marriages,  between  a  man  and  the  "flefeh  of 
his  flesh,"  and  in  the  second  place  special  pro- 
hibitions against  marriage  with  a  mother, 
step-mother,  sister,  or  half-sister,  whether 
"born  at  home  or  abroad,"  grand-daughter, 
aunt,  whether  by  consanquinity  on  either  side, 
or  by  marriage  on  the  father's  side,  daugh- 
ter-in-law, brother's  wife,  step-daughter, 
wife's  mother,  step-grand  daughter,  or  wife's 
sister  during  the  lifetime  of  the  wife.  An  ex- 
ception is  subsequently  made  (Deut.  xxv.  5-9) 
in  favor  of  marriage  with  a  brother's  wife  in 
the  event  of  his  having  died  childless.  The 
law  which  regulates  this  has  been  named  the 
"Levirate,"  from  the  Latin  levir,  "brother-in- 
law."  The  customs  of  the  Hebrews  and  of 
Oriental  nations  in  regard  to  marriage,  differ 
in  many  respects  from  those  with  which  we 
are  familiar.  In  the  first  place,  the  choice  of 
the  bride  devolved  not  on  the  bridegroom  him- 
self, but  on  his  relations  or  on  a  friend  deputed 
by  the  bridegroom  for  this  purpose.  The  con- 
sent of  the  maiden  was  sometimes  asked  (Gen. 
xxiv.  58)  ;  but  this  appears  to  have  been  sub- 
ordinate to  the  previous  consent  of  the  father 
and  the  adult  brothers  (Gen.  xxiv.  51,  xxxiv. 
11).  Occasionally  the  whole  business  of  se- 
lecting the  wife  was  left  in  the  hands  of  a 
friend.  The  selection  of  the  bride  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  espousal,  which  was  a  formal 
proceeding,  undertaken  by  a  friend  or  legal 
representative  on  the  part  of  the  bridegroom, 
and  by  the  parents  on  the  part  of  the  bride; 
it  was  confirmed  by  oaths,  and  accompanied 
with  presents  to  the  bride.  The  act  of  betrothal 
was  celebrated  by  a  feast,  and  among  the  more 
modern  Jews  it  is  the  custom  in  some  parts 
for  the  bridegroom  to  place  a  ring  on  the 
bride's  finger.  The  ring  was  regarded  among 
tlie  Hebrews  as  a  token  of  fidelity  (Gen.  xli. 
42),  and  of  adoption  into  a  family  (Luke  xv. 
22).  Between  the  bethrothal  and  the  marriage 
an  interval  elapsed,  varying  from  a  few  days 
in  the  patriarchal  age  (Gen.  xxiv.  55),  to  a 
full  year  for  virgins  and  a  month  for  widows 
in  later  times.  During  this  period  the  bride- 
elect  lived  with  her  friends,  and  all  communi- 
cation between  herself  and  her  future  husband 
was  carried  on  through  tlie  medium  of  a  friend 
deputed  for  the  purpose,  termed  the  "friend  of 
the  bridegroom"  (John  iii.  29).  She  was  now 
virtually  regarded  as  the  wife  of  her  future 
husband.  Hence  faithlessness  on  her  part  was 
punishable  with  death  (Deut.  xxii.  23,  24),  the 
Inisband  having,  however,  the  option  of  "put- 
ting her  away"  (Matt.  i.  19;  Deut.  xxiv.  i). 


233 


MARRIAGE 


MARS'  HILL 


The  essence  of  the  marriage  ceremony  con- 
sisted in  the  removal  of  the  bride  from  her 
father's  house  to  that  of  the  bridegroom  or  his 
fathei".  The  bridegroom  prepared  himself  for 
the  occasion  by  putting  on  a  festive  dress,  and 
especially  by  placing  on  his  head  the  hand- 
some turban  described  by  the  term  peer  (Is. 
Ixi.  lo;  A.  V.  "ornaments"),  and  a  nuptial 
crown  or  garland  (Cant.  iii.  ii)  :  he  was  redo- 
lent of  myrrh  and  frankincense.  The  distinc- 
tive feature  of  the  bride's  attire  was  the  "veil" 
— a  light  robe  of  ample  dimensions,  which 
covered  not  only  the  face,  but  the  whole  per- 
son (Gen.  xxiv.  65;  comp.  xxxviii.  14,  15), 
This  was  regarded  as  the  symbol  of  her  sub- 
mission to  her  husband  (i  Cor.  xi.  10).  If  the 
bride  were  a  virgin,  she  wore  her  hair  flowing. 
Her  robes  were  white  (Rev.  xix.  8),  and  some- 
times embroidered  with  gold  thread  (Ps.  xlv. 
13,  14),  and  covered  with  perfumes  (Ps.  xlv. 
8)  :  she  was  further  decked  out  with  jewels 
(Is.  xlix.  18,  Ixi.  10;  Rev.  xxi.  2).  When  the 
fixed  hour  arrived,  which  was  generally  late  in 
the  evening,  the  bridegroom  set  forth  from  his 
house,  attended  by  his  groomsmen  (A.  V. 
"companions,"  Judg.  xiv.  ii;  "children  of  the 
bride-chamber,"  Matt.  ix.  15),  preceded  by  a 
band  of  musicians  or  singers  (Gen.  xxxi.  27; 
Jer.  vii.  34,  xvi.  9;  i  Mace.  ix.  39),  and  accom- 
panied by  persons  bearing  flambeaux  (2  Esdr. 
x.  2;  Matt.  XXV.  7;  compare  Jer.  xxv.  10;  Rev. 
xviii.  23,  "the  light  of  a  candle").  Having 
reached  the  house  of  the  bride,  who  with  her 
maidens  anxiously  expected  his  arrival  (Matt, 
xxv.  6),  he  conducted  the  whole  party  back  to 
his  own  or  his  father's  house,  with  every  dem- 
onstration of  gladness  (Ps.  xlv.  15).  At  the 
house  a  feast  was  prepared,  to  which  all  the 
friends  and  neighbors  were  invited  (Gen.  xxix. 
22;  Matt.  xxii.  i-io;  Luke  xiv.  8;  John  ii.  2), 
and  the  festivities  were  protracted  for  seven, 
or  even  fourteen  days  (Judg.  xiv.  12 ;  Tob.  viil. 
19).  The  guests  were  provided  by  the  host 
with  fitting  robes  (Matt.  xxii.  11),  and  the 
feast  was  enlivened  with  riddles  (Judg.  xiv. 
12)  and  other  amusements.  The  last  act  in 
the  ceremonial  was  the  conducting  of  the  bride 
to  the  bridal  chamber  (Judg.  xv.  i ;  Joel  ii.  16), 
where  a  canopy  was  prepared  (Ps.  xix.  5;  Joel 
ii.  16).  The  bride  was  still  completely  veiled, 
so  that  the  deception  practised  on  Jacob  (Gen. 
xxix.  23)  was  very  possible.  A  newly  married 
nian  was  exempt  from  military  service,  or  from 
any  public  business  which  might  draw 
him  away  from  his  home,  for  the  space  of  a 
year  (Deut.  xxiv.  5)  ;  a  similar  privilege  was 
granted  to  him  wha  was  betrothed  (Deut.  xx. 
7).  There  is  abundant  evidence  that  women, 
whether  married  or  unmarried,  went  about 


with  their  faces  unveiled  (Gen.  xii.  14,  xxiv. 
16,  65,  xxix.  11;  I  Sam.  i.  13).  Women  not 
unfrec]uently  held  important  offices.  They 
took  their  part  in  matters  of  public  interest 
(Ex.  XV.-20;  I  Sam.  xviii.  6,  7)  :  in  short,  they 
enjoyed  as  much  freedom  in  ordinary  life  as 
the  women  of  our  own  country.  If  such  was 
her  general  position,  it  is  certain  that  the  wife 
must  have  exercised  an  important  influence  in 
her  own  home.  She  appears  to  have  taken 
her  part  in  family  afifairs,  and  even  to  have 
enjoyed  a  considerable  amount  of  independ- 
ence (2  K.  iv.  8;  Judg.  iv.  18;  i  Sam.  xxv.  14, 
&c.).  In  the  N.  T.  the  mutual  relations  of 
husband  and  wife  are  a  subject  of  frequent 
exhortation  (Eph.  v.  22,  33;  Col.  iii.  18,  19; 
Tit.  ii.  4,  5 ;  I  Pet.  iii.  1-7).  The  duties  of  the 
wife  in  the  Hebrew  household  were  multi- 
farious :  in  addition  to  the  general  superintend- 
ence of  the  domestic  arrangements,  such  as 
cooking,  from  which  even  women  of  rank  were 
not  exempted   (Gen.  xviii.  6;  2  Sam.  xiii.  8), 


The  AcToiJolis   at  Atlions  (Restored). 


and  the  distribution  of  food  at  meal  times 
(Prov.  xxxi.  15),  the  manufacture  of  the  cloth- 
ing and  the  various  textufes  required  in  an 
Eastern  establishment  devolved  upon  her 
(Prov.  xxxi.  13,  21,  22),  and  if  she  were  a 
model  of  activity  and  skill,  she  produced  a 
surplus  of  fine  linen  shirts  and  girdles,  which 
she  sold,  and  so,  like  a  well-freighted  mer- 
chant-ship, brought  in  wealth  to  her  husband 
from  afar  (Prov.  xxxi.  14,  24).  The  legal 
rights  of  the  wife  are  noticed  in  Ex.  xxi.  10, 
under  the  three  heads  of  food,  raiment,  and 
dutv  of  marriage  or  conjugal  right. 

Mars'  Hill,  the  Hill  of  Mars  or  Ares,  better 
known  by  the  name  of  Areopague,  of  which 
the  Hill  of  Mars  or  Ares  is  a  translation.  The 
Areopagues  was  a  rocky  height  in  Athens,  op- 
posite the  western  end  of  the  Acropolis,  from 
which  it  is  separated  only  by  an  elevated  val- 
ley. It  rises  gradually  from  the  northern  end, 
and  terminates  abruptl}'  on  the  south,  over 


234 


MARTHA 


MARY  MAGDALENE 


against  the  Acropolis,  at  which  p£)int  it  is 
about  fifty  or  sixty  feet  above  the  valley  al- 
ready mentioned.  The  Areopagus  possesses 
peculiar  interest  to  the  Christian,  as  the  spot 
from  which  St.  Paul  delivered  his  memorable 
address  to  the  men  of  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  22- 
31).  It  has  been  supposed  by  some  com- 
mentators that  St.  Paul  was  brought  before 
the  Council  of  Areopagus ;  but  there  is  no 
trace  in  the  narrative  of  any  judicial  proceed- 
ings. St.  Paul  "disputed  daily"  in  the  "mar- 
ket" or  Agora  (xvii.  17),  which  was  situated 
south  of  the  Areopagus  in  the  valley  lying 
between  this  hill  and  those  of  the  Acropolis, 
the  Pnyx  and  the  Museum.  Attracting  more 
and  more  attention,  "certain  philosophers  of 
the  Epicureans  and  Stoics"  brought  him  up 
from  the  valley  to  the  Areopagus  above, 
that  they  might  listen  to  him  more  con- 
veniently.   Here  the    philosophers  probably 


View  of  Mars'  Hill  or  Areopagus. 

took  their  seats  on  the  stone  benches  usually 
occupied  by  the  members  of  the  Council,  while 
the  multitude  stood  upon  the  steps  and  in  the 
valley  below. 

Mar'tha,  the  sister  of  Lazarus  and  Mary. 
The  facts  recorded  in  Luke  x.  and  John  xi.  in- 
dicate a  character  devout  after  the  customary 
Jewish  type  of  devotion,  sharing  in  Messianic 
hopes  and  accei)ting  Jesus  as  the  Christ.  When 
she  first  comes  be'fore  us  in  Luke  x.  38,  as  re- 
ceiving her-L*rd  into  her  house,  she  loses  the 
calmness  of  her  spirit,  is  "cumbered  with 
much  serving,"  is  "careful  and  troubled  about 
many  things."  She  needs  the  reproof,  "One 
thing  is  needful ;"  but  Jher  love,  though  imper- 
fect in  its  form,  is  yet  recognized  as  true,  and 
she  too,  no  less  than  Lazarus  and  Mary,  has 
the  distinction  of  being  one  whom  Jesus  loved 
(John  xi.  3).  Her  position  here,  it  may  be 
noticed,  is  obviously  that  of  the  elder  sister, 


the  head  and  manager  of  the  household.  In 
the  supper  at  Bethany  (John  xii.  2),  the  old 
character  shows  itself  still,  but  it  has  been 
freed  from  evil.  She  is  no  longer  "cumbered," 
no  longer  impatient.  Activity  has  been 
calmed  by  trvist.  When  other  voices  are 
raised  against  her  sister's  overflowing  love, 
hers  is  not  heard  among  them. 

Mary  Magdale'ne.  Dififerent  explanations 
have  been  given  of  this  name ;  but  the  most 
natural  is,  that  she  came  from  the  town  of 
Magdala.  She  appears  before  us  for  the  first 
time  in  Luke  viii.  2,  among  the  -women  who 
"ministered  unto  Him  of  their  substance."  All 
appear  to  have  occupied  a  position  of  compara- 
tive wealth.  With  all  the  chief  motive  was 
that  of  gratitude  for  their  deliverance  from 
"evil  spirits  and  infirmities."  Of  Mary  it  is 
said  specially  that  "seven  devils  went  out 
of  her,"  and  the  number  indicates,  as  in  Matt, 
'xii.  45,  and  the  "Legion"  of  the  Gadarene  de- 
moniac (Mark  v.  9),  a  possession  of  more  than 
ordinary  malignity.  She  was  present  during 
the  closing  hours  of  the  Agony  on  the  Cross. 
She  remains  by  the  cross  till  all  is  over,  waits 
till  the  body  is  taken  down,  and  wrapped  in 
the  linen  cloth  and  placed  in  the  garden- 
sepulchre  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea  (Matt,  xxvii. 
61;  Mark  xv.  47;  Luke  xxiii.  55).  The  sab- 
bath that  followed  brought  an  enforced  rest, 
but  no  sooner  is  the  sunset  over  than  she,  with 
Salome  and  Mary  the  mother  of  James, 
"brought  sweet  spices  that  they  might  come 
and  anoint"  the  body  (Mark  xvi.  i).  The  next 
morning  accordingly,  in  the  earliest  dawn 
(Matt,  xxviii.  .!  ;  Mark  xvi.  2)  they  come  with 
Mary,  the  mother  of  James,  to  the  sepulchre. 
Mary  Magdalene  had  been  to  the  tomb  and 
had  found  it  empty,  had  seen  the  "vision  of 
angels"  (Matt,  xxviii.  5;  Mark  xvi,  5).  She 
went  with  her  cry  of  sorrow  to  Peter  and  John 
(John  XX.  I,  2).  But  she  returns  there.  She 
follows  Peter  and  John,  and  remains  when 
they  go  back.  The  one  thought  that  fills  her 
mind  is  still  that  the  body  is  not  there  (John 
XX.  13).  The  utter  stupor  of  her  grief  is 
shown  in  her  want  of  power  to  recognize  at 
first  either  the  voice  or  the  form  of  the  Lord 
to  whom  she  had  ministered  (John  xx.  14,  15). 
At  last  her  own  name,  uttered  by  her  Lord, 
recalls  her  to  consciousness ;  and  then  follows 
the  cry  of  recognition, ,  with  the  strong- 
est word  of  reverence  which  a  woman  of  Israel 
could  use,  "Rabboni,"  and  the  rush  forward  to 
cling  to  His  feet. — (i)  Mary  Magdalene  has 
become  the  type  of  a  class  of  repentant  sin- 
ners ;  but  there  is  no  authority  for  identifying 
her  with  the  "sinner"  who  anoints  the  feet  of 
Jesus  in  Luke  vii.  36-50.    When  the  name  of 


235 


MARY  THE  VIRGIN 


MATTHEW,  GOSPEL  OF 


JMary  Magdalene  appears  in  Luke  viii.  3  there 
is  not  one  word  to  connect  it  with  the  history 
that  immediately  precedes.  Never,  perhaps, 
has  a  figment  so  utterly  baseless  obtained  so 
wide  an  acceptance  as  that  which  we  connect 
with  the  name  of  the  "penitent  Magdalene." 
It  has  also  been  believed  that  Mary  Magdalene 
is  the  same  as  the  sister  of  Lazarus.  But  this 
supposition  is  still  more  startling.  Not  one 
single  circumstance,  except  that  of  love  and 
reverence  for  their  Master,  is  common.  The 
epithet  Magdalene,  whatever  may  be  its  mean- 
ing, seems  chosen  for  the  express  purpose  of 
distinguishing  her  from  all  other  INIarys. 

Mary  the  Virgin,  the  mother  of  our  Lord. 
There  is  no  person  perhaps  in  sacred  or  in 
profane  literature  around  whom  so  many  le- 
gends have  been  grouped  as  the  Virgin  Mary ; 
and  there  are  few  whose  authentic  history  is 
more  concise.  She  was,  like  Joseph,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  and  of  the  lineage  of  David 
(Ps.  cxxxii.  11;  Luke  i.  32;  Rom.  i.  3).  She 
had  a  sister,  named,  like  herself,  Mary  (John 
xix.  25),  and  she  was  connected  by  marriage 
(Luke  i.  36)  with  Elizabeth,  Avho  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  and  of  the  lineage  of  Aaron.  This 
is  all  that  we  know  of  her  antecedents.  Her 
bethrothal  to  Joseph,  and  the  circumstances 
connected  with  her  becoming  the  mother  of 
our  Lord,  are  related  elsewhere.  [Jesus 
Christ.]  Four  times  only  she  appears  after 
the  commencement  of  Christ's  ministry.  These 
four  occasions  are — i.  The  marriage  at  Cana  of 
Galilee  (John  ii.).  2.  The  attempt  which  she 
and  his  brethren  made  "to  speak  with  him" 
(Matt.  xii.  46;  Mark  iii.  21  and  31;  Luke  viii. 
19).  3.  The  Crucifixion.  4.  The  days  suc- 
ceeding the  Ascension  (Acts  i.  14).  If  to 
these  we  add  two  references  to  her,  the  first 
by  her  Nazarene  fellow-citizens  (Matt.  xiii.  54, 
55;  Mark  vi.  1-3),  the  second  by  a  woman  in 
the  multitude  (Luke  xi.  27),  we  have  specified 
every  event  known  to  us  in  her  life. 

Mat'thew.  Matthew  the  Apostle  and 
Evangelist  is  the  same  as  Levi  (Luke  v.  27-29) 
the  son  of  a  certain  Alphaeus  (Mark  ii.  14). 
His  call  to  be  an  apostle  is  related  by  all  three 
Evangelists  in  the  same  words,  except  that 
Matthew,  (ix.  9)  gives  the  former,  and  Mark 
(ii.  14)  and  Luke  (v.  27)  the  latter  name.  The 
publicans,  properly  so  called  (publicani),  were 
persons  who  farmed  the  Roman  taxes,  and 
they  were  usually,  in  later  times,  Roman 
knights,  and  persons  of  wealth  and  credit. 
They  employed  vmder  them  inferior  officers, 
natives  of  the  province  where  the  taxes  were 
collected,  called  properly  portitores,  to  which 
class  Matthew  no  doubt  belonged.  The  tradi- 
tions respecting  the  later  life  of  St.  Matthew 


are  various ;  but  nothing  whatever  is  really 
known. 

Matthew,  Gospel  of.  The  Gospel  which 
bears  the  name  of  St.  Matthew  was  written  by 
the  Apostle,  according  to  the  testimony  of  all 
antiquity.  I.  Language  in  which  it  was  first 
written. — Every  early  writer  who  mentions 
that  St.  Matthew  wrote  a  Gospel  at  all  says 
that  he  wrote  in  Hebrew  (that  is,  in  the  Syro- 
Chaldaic)  and  in  Palestine  in  the  first  century. 
Moreover  every  early  writer  that  has  come 
down  to  us  uses  the  Greek  of  St.  Matthew,  and 
this  with  the  definite  recognition  that  it  is  a 
translation ;  hence  we  may  be  sure  that  the 
Greek  copy  belongs  to  the  Apostolic  age,  hav- 
ing been  thus  authoritatively  used  from  and 
up  to  that  time.  Thus  the  question  is  not  the 
authority  of  the  Greek  translation,  which 
comes  from  the  time  when  the  Churches  en- 
joyed Apostolic  guidance,  but  wdiether  there 
was  a  Hebrew  original  from  which  it  had  been 
translated.  The  witnesses  to  the  Hebrew 
original  were  men  sufficiently  competent  to  at- 
test so  simple  a  fact,  especially  seeing  that 
they  are  relied  on  in  what  is  far  more  im- 
portant,— that  St.  Matthew  wrote  a  Gospel  at 
all.  There  is  in  fact  no  evidence  whatsoever 
that  St.  Matthew  wrote  in  Greek.  II.  Style 
and  Diction. — i.  Matthew  uses  the  expression 
"that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken 
of  the  Lord  by  the  prophet"  (i.  22,  ii.  15).  In 
ii.  5,  and  in  later  passages  of  Matt,  it  is  ab- 
breviated (ii.  17,  iii.  3,  iv.  14,  viii.  17,  xii.  17, 
xiii.  14,  35,  xxi.  4,  xxvi.  56,  xxvii.  9).  2.  The 
reference  to  the  IMessiah  under  the  name  "Son 
of  David,"  occurs  in  Matthew  eight  times ;  and 
three  times  each  in  Mark  and  Luke.  3.  Jeru- 
salem is  called  "the  holy  city,"  "the  hol}^  place" 
(iv.  5,  xxiv.  15,  xxvii.  55).  4.  The  phrase 
"kingdom  of  heaven,"  about  thirty-three  times  ; 
other  writers  use  "kingdom  of  God,"  which 
is  found  also  in  Matthew.  5.  "Heavenly 
Father,"  vised  about  six  times ;  and  "Father  in 
heaven"  about  sixteen,  and  without  explana- 
tion, point  to  the  Jewish  mode  of  speaking  in 
this  Gospel.  III.  Genuineness  of  the  Gospel. 
The  genuineness  of  the  first  two  chapters  of 
the  Gospel  has  been  questioned,  but  is  estab- 
lished on  satisfactory  grounds.  I.  All  the  old 
MSS.  and  versions  contain  them ;  and  they  are 
quoted  by  the  Fathers  of  the  2d  and  3d  cen- 
turies. 2.  Their  contents  would  naturally  form 
part  of  a  Gospel  intended  primarily  for  the 
Jews.  3.  The  commencement  of  ch.  iii.  is  de- 
pendent on  ii.  23 ;  and  in  iv.  13  there  is  a  refer- 
ence to  ii.  23.  4.  In  constructions  and  expres- 
sions they  are  similar  to  the  rest  of  the  Gos- 
pel. IV.  Time  when  and  place  where  the  Gos- 
pel was  written. — Nothing  can  be  said  on  this 


236 


THE  LIBRARY 
OF  THE 


MATTHIAS 


MEALS 


point  with  certainty.  The  most  probable  sup- 
position is  that  it  was  written  between  50  and 
60,  and  in  Palestine.  V.  Purpose  of  the  Gos- 
pel.— The  Gospel  itself  tells  us  by  plain  in- 
ternal evidence  that  it  was  written  for  Jewish 
converts,  to  show  them  in  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
the  Messiah  of  the  O.  T.  whom  they  expected. 
Jewish  converts  over  all  the  world  seem  to 
have  been  intended,  and  not  merely  Jews  in 
Palestine.  It  is  pervaded  by  one  principle,  the 
fulfilment  of  the  Law  and  of  the  Messianic 
prophecies  in  the  person  of  Jesus. 

Matthi'as,  the  Apostle  elected  to  fill  the 
place  of  the  traitor  Judas  (Acts  i.  26).  All  be- 
yond this  that  we  know  of  him  for  certainty  is, 
that  he  had  been  a  constant  attendant  upon 
the  Lord  Jesus  during  the  whole  course  of  His 
ministry ;  for  such  was  declared  by  St.  Peter 
to  be  the  necessary  qualification  of  one  who 
was  to  be  a  witness  of  the  resurrection.  It  is 
said  that  he  preached  the  Gospel  and  suffered 
martyrdom  in  Ethiopia. 

Mattock  (Is.  vii.  25).  The  tool  used  in 
Arabia  for  loosening  the  ground,  described  by 


Mattock,  or  Egyptian  Hoe. 


Niebuhr,  answers  generally  to  our  mattock  or 
grubbing-axe,  i.  e.  a  single  headed  pickaxe,  the 
sarculus  simplex,  as  opposed  to  bicornis  of 
Palladius.  The  ancient  Egyptian  hoe  was  of 
wood,  and  answered  for  hoe,  spade,  and  pick. 

Maul  (i.  e.  a  hammer;  a  variation  of  mall, 
from  malleus),  a  word  employed  by  our  trans- 
lators to  render  the  Hebrew  term  mephits.  The 
Hebrew  and  English  alike  occur  in  Prov.  xxv. 
18  only.  But  a  derivative  from  the  same  root, 
and  differing  but  slightly  in  form,  viz.  map- 
pets,  is  found  in  Jer.  li.  20,  and  is  there  trans- 
lated by  "battle-axe." 

Meadow.  This  word,  so  peculiarly  English, 
is  used  in  the  A.  V.  to  translate  two  words 
which  are  entirely  distinct  and  independent  of 
each  other,  i.  Gen.  xli:  2  and  18.  Here  the 
word  in  the  original  is  ha-Achii.  It  appears  to 
be  an  Egyptian  term.  Its  use  in  Job  viii.  11 
(A.  V.  "flag")  seems  to  show  that  it  is  not  a 
"meadow,"  but  some  kind  of  reed  or  water- 
plant.  But  as  during  high  inundations  of  the 
Nile — such  inundations  as  are  the  cause  of 
fruitful  years — the  whole  of  the  land  on  either 


side  is  a  marsh,  and  as  the  cultivation  extends 
up  to  the  very  lip  of  the  river,  is  it  not  possible 
that  Achu  may  denote  the  herbage  of  the 
growing  crops?  2.  Judg.  xx.  33  only,  "the 
meadows  of  Gibeah."  Llere  the  word  is 
Maarsh,  which  occurs  nowhere  else  with  the 
same  vowels  attached  to  it.  The  sense  is  thus 
doubly  uncertain.  The  most  plausible  in- 
terpretation is  that  of  the  Peshito-Syriac, 
which  by  a  slight  difiference  in  the  vowel- 
points  makes  the  word  mearah,  "the  cave." 

Meals.  Our  information  on  this  subject  is 
but  scanty :  the  early  Hebrews  do  not  seem 
to  have  given  special  names  to  their  several 
meals,  for  the  terms  rendered  "dine"  and  "din- 
ner" in  the  A.  V.  (Gen.  xliii.  16;  Prov.  xv.  17) 
are  in  reality  general  expressions,  which  might 
more  correctly  be  rendered  "eat"  and  "portion 
of  food."  There  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the 
hours  at  which  the  meals  were  taken :  the 
Egyptians  undoubtedly  took  their  principal 
meal  at  noon  (Gen.  xliii.  16)  ;  laborers  took  a 
light  meal  at  that  time  (Ruth  ii.  14;  comp.  ver. 
17)  ;  and  occasionally  that  early  hour  was  de- 
voted to  excess  and  revelling  (i  K.  xx.  16).  It 
has  been  inferred  from  those  passages  that  the 
principal  meal  generally  took  place  at  noon : 
the  Egyptians  do  indeed  still  make  a  substan- 
tial meal  at  that  time;  but  there  are  indica- 
tions that  the  Jews  rather  followed  the  custom 
that  prevails  among  the  Bedouins,  and  made 
their  principal  meal  after  sunset,  and  a  lighter 
meal  at  about  9  or  10  A.  M.  The  posture  at 
meals  varied  at  various  periods :  there  is  suf- 
ficient evidence  that  the  old  Hebrews  were  in 
the  habit  of  sitting  (Gen.  xxvii.  19;  Judg.  xix. 
6;  I  Sam.  xx.  5,  24;  i  K.  xiii.  20),  but  it  does 
not  hence  follow  that  they  sat  on  chairs ;  they 
may  have  squatted  on  the  ground,  as  was  the 
occasional,  though  not  perhaps  the  general 
custom  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  table 
was  in  this  case  but  slightly  elevated  above 
the  ground,  as  is  still  the  case  in  Egypt.  As 
luxury  increased,  the  practice  of  sitting  was 
exchanged  for  that  of  reclining:  the  first  inti- 
mation of  this  occurs  in  the  prophecies  of 
Amos  (iii.  12,,  vi.  4).  The  custom  may  have 
been  borrowed  in  the  first  instance  from  the 
Babylonians  and  Syrians,  among  whom  it  pre- 
vailed at  an  early  period  (Esth.  i.  6,  vii.  8).  In 
the  time  of  our  Saviour,  reclining  was  the  uni- 
versal custom,  as  is  implied  in  the  terms  used 
for  "sitting  at  meat,"  as  the  A.  V.  incorrectly 
has  it.  The  couch  itself  is  only  once  men- 
tioned (Mark  vii.  4;  A.  V.  "table"),  but  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Roman  triclinium 
had  been  introduced,  and  that  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  tables  resembled  those  described 
by  classical  writers.    Generally  speaking,  only 


237 


MEALS 


MEAT 


three  persons  reclined  on  each  couch,  but  oc- 
casionally four,  or  even  five.  The  couches 
were  provided  with  cushions,  on  which  the  left 
elbow  rested  in  support  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  body,  while  the  right  arm  remained 
free.  As  several  guests  reclined  on  the 
same  couch,  each  overlapped  his  neighbor, 
as  it  were,  and  rested  his  head  on,  or  near  the 
breast  of  the  one  who  lay  behind  him ;  he  was 
then  said  to  "lean  on  the  bosom"  of  his  neigh- 
bor (John  xiii.  23,  xxi.  20).  The  ordinary  ar- 
rangement of  the  couches  was  in  three  sides  of 
a  square,  the  fourth  being  left  open  for  the 
servants  to  bring  tip  the  dishes.  Some  doubt 
attends  the  question  whether  the  females  took 
their  meals  along  with  the  males.  The  cases 
of  Ruth  amid  the  reapers  (Ruth  ii.  14),  of 
Elkanah  with  his  wives  (i  Sam.  i.  4),  of  Job's 
sons  and  daughters  (Job  i.  4),  and  the  general 
intermixture  of  the  sexes  in  daily  life,  make  it 
more  than  probable  that  they  did  so  join ;  at 
the  same  time  as  the  duty  of  attending  upon 
the  guests  devolved  upon  them  (Luke  x.  40), 
they  probably  took  a  somewhat  irregular  and 


Re'cliuiug  at  Table. 

briefer  repast.  Before  commencing  the  meal 
the  guests  washed  their  hands.  This  custom 
was  founded  on  natural  decorum  ;  not  only  was 
the  hand  the  substitute  for  our  knife  and  fork, 
but  the  hands  of  all  the  guests  were  dipped 
into  one  and  the  same  dish.  Another  prelimi- 
nary step  was  the  grace  or  blessing,  of  which 
we  have  but  one  instance  in  the  O.  T.  (i  Sam. 
ix.  13),  and  more  than  one  pronounced  by  our 
Lord  Himself  in  the  N.  T.  (Matt.  xv.  36;  Luke 
ix.  16;  John  vi.  11).  The  mode  of  taking  the 
food  dif¥ered  in  no  material  point  from  the 
modern  usages  of  the  East ;  generally  there 
was  a  single  dish,  into  which  each  guest  dipped 
his  hand  (Matt.  xxvi.  23)  ;  occasionally  sepa- 
rate portions  were  served  out  to  each  (Gen. 
xliii.  34;  Ruth  ii.  14;  i  Sam.  i.  4).  A  piece  of 
bread  was  held  between  the  thumb  and  two 
fingers  of  the  right  hand,  and  was  dipped  either 
into  a  bowl  of  melted  grease  (in  which  case  it 


was  termed  "a  sop,"  John  xiii.  26),  or  into  the 
dish  of  meat,  whence  a  piece  was  conveyed  to 
the  mouth  between  the  layers  of  bread.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  meal,  grace  was  again 
said  in  conformity  with  Deut.  viii.  10,  and  the 
hands  were  again  washed.  Thus  far  we  have 
described  the  ordinary  meal ;  on  state  occasions 
more  ceremony  was  used,  and  the  meal  was 
enlivened  in  various  ways.  Such  occasions 
were  numerous,  in  connection  partly  with  pub- 
lic, partly  with  private  events.  On  these  oc- 
casions a  sumptuous  repast  was  prepared ;  the 
guests  were  previously  invited  (Esth.  v.  8; 
Matt.  xxii.  3)  and  on  the  day  of  the  feast  a  sec- 
ond invitation  was  issued  to  those  that  were 
bidden  (Esth.  vi.  14;  Prov.  ix.  3;  Matt.  xxii. 
3).  The  visitors  were  received  with  a  kiss 
(Tob.  vii.  6;  Laike  vii.  45);  water  was  pro- 
duced for  them  to  wash  their  feet  with  (Luke 
vii.  44)  ;  the  head,  the  beard,  the  .feet,  and 
sometimes  the  clothes,  were  perfumed  with 
ointments  (Ps.  xxiii.  5;  Am.  vi.  6;  Luke  vii. 
38 ;  John  xii.  3)  ;  on  special  occasions  robes 
were  provided  (Matt.  xii.  11);  and  the  head 
was  decorated  with  wreaths  (Is.  xxviii.  i ; 
Wisd.  ii.  7,  8;  Joseph.  Ant.  xix.  9,  §  i).  The 
regulation  of  the  feast  was  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  a  special  officer  (John  ii.  8;  A.  V. 
"governor  of  the  feast"),  whose  business  it 
was  to  taste  the  food  and  the  liquors  before 
they  were  placed  on  the  table,  and  to.  settle 
about  the  toasts  and  amusements;  he  was  gen- 
erally one  of  the  guests  (Ecclus.  xxxii.  i,  2), 
and  might  therefore  take  part  in  the  conversa- 
tion. The  places  of  the  guests  were  settled  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  rank  (Gen.  xliii.  33; 
I  Sam.  ix.  22 ;  Luke  xiv.  8 ;  Mark  xii.  39 ;  John 
xiii.  23)  ;  portions  of  food  were  placed  before 
each  (i  Sam.  i.  4;  2  Sam.  vi.  19;  i  Chr.  xvi.  3), 
the  most  honored  guests  receiving  either  larger 
(Gen.  xliii.  34;  comp.  Herod,  vi.  57)  or  more 
choice  (i  Sam.  ix.  24)  portions  than  the  rest. 
The  meal  was  enlivened  with  music,  singing, 
and  dancing  (2  Sam.  xix.  35 ;  Ps.  Ixix.  12 ;  Is.  v. 
12;  Am.  vi.  5),  or  with  riddles  (Judg.  xiv.  12)  ; 
and  amid  these  entertainments  the  festival  was 
prolonged  for  several  days  (Esth.  i.  3,  4). 
Measures.  [Weights  and  Measures.] 
Meat.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  word 
"meat"  is  used  in  any  one  instance  in  the  A. 
V.  of  either  the  O.  or  N.  Testament,  in  the 
sense  which  it  now  almost  exclusively  bears  of 
animal  food.  The  latter  is  denoted  uniformly 
by  "flesh."  The  only  possible  exceptions  to 
this  assertion  in  the  O.  T.  are — (a.)  Gen.  xxvii. 
4,  &c.,  "savory  meat."  (b.)  lb.  xiv.  23,  "corn 
and  bread  and  meat."  The  only  real  and  in- 
convenient ambiguity  caused  by  the  change 
which  has  taken  place  in  the  meaning  of  the 


238 


i 


MEAT-OFFERING 

word  is  in  the  case  of  the  "meat-offering." 
[Meat-ofifcring.] 

Meat-offering.  The  word  minchah  signifies 
originally  a  gift  of  any  kind,  and  appears  to  be 
used  generally  of  a  gift  from  an  inferior  to  a 
superior,  whether  God  or  man.  The  law  or 
ceremonial  of  the  meat-offering  is  described  in 
Lev.  ii.  and  vi.  14-23.  It  was  to  be  composed 
of  fiine  flour,  seasoned  with  salt,  and  mixed 
with  oil  and  frankincense,  but  without  leaven ; 
and  it  was  generally  accompanied  by  a. drink- 
offering  of  wine.  A  portion  of  it,  including 
all  the  frankincense,  was  to  be  burnt  on  the 
altar  as  "a  memorial ;"  the  rest  belonged  to  the 
priest ;  but  the  meat-offerings  offered  by  the 
priests  themselves  were  to  be  wholly  burnt. 
Its  meaning  appears  to  be  exactly  expressed  in 
the  words  of  David  (i  Chr.  xxix.  10-14).  It 
will  be  seen  that  this  meaning  involves  neither 
of  the  main  ideas  of  sacrifice — the  atonement 
for  sin  and  self-dedication  to  God.  It  takes 
them  for  granted,  and  is  based  on  them.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  meat-offering,  properly  so- 
called,  seems  always  to  have  been  a  subsidiary 
offering,  needing  to  be  introduced  by  the  sin- 
offering,  which  represented  the  one  idea,  and 
forming  an  appendage  to  the  burnt-offering 
which  represented  the  other.  The  unbloody 
offerings  offered  alone  did  not  properl}^  belong 
to  the  regular  meat-offering.  They  were 
usually  substitutes  for  other  offerings  (comp. 
Lev.  V.  II;  Num.  v.  15).  [Meat.] 

Medes,  Me'dia.  Media  lay  north-west  of 
Persia  Proper,  south  and  south-west  of  the 
Caspian,  east  of  Armenia  and  Assyria,  west 
and  north-west  of  the  great  salt  desert  of  Iram. 
It  may  be  gathered  from  the  mention  of  the 
Medes,  by  Moses,  among  the  races  descended 
from  Japhet  []\ladai],  that  they  were  a  nation 
of  very  high  antiquity ;  and  it  is  in  accordance 
with  this  view  that  we  find  a  notice  of  them 
in  the  primitive  Babylonian  history  of  Berosus, 
who  says  that  the  Medes  conquered  Babylon  at 
a  very  remote  period  (cir.  B.  C.  2458),  and 
that  eight  Median  monarchs  reigned  there  con- 
secutively, over  a  space  of  224  years.  The 
deepest  obscurity  hangs,  however,  over  the 
whole  history  of  the  Medes  from  the  time  of 
their  bearing  sway  in  Babylonia  (B.  C.  2458- 
2234)  to  their  first  appearance  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  among  the  enemies  of  Assyria, 
about  B.  C.  880.  They  then  inhabit  a  portion 
of  the  region  which  bore  their  name  down  to 
the  Mohammedan  conquest  of  Persia ;  but 
whether  they  were  recent  immigrants  into  it, 
or  had  held  it  from  a  remote  anticjuity,  is  un- 
certain. However  this  was,  it  is  certain  that 
at  first,  and  for  a  long  series  of  years,  they 
were  very  inferior  in  power  to  the  great  em- 


MEDES,  MEDIA 

pire  established  upon  their  Herodotus 

represents  the  decadence  of,  Af^yrla  lis  greatly 
accelerated  by  a  formal  revolt  of  the  Medes, 
and  places  this  revolt  about  BJ  C.  708.  He 
gives  a  succession  of  kings — Deioces,  Phra- 
ortes,  Cyaxares,  and  Astyages.  But  the  cunei- 
form records  of  Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and 
Esarhaddon  clearly  show  that  the  Median 
kingdom  did  not  commence  so  early  as 
PIcrodotus  imagined.  These  three  princes, 
whose  reigns  cover  the  space  extending  from 
B.  C.  720  to  B.  C.  660,  all  carried  their  arms 
deep  into  Media,  and  found  it,  not  under  the 
dominion  of  a  single  powerful  monarch,  but 
under  the  rule  of  a  vast  number  of  petty  chief- 
tains. It  cannot  have  been  till  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  7th  century  B.  C.  that  the  Median 
kingdom  was  consolidated,  and  became  for- 
midable to  its  neighbors.  Cyaxares,  the  third 
Median  monarch,  took  Nineveh  and  conquered 
Assyria,  B.  C.  625.  With  regard  to  the  nature 
of  the  government  established  by  the  Medes 
over  the  conquered  nations,  we  possess  but  lit- 
tle truthworthy  evidence.  Herodotus  in  one 
place  compares,  somewhat  vaguely,  the 
Median  with  the  Persian  system  (i.  134)  ;  but 
on  the  whole  it  is  perhaps  most  probable  that 
the  Assyrian  organization  was  continued  by 
the  Medes,  the  subject-nations  retaining  their 
native  monarchs,  and  merely  acknowledging 
subjection  by  the  payment  of  an  annual 
tribute.  The  satrapal  organization  was  ap- 
parently a  Persian  invention,  begun  by  Cyrus, 
continued  by  Cambyses,  his  son,  but  first 
adopted  as  the  regular  governmental  system 
by  Darius  Hystaspis.  Of  all  the  ancient  Ori- 
ental monarchies  the  Median  was  the  shortest 
in  duration.  It  was  overthrown  by  the  Persians 
under  Cyrus,  B.  C.  558.  After  many  partial 
engagements,  a  great  battle  was  fought  be- 
tween the  two  armies,  and  the  result  was  the 
complete  defeat  of  the  Medes,  and  the  capture 
of  their  king,  Astyages,  by  Cyrus.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  Medes  by  the  victorious  Persians 
was  not  that  of  an  ordinary  conquered  nation. 
According  to  some  writers  (as  Herodotus  and 
Xenophon)  there  was  a  close  relationship  be- 
tween Cyrus  and  the  last  Median  monarch, 
who  was  therefore  naturally  treated  with  more 
than  common  tenderness.  The  two  nations 
were  closely  akin ;  they  had  the  same  Aryan  or 
Iranic  origin,  the  same  early  traditions,  the 
same  language,  nearly  the  same  religion,  and 
ultimately  the  same  manners  and  customs, 
dress,  and  general  mode  of  life.  Medes  were 
advanced  to  stations  of  higja  honor  and  im- 
portance under  Cyrus  and  his  successors.  The 
original  religion  of  the  Medes  must  undoubt- 
edly have  been  that  simple  creed  which  is 


239 


MEDES,  MEDIA 

placed  before  us  in  the  earlier  portions  of  the 
Zendavesta.  Its  peculiar  characteristic  was 
Dualism,  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  two  op- 
posite principles  of  good  and  evil,  nearly  if  not 
quite  on  a  par  with  one  another.  Ormazd  and 
Ahriman  were  both  self-caused  and  self-exist- 
ent, both  indestructible,  both  potent  to  work 
their  will.  Besides  Orniazd,  the  Aryans  wor- 
shipped the  Sun  and  Moon,  under  the  names 
of  ]\Iithra  and  Homa ;  and  they  believed  in 
the  existence  of  numerous  spirits  or  genii, 
some  good,  some  bad,  the  subjects  and  min- 
isters respectively  of  the  two  powers  of  Good 
and  Evil.  Their  migration  brought  them  into 
contact  with  the  fire-worshippers  of  Armenia 
and  Mount  Zagros,  among  whom  Magism  had 
been  established  from  a  remote  antiquity.  The 
result  was  either  a  combination  of  the  two 
religions,  or  in  some  cases  an  actual  conver- 
sion of  the  conquerors  to  the  faith  and  worship 
of  the  conquered.  So  far  as  can  be  gathered 
from  the  scanty  materials  in  our,  possession, 
the  latter  was  the  case  with  the  Medes. — The 
customs  of  the  Medes  nearly  resembled  those 
of  their  neighbors,  the  Armenians,  and  the 
Persians ;  but  they  were  regarded  as  the  in- 
ventors, their  neighbors  as  the  copyists.  They 
were  brave  and  warlike,  excellent  riders,  and 
remarkably  skilful  with  the  bow.  The  flowing 
robe,  so  well  known  from  the  Persepolitan 
sculptures,  was  their  native  dress,  and  was  cer- 
tainly among  the  points  for  which  the  Persians 
were  beholden  to  them.  The  references  to  the 
Medes  in  the  canonical  Scriptures  are  not  very 
numerous,  but  they  are  striking.  We  first  hear 
of  certain  "cities  of  the  Medes,"  in  which  the 
captive  Israelites  were  placed  by  "the  king  of 
Assyria"  on  the  destruction  of  Samaria,  B.  C. 
721  (2  K.  xvii.  6,  xviii.  11).  This  implies  the 
subjection  of  Media  to  Assyria  at  the 'time  of 
Shalmaneser,  or  of  Sargon,  his  successor,  and 
accords  very  closely  with  the  account  given  by 
the  latter  of  certain  military  colonies  which 
he  planted  in  the  Median  country.  Soon  after- 
wards Isaiah  prophesies  the  part  which  the 
Medes  shall  take  in  the  destruction  of  Babylon 
(Is.  xiii.  17,  xxi.  2)  ;  which  is  again  still  more 
distinctly  declared  by  Jeremiah  (li.  li  and 
28),  who  sufficiently  indicates  the  inde- 
pendence of  Media  in  his  day  (xxv.  25).  Daniel 
relates  the  fact  of  the  Medo-Persic  conquest 
(v.  28,  31),  giving  an  account  of  the  reign  of 
Darius  the  Mede,  who  appears  to  have  been 
made  viceroy  by  Cyrus  (vi.  1-28).  In  Ezra  we 
have  a  mention  of  Achmetha  (Ecbatana),  "the 
palace  in  the  province  of  the  Medes,"  where 
the  decree  of  Cyrus  was  found  (vi.  2-5) — a 
notice,  which  accords  with  the  known  facts 
that  the  Median  capital  was  the  seat  of  gov- 


MEDICINE 

ernment  under  Cyrus,  but  a  royal  residence 
only,  and  not  the  seat  of  government  under 
Darius  Hystaspis.  Finally,  in  Esther,  the  high 
rank  of  Media  under  the  Persian  kings,  yet  at 
the  same  time  its  subordinate  position,  are 
marked  by  the  frequent  combination  of  the 
two  names  in  phrases  of  honor,  the  precedency 
being  in  every  case  assigned  to  the  Persians. 
In  the  Apocrypha  the  INIedes  occupy  a  more 
prominent  place.  The  chief  scene  of  one  whole 
book  (Tobit)  is  Media ;  and  in  another 
(Judith)  a  very  striking  portion  of  the  narra- 
tive belongs  to  the  same  country.  The  men- 
tion of  Rhages  in  both  narratives  as  a  Median 
town  and  region  of  importance  is  geograph- 
ically correct ;  and  it  is  historically  true  that 
Phraortes  sufifered  his  overthrow  in  the 
Rhagian  district. 

Medicine.  Egypt  was  the  earliest  home  of 
medical  and  other  skill  for  the  region  of  the 
Mediterranean  basin,  and  every  Egyptian 
mummy  of  the  more  expensive  and  elaborate 
sort  involved  a  process  of  anatomy.  Still  we 
have  no  trace  of  any  philosophical  or  rational 
system  of  Egyptian  origin ;  and  medicine  in 
Egypt  was  a  mere  art  or  profession.  Com- 
pared with  the  wild  countries  around  them,  at 
any  rate,  the  Egyptians  must  have  seemed  in- 
calculably advanced.  Representations  of  early 
Egyptian  surgery  apparently  occur  on  some  of 
the  monuments  of  Beni-Hassan.  Flint  knives 
used  for  embalming  have  been  recovered — the 
"Ethiopic  stone"  of  Herodotus  (ii.  86;  comp. 
Ex.  iv.  25)  was  probably  either  black  flint  or 
agate ;  and  those  who  have  assisted  at  the 
opening  of  a  mummy  have  noticed  that  the 
teeth  exhibited  a  dentistry  not  inferior  in  exe- 
cution to  the  work  of  the  best  modern  experts. 
This  confirms  the  statement  of  Herodotus  that 
every  part  of  the  body  was  studied  by  a  dis- 
tinct practitioner.  The  reputation  of  its  prac- 
titioners in  historical  times  was  such  that  both 
Cyrus  and  Darius  sent  to  Egypt  for  physicians 
or  surgeons.  Of  midwifery  we  have  a  distinct 
notice  (Ex.  i.  15),  and  of  women  as  its  prac- 
titioners, which  fact  may  also  be  verified  from 
the  sculptures.  The  scrupulous  attention  paid 
to  the  dead  was  favorable  to  the  health  of  the 
living.  The  practice  of  physic  was  not  among 
the  Jews  a  privilege  of  the  priesthood.  Any 
one  might  practise  it,  and  this  publicity  must 
have  kept  it  pure.  At  the  same  time  the 
greater  leisure  of  the  Levites  and  their  other 
advantages  would  make  them  the  students  of 
the  nation,  as  a  rule,  in  all  science,  and  their 
constant  residence  in  cities  would  give  them 
the  opportunity,  if  carried  out  in  fact,  of  a  far 
wider  field  of  observation.  The  book  of  Ec- 
clesiasticus  shows  the  increased  regard  given 


240 


MEDICINE 

to  the  distinct  study  of  medicine,  by  the  re- 
peated mention  of  physicians,  &c.,  which  it 
contains,  and  which,  as  probably  belonging  to 
the  period  of  the  Ptolemies,  it  might  be  ex- 
pected to  show.  Rank  and  honor  are  said  to 
be  tlie  portion  of  the  physician,  and  his  office 
to  be  from  the  Lord  (xxxviii.  i,  3,  12).  To 
bring  down  the  subject  to  the  period  of  the  N. 
T.,  St.  Luke,  "the  beloved  physician,"  who 
practised  at  Antioch  whilst  the  body  was  his 
care,  could  hardly  have  failed  to  be  conversant 
with  all  the  leading  opinions  current  down  to 
his  own  time.  The  medicine  and  surgery  of 
St.  Luke  were  probably  not  inferior  ot  those 
commonly  in  demand  among  educated  Asiatic 
Greeks,  and  must  have  been,  as  regards  their 
basis,  Greek,  and  not  Jewish.  Among  special 
diseases  named  in  the  O.  T.  are,  ophthalmia 
(Gen.  xxix.  17),  wdiich  is  perhaps  more  com- 
mon in  Syria  and  Egypt  than  anywhere  else 
in  the  world ;  especially  in  the  fig  season,  the 
juice  of  the  newly-ripe  fruit  having  the  power 
of  giving  it.  It  may  occasion  partial  or  total 
blindness  (2  K.  vi.  18).  The  eye  salve  (Rev. 
iii.  18)  was  a  remedy  common  to  Orientals, 
Greeks,  and  Romans.  Several  diseases  are 
mentioned,  the  names  of  which  are  derived 
from  various  words,  signifying  to  burn  or  to 
be  hot  (Lev.  xxvi.  16;  Deut.  xxviii.  22).  The 
"burning  boil,"  or  "of  a  boil"  (Lev.  xiii.  23)  is 
merely  marked  by  the  notion  of  an  effect  re- 
sembling that  of  fire,  like  our  "carbuncle ;"  it 
may  possibly  find  an  equivalent  in  the  Damas- 
cus boil  of  the  present  time.  The  diseases 
rendered  "scab"  and  "scurvy"  in  Lev.  xxi.  20, 
xxii.  22,  Deut.  xxviii.  27,  may  be  almost  any 
skin  disease.  Some  of  these  may  be  said  to 
approach  the  type  of  leprosy.  The  "botch 
(shechin)  of  Egypt"  (Deut.  xxviii.  27)  is  so 
vague  a  term  as  to  yield  a  most  uncertain 
sense ;  the  plague  as  known  by  its  attendant 
bubo,  has  been  suggested.  It  is  possible  that 
the  Elephantiasis  Graecorum  may  be  intended. 
The  same  word  is  used  to  express  the  "boil" 
of  Hezekiah.  In  Deut.  xxviii.  35,  is  mentioned 
a  disease  attacking  the  "knees  and  legs,"  con- 
sisting in  a  "sore  botch  which  cannot  be 
healed,"  but  extended,  in  the  sequel  of  the 
verse,  from  the  "sole  of  the  foot  to  the  top  of 
the  head."  The  latter  part  of  the  quotation 
would  certainly  accord  with  Elephantiasis 
Graecorum.  The  Elephantiasis  Graecorum  is 
what  now  passes  under  the  name  of  "leprosy" 
— the  lepers,  e.  g.  of  the  huts  near  the  Zion 
gate  of  modern  Jerusalem  are  elephantiasiacs. 
[Leprosy.]  The  case  of  the  widow's  son  re- 
stored by  Elisha  (2  K.  iv.  19)  was  probably 
one  of  sunstroke.  The  palsy  meets  us  in  the 
N.  T.  onlv,  and  in  features  too  familiar  to  need 


MELITA 

special  remark.  Gangrene,  or  iiioVtlfication  in 
its  various  forms,  is  a  totally  different  disorder 
from  the  "canker"  of  the  A.  V.  in  2  Tim.  ii.  17. 
Both  gangrene  and  cancer  were  common  in  all 
the  countries  familiar  to  the  Scriptural  writers, 
and  neither  differs  from  the  modern  disease  of 
the  same  name.  Among  surgical  instruments 
or  pieces  of  apparatus  the  following  only  are 
alluded  to  in  Scripture :  A  cutting  instrument, 
supposed  a  "sharp-stone"  (Ex.  iv.  25).  The 
"knife"  of  Josh.  v.  2  was  probably  a  more 
refined  instrument  for  the  same  purpose.  An 
"awl"  is  mentioned  (Ex.  xxi.  6)  as  used  to  bore 
through  the  ear  of  the  bondman  who  refused 
release,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  surgical 
instrument.  The  "roller  to  bind"  of  Ez.  xxx. 
21  was  for  a  broken  limb,  as  still  used.  A 
scraper,  for  which  the  "potsherd"  of  Job  was 
a  substitute  (Job  ii.  8).  Ex.  xxx.  23-25  is  a 
prescription  in  form.  Among  the  most  favorite 
of  external  remedies  has  always  been  the  bath. 
There  were  special  occasions  on  which  the 
bath  was  ceremonially  enjoined.  The  Pharisees 
and  Essenes  aimed  at  scrupulous  strictness  of 
all  such  rules  (Matt.  xv.  2;  Mark  vii.  5;  Luke 
xi.  38).  River-bathing  was  common,  but 
houses  soon  began  to  include  a  bath-room 
(Lev.  XV.  13;  2  K.  V.  10;  2  Sam.  xi.  2; 
Susanna  15). 

Melchiz'edek,  king  of  Salem  and  priest  of 
the  Most  High  God,  who  met  Abram  in  the 
valley  of  Shaveh,  which  is  the  king's  valley, 
brought  out  bread  and  wine,  blessed  Abram, 
and  received  tithes  from  him  (Gen.  xiv.  18- 
20).  The  other  places  in  which  Melchizedek 
is  mentioned  are  Ps.  ex.  4,  where  Messiah  is 
described  as  a  priest  forever,  "after  the  order 
of  Melchizedek,"  and  Heb.  v.,  vi.,  vii.,  where 
these  two  passages  of  the  O.  T.  are  quoted, 
and  the  typical  relation  of  Melchizedek  to  our 
Lord  is  stated  at  great  length. 

Mel'ita,  the  modern  Malta.  This  island  has 
an  illustrious  place  in  Scripture,  as  the  scene 
of  that  shipwreck  of  St.  Paul  which  is  de- 
scribed in  such  minute  detail  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  (Acts  xxvii.).  The  wreck  probably 
happened  at  the  place  traditionally  known  as 
St.  Paul's  Bay.  As  regards  the  condition  of 
the  island  of  Melita,  when  St.  Paul  was  there, 
it  was  a  dependency  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Sicily.  Its  chief  officer  (under  the  governor  of 
Sicily)  appears  from  inscriptions  to  have  had 
the  title  of  Primus  Melitensium,  and  this  is 
the  very  phrase  which  St.  Luke  uses  (xxviii. 
7).  Melita,  from  its  position  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  excellence  of  its  harbors,  has 
always  been  important  both  in  commerce  and 
war.  It  was  a  settlement  of  the  Phoenicians 
at  an  early  period,  and  their  language,  in  a 


241 


MELONS. 


MEROM,  WATERS  OF 


corrupted  fotin,  continued  to  be  spoken  there 
in  St.  .Paul's  (day., 

Melons  are  menl^iotied  only  in  Num.  xi.  5. 
By  the  Hebrew,  word  we  are  probably  to  un- 
derstand both  the  Melon  (Cucumis  melo)  and 
the  water-melon.  The  water-melon,  which  is 
now  extensively  cultivated  in  all  hot  countries, 
is  a  fruit  not  unlike  the  common  melon,  but 
the  leaves  are  deeply  lobed  and  gashed,  the 
flesh  is  pink  or  white,  and  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  cold  watery  juice  without  much 
flavor :  the  seeds  are  black. 

Mem'phis,  a  city  of  ancient  Egypt,  situated 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  latitude 
30°  6'  N.  It  is  mentioned  by  Isaiah  (xix.  13), 
Jeremiah  (ii.  16,  xlvi.  14,  19),  and  Ezekiel 
(xxx.  13,  16),  under  the  name  of  Noph ;  and  by 
Hosea  (ix.  6)  under  the  name  of  IMoph  in 
Hebrew,  and  Memphis  in  our  English  version. 
Though  some  regard  Thel^es  as  the  more 
ancient  city,  the  monuments  of  Memphis  are 
of  higher  antiquity   than    those   of  Thebes. 


The  Serapeium  at  Memphis. 

Herodotus  dates  its  foundation  from  Menes, 
the  first  king  of  Egypt.  The  city  is  said  to 
have  had  a  circumference  of  about  19  miles. 
Memphis  long  held  its  place  as  a  capital;  and 
for  centuries  a  IMcmphite  dynast)'  ruled  over 
all  Egypt.  Lepsius,  •  Bunsen,  and  Brugsch, 
agree  in  regarding  the  3d,  4th,  6th,  7th  and  8th 
dynasties  of  the  Old  Empire  as  Memphite, 
reaching  through  a  period  of  about  1000  years. 
The  city's  overthrow  was  distinctly  predicted 
by  the  Hebrew  prophets  (Is.  xix.  13;  Jer.  xlvi. 
19).  The  latest  of  these  predictions  was  ut- 
tered nearly  600  years  before  Christ,  and  half 
a  century  before  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by 
Cambyses  (cir.  B.  C.  525).  Herodotus  informs 
us  that  Cambyses,  enraged  at  the  opposition 
he  encountered  at  Memphis,  committed  many 
outrages  upon  the  city.  The  city  never  recov- 
ered from  the  blow  inflicted  by  Cambyses.  The 
rise  of  Alexandria  hastened  its  decline.  The 
Caliph  conquerors  founded  Fostat  (Old  Cairo) 


upon  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Nile,  a  few  miles 
north  of  Memphis,  and  brought  materials  from 
the  old  city  to  build  their  new  capital  (A.  D. 
638).  At  length  so  complete  was  the  ruin  of 
Memphis,  that  for  a  long  time  its  very  site  was 
lost.  Recent  explorations  have  brought  to 
light  many  of  its  antiquities. 


Colossal  Figure  Discovered  at  Memphis. 


Mercy-seat  (Ex.  xxv.  17,  xxxvii.  6,  Hcb.  ix. 
5).  This  appears  to  have  been  merely  the  lid 
of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  not  another  sur- 
face afiixed  thereto.  It  was  that  whereon  the 
blood  of  the  yearly  atonement  was  sprinkled 
by  the  high-priest ;  and  in  this  relation  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  sense  of  the  word  in  the 
Heb.  is  based  on  the  material  fact  of  its  "cov- 
ering" the  Ark,  or  derived  from  this  notion  of 
its  reference  to  the  "covering"  (i.  e.  atone- 
ment) of  sin. 

Me'rom,  The  Waters  of,  a  place  memorable 
in  the  history  of  the  conquest  of  Palestine. 


The  Waters  of  Merom. 


Plere,  after  Joshua  had  gained  possession  of 
the  southern  portions  of  the  country,  a  con- 
federacy of  the  northern  chiefs  assembled 
undef  the  leadership  of  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor 
(Josh.  xi.  5),  and  here  they  were  encountered 
by  Joshua,  and  completely  routed  (ver.  7).  It 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  though  by  common 


THE  mmi 

OF  THE 


MESOrOTAMIA 


MESSIAH 


consent  the  "waters  of  Merom"  are  identified 
with  the  lake  through  which  the  Jordan  runs 
between  Banias  and  the  Sea  of  Gahlee — the 
Bahr  el-Hialeh  of  the  modern  Arabs — yet  that 
identity  cannot  be  proved  by  any  ancient 
record.  In  form  the  lake  is  not  far  from  a 
triangle,  the  base  being  at  the- north  and  the 
apex  at  the  south.  It  measures  about  3  miles 
in  each  direction.  The  water  is  clear  and 
sweet ;  it  is  covered  in  parts  by  a  broad-leaved 
plant,  and  abounds  in  water-fowl. 

Mesopota'mia  is  the  ordinary  Greek  render- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  Aram-Naharaim,  or  "Syria 
of  the  two  rivers."  If  we  look  to  the  significa- 
tion of  the  name,  we  must  regard  Mesopotamia 
as  the  entire  country  between  the  two  rivers — 
the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.  This  is  a  tract 
nearly  700  miles  long,  and  from  20  to  250  miles 
broad,  extending  in  a  sovtth-easterly  direction 
from  Telek  (lat.  38°  23',  long.  39°  18')  to 
Kurnah  (lat.  31°,  long.  47°  30').  The  Arabian 
geographers  term  it  "the  Island,"  a  name 
which  is  almost  literally  correct,  since  a  few 
miles  only  intervene  between  the  source  of  the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  at  Telek.  But  the 
region  which  bears  the  name  of  Mesopotamia, 
par  excellence,  both  in  Scripture  and  in  the 
classical  writers,  is  the  north-western  portion 
of  this  tract,  or  the  country  between  the  great 
bend  of  the  Euphrates  (lat.  35°  to  37°  30')  and 
the  upper  Tigris.  We  first  hear  of  Mesopo- 
tamia in  Scripture  as  the  country  where  Nahor 
and  his  family  settled  after  quitting  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees  (Gen.  xxiv.  10).  Here  lived  Bethuel 
and  Laban ;  and  hither  Abraham  sent  his 
servant,  to  fetch  Isaac  a  wife  "of  his  own 
kindred"  (ib.  ver.  38).  Hither  too,  a  century 
later,  came  Jacob  on  the  same  errand ;  and 
hence  he  returned  with  his  two  wives  after  an 
absence  of  21  years.  After  this  we  have  no 
mention  of , Mesopotamia,  till  the  close  of  the 
wanderings  in  the  wilderness  (Deut.  xxiii.  4). 
About  half  a  century  later,  we  find,  for  the  first 
and  last  time,  IMesopotamia  the  seat  of  a  pow- 
erful monarchy  (Judg.  iii.).  Finally,  the  chil- 
dren of  Ammorhj  having  provoked  a  war  with 
David,  "sent  a  thousand  talents  of  silver  to 
hire  them  chariots  and  horsemen  out  of 
Mesopotamia,  and  out  of  Syria-Maachah,  and 
out  of  Zobah"  (i  Chr.  xix.  6).  According  to 
the  Assyrian  inscriptions  Mesopotamia  was  in- 
habited in  the  early  times  of  the  empire  (B.  C. 
1200-1100)  by  a  vast  numljcr  of  petty  tribes, 
each  under  its  own  prince,  and  all  quite  inde- 
pendent of  one  another.  The  Assyrian 
monarchs  contended  with  these  chiefs  at  great 
advantage,  and  by  the  time  of  Jehu  (B.  C.  880) 
had  fully  estal)lished  their  dominion  over  them. 
On  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  empire, 


Mesopotamia  seems  to  have  been  divided  be- 
tween the  Medes  and  the  Babylonians.  The 
conquests  of  Cyrus  brought  it  wholly  under 
the  Persian  yoke ;  and  thus  it  continued  to  the 
time  of  Alexander. 

Messi'ah.  This  word,  which  answers  to  the 
word  Christ  in  the  N.  T.,  means  anointed,  and 
is  applicable  in  its  first  sense  to  any  one 
anointed  with  the  holy  oil.  The  kings  of  Israel 
were  called  anointed,  from  the  mode  of  their 
consecration  (i  Sam.  ii.  10,  35,  xii.  3,  5,  &c.). 
This  word  also  refers  to  the  expected  Prince  of 
the  chosen  people  who  was  to  complete  God's 
purposes  for  them  and  to  redeem  them,  and  of 
whose  coming  the  prophets  of  the  old  covenant 
in  all  time  spoke.  It  is  twice  used  in  the  N.  T. 
of  Jesus  (John  i.  41,  iv.  25,  A.  V.  "Messias")  ; 
but  the  Greek  equivalent,  the  Christ,  is  con- 
stantly applied,  at  first  with  the  article  as  a 
title,  exactly  the  Anointed  One,  but  later  with- 
out the  article,  as  a  proper  name,  Jesus  Christ. 
The  earliest  gleam  of  the  Gospel  is  found  in 
the  account  of  the  fall  (Gen.  iii.  15).  The 
blessings  in  store  for  the  children  of  Shem  are 
remarkably  indicated  in  the  words  of  Noah, 
"Blessed  be  Jehovah  the  God  of  Shem"  (Gen. 
ix.  26).  Next  follows  the  promise  to  Abraham, 
wherein  the  blessings  to  Shem  are  turned  into 
the  narrower  channel  of  one  family  (Gen.  xii. 
2,  3).  A  great  step  is  made  in  Gen.  xlix.  10, 
"The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah,  nor 
a  lawgiver  from  between  his  feet,  until  Shiloh 
come ;  and  unto  him  shall  the  gathering  of  the 
people  be."  This  is  the  first  case  in  which  the 
promises  distinctly  centre  in  one  person.  The 
next  passage  usually  quoted  is  the  prophecy  of 
Balaam  (Num.  xxiv.  17-19).  The  prophecy  of 
(Deut.  xviii.  18)  Moses  claims  attention. 
Passages  in  the  Psalms  are  numerous  which 
are  applied  to  the  Messiah  in  the  N.  T. ;  such 
as  Ps.  ii.,  xvi.,  xxii.,  xl.,  ex.  The  advance  in 
clearness  in  this  period  is  great.  The  name  of 
Anointed,  i.  e.  King,  comes  in,  and  the  Messiah 
is  to  come  of  the  lineage  of  David;  He  is  de- 
scribed in  His  exaltation,  with  His  great  king- 
dom that  shall  be  spiritual  rather  than  tem- 
poral, Ps.  ii.,  xxi.,  xl.,  ex.  In  other  places  He 
is  seen  in  sufifering  and  humiliation,  Ps.  xxii., 
xvi.,  xl.  After  the  time  of  David  the  predic- 
tions of  the  Messiah  ceased  for  a  time ;  until 
those  prophets  arose  whose  works  we  possess 
in  the  canon  of  Scripture.  The  Messiah  is  a 
King  and  Ruler  of  David's  house,  who  should 
come  to  reform  and  restore  the  Jewish  nation 
and  purify  the  church,  as  in  Is.  xi.,  xl.-lxvi. 
The  blesssings  of  the  restoration,  however,  will 
not  be  confined  to  Jews;  the  heathen  are  made 
to  share  them  fully  (Is.  ii.,  Ixvi.).  The  passage 
of  Micah  v.  2  (comp.  Matt.  ii.  6)  left  no  doubt 


243 


METALS 


MICAH 


in  the  mind  of  the  Sanhedrim  as  to  the  birth- 
place of  the  Messiah.  The  Uneage  of  David  is 
again  alluded  to  in  Zechariah  xii.  10-14.  The 
time  of  the  second  Temple  is  fixed  by  Haggai 
ii.  9  for  Messiah's  coming;  and  the  coming  of 
the  Forerunner  and  of  the  Anointed  are  clearly 
revealed  in  Mai.  iii.  i,  iv.  5,  6.  The  fourth 
period  after  the  close  of  the  canon  of  the  O.  T, 
is  known  to  us  in  a  great  measure  from  allu- 
sions in  the  N.  T.  to  the  expectation  of  the 
Jews.  The  Pharisees  and  those  of  the  Jews 
who  expected  Messiah  at  all,  looked  for  a 
temporal  prince  only.  The  Apostles  them- 
selves were  infected  with  this  opinion  till  after 
the  Resurrection,  Matt.  xx.  20,  21 ;  Luke  xxiv. 
21 ;  Acts  i.  6.  Gleams  of  a  purer  faith  appear, 
Luke  ii.  30,  xxiii.  42 ;  John  iv.  25. 

Metals.  The  Hebrews,  in  common  with 
other  ancient  nations,  were  acquainted  with 
nearly  all  the  metals  known  to  modern  met- 
allurgy, whether  as  the  products  of  their  own 
soil  or  the  results  of  intercourse  with  foreign- 
ers. One  of  the  earliest  geographical  defini- 
tions is  that  which  describes  the  country  of 
Havilah  as  the  land  which  abounded  in  gold, 
and  the  gold  of  which  was  good  (Gen.  ii.  11, 
12).  "Abram  was  very  rich  in  cattle,  in  silver, 
and  in  gold"  (Gen.  xiii.  2)  ;  silver,  as  will  be 
shown  hereafter  being  the  medium  of  com- 
merce, while  gold  existed  in  the  shape  of  orna- 
ments, during  the  patriarchal  ages.  Tin  is  first 
mentioned  among  the  spoils  of  the  Midianites 
which  were  taken  when  Balaam  was  slain 
(Num.  xxxi.  22),  and  lead  is  used  to  heighten 
the  imagery  of  Moses's  triumphal  song  (Ex. 
XV.  10).  Whether  the  ancient  Hebrews  were 
acquainted  with  steel,  properly  so  called,  is 
uncertain ;  the  words  so  rendered  in  the  A.  V. 
(2  Sam.  xxii.  35 ;  Job  xx.  24 ;  Ps.  xviii.  34 ;  Jer. 
XV.  12)  are  in  all  other  passages  translated 
brass,  and  would  be  more  correctly  copper. 
The  "northern  iron"  of  Jer.  xv.  12  is  believed 
by  commentators  to  be  iron  hardened  and  tem- 
pered by  some  peculiar  process,  so  as  more 
nearly  to  correspond  to  what  we  call  steel 
[Steel]  ;  and  the  "flaming  torches"  of  Nah.  ii., 
3  are  probably  the  flashing  steel  scythes  of  the 
war-chariots  which  should  come  against 
Nineveh.  Besides  the  simple  metals,  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  Hebrews  used  the  mixture  of 
copper  and  tin  known  as  bronze.  We  have  no 
indicatio-ns  of  gold  streams  or  mines  in 
P'alestine.  The  Hebrews  obtained  their  prin- 
cipal supply  from  the  south  of  Arabia,  and  the 
commerce  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  was  proba- 
bly brought  in  form  of  ingots  (Josh.  vii.  21 ;  A. 
V.  "wedge,"  lit.  "tongue").  The  great  abund- 
ance of  gold  in  early  times  is  indicated  by  its 
entering  into  the  composition  of  every  article 


of  ornament  and  almost  all  of  domestic  use. 
Among  the  spoils  of  the  Midianites  taken  by 
the  Israelites  in  their  bloodless  victory  when 
Balaam  was  slain,  were  ear-rings  and  jewels  to 
the  amount  of  16,750  shekels  of  gold  (Num. 
xxxi.  48-54).  But  the  amount  of  treasure  ac- 
cumulated by  David  from  spoils  taken  in  war, 
is  so  enormous,  that  we  are  tempted  to  con- 
clude the  numbers  exaggerated.  Though  gold 
was  thus  common,  silver  appears  to  have  been 
the  ordinary  medium  of  commerce.  The  first 
commercial  transaction  of  which  we  possess 
the  details  was  the  purchase  of  Ephron's  field 
by  Abraham  for  400  shekels  of  silver  (Gen. 
xxiii.  16).  The  accumulation  of  wealth  in  the 
reign  of  Solomon  was  so  great  that  silver  was 
but  little  esteemed.  Brass,  or  more  properly 
copper,  was  a  native  product  of  Palestine 
(Deut.  viii.  9;  Job  xxviii.  2).  It  was  so  plenti- 
ful in  the  days  of  Solomon  that  the  quantity 
employed  in  the  Temple  could  not  be  esti- 
mated, it  was  so  great  (i  K.  vii.  47).  There  is 
strong  reason  to  believe  that  brass,  a  mixture 
of  copper  and  zinc,  was  unknown  to  the 
ancients.  To  the  latter  metal  no  allusion  is 
found.  But  tin  was  well  known,  and  from  the 
difficulty  which  attends  the  toughening  pure 
copper  so  as  to  render  it  fit  for  hammering,  it 
is  probable  that  the  mode  of  deoxidizing  cop- 
per by  the  admixture  of  small  quantities  of  tin 
had  been  early  discovered.  Arms  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
16;  Job  XX.  24;  Ps.  xviii.  34)  and  armor  (i 
Sam.  xvii.  5,  6,  38)  were  made  of  this  metal, 
which  was  capable  of  being  so  wrought  as  to 
admit  of  a.  keen  and  hard  edge.  The  Egyptians 
employed  it  in  cutting  the  hardest  granite. 
Iron,  like  copper,  was  found  in  the  hills  of 
Palestine.  Iron-mines  are  still  worked  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Kefr  Huneh  in  the  S.  of  the  val- 
ley Zaharani. 

Micah  (the  same  name  as  Micaiah).  I.  An 
Israelite  whose  familiar  story  is  preserved  in 
the  xviith  and  xviiith  chapters  of  Judges. 
Micah  was  evidently  a  devout  believer  in 
Jehovah.  His  one  anxiety  is  to  enjoy  the 
favor  of  Jehovah  (xvii.  13)  ;  the  formula  of 
blessing  used  by  his  mother  and  his  priest  in- 
vokes the  same  awful  name  (xvii.  2,  xviii.  6)  ; 
and  yet  so  completely  ignorant  is  he  of  the  Law 
of  Jehovah,  that  the  mode  which  he  adopts  of 
honoring  Him  is  to  make  a  molten  and  graven 
image,  teraphim  or  images  of  domestic  gods, 
and  to  set  up  an  unauthorized  priesthood,  first 
in  his  own  family  (xvii.  5),  and  then  in  the 
person  of  a  Levite  not  of  the  priestly  line  (ver. 
12).  A  body  of  600  Danites  break  in  upon  him 
and  steal  his  idols.  II.  The  sixth  in  order  of 
the  minor  prophets  is  called  the  Moras- 
thite,  that  is,  a  native  of  Morcsheth,  or  some 


244 


THE  LIBRARY 

0?  IKE 


MIDIAN 


MILETUS 


place  of  similar  name,  which  Jerome  and  Euse- 
bins  call  !Morasthi  and  identify  with  a  small 
village  near  Eleutheropolis  to  the  east,  where 
formerly  the  prophet's  tomb  was  shown, 
though  in  the  days  of  Jerome  it  had  been  suc- 
ceeded by  a  church.  It  is  stated  in  the  super- 
scription to  his  prophecies  that  Micah  exer- 
cised the  prophetical  office  during  the  reigns  of 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah, 
giving  thus  a  maximum  limit  of  59  years  (B.  C. 
756-697),  from  the  accession  of  Jotham  to  the 
death  of  Hezekiah,  and  a  minimum  limit  of  16 
years  (B.  C.  742-726),  from  the  death  of  Jotham 
to  the  accession  of  Hezekiah.  He  was  con- 
temporary with  Hosea  and  Amos  during  the 
part  of  their  ministry  in  Israel  and  with  Isaiah 
in  Judah. 

Mid'ian  (strife),  a  son  of  Abraham  and 
Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.  2;  i  Chr.  i.  32)  ;  progenitor 
of  the  Midianites,  or  Arabians  dwelling  prin- 
cipally in  the  desert  north  of  the  peninsula  of 
Arabia.  Southwards  they  extended  along  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Eyleh ;  and  north- 
wards they  stretched  along  the  eastern  frontier 
of  Palestine.  INIidian  is  first  mentioned,  as  a 
people,  when  Moses  fled,  having  killed  the 
Eg>-ptian,  to  the  "land  of  iMidian"  (Ex.  ii.  15), 
and  married  a  daughter  of  a  priest  of  Midian 
(21).  The  '"land  of  Midian,"  or  the  portion  of 
it  specially  referred  to,  was  probably  the  penin- 
sula of  Sinai.  The  next  occurrence  of  the  name 
of  this  people  in  the  sacred  history  marks  their 
northern  settlement  on  the  border  of  the  Prom- 
ised Land,  "on  this  side  Jordan  [by]  Jericho" 
in  the  plains  of  Moab  (Xum.  xxii.  1-4).  It  was 
"on  this  side  Jordan"  that  the  chief  doings  of 
the  ^lidianites  with  the  Israelites  took  place. 
The  influence  of  the  Midianites  on  the  Israel- 
ites was  clearly  most  evil,  and  directly  tended 
to  lead  them  from  the  injunctions  of  Moses. 
The  events  at  Shittim  occasioned  the  injunc- 
tion to  vex  Midian  and  smite  them.  After  a 
lapse  of  some  years,  the  Midianites  appear 
again  as  the  enemies  of  the  Israelites.  They 
had  recovered  from  the  devastation  of  the 
former  war,  probably  by  the  arrival  of  fresh 
colonists  from  the  desert  tracts  over  which 
their  tribes  wandered.  The  Midianites  had 
oppressed  Israel  for  seven  years,  but  were 
finally  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by 
Gideon.  [Gideon.]  The  Midianites  are  de- 
scribed as  true  Arabs.  The  only  glimpse  of 
their  habits  is  found  in  the  vigorous  picture  of 
the  camp  in  the  valley  of  Jezreel  (Judg.  vii. 
13).  The  spoil  taken  in  both  the  war  of  Moses 
and  that  of  Gideon  is  remarkable.  The  gold, 
silver,  brass,  iron,  tin,  and  lead  (Num.  xxxi. 
22),  the  "jewels  of  gold,  chains,  and  bracelets, 
rings,  earrings,  and  tablets"    (50)    taken  by 


Moses,  is  especially  noteworthy ;  and  it  is  con- 
firmed by  the  booty  taken  by  Gideon  (Judg. 
viii.  21,  24-26).  We  have  here  a  wealthy  Arab 
nation,  living  by  plunder,  delighting  in  finery ; 
and,  where  forays  were  impossible,  carrying  on 
the  traffic  southwards  into  Arabia,  the  land  of 
gold — if  not  naturally,  by  trade — and  across 
to  Chaldaea,  or  into  the  rich  plains  of  Egypt. 

Mile,  a  Roman  measure  of  length,  equal  to 
1618  English  yards.  It  is  only  once  noticed  in 
the  Bible  (Matt.  v.  41),  the  usual  method  of 
reckoning  both  in  the  N.  T.  and  in  Josephus 
being  by  the  stadium.  The  mile  of  the  Jews  is 
said  to  have  been  of  two  kinds,  long  or  short, 
dependent  on  the  length  of  the  pace,  which 
varied  in  dif¥erent  parts,  the  long  pace  being 
double  the  length  of  the  short  one. 

Mile'tus  (Acts  xx.  15,  17,  less  correctly 
called  Miletum  in  2  Tim.  iv.  20).  In  the  con- 
text of  Acts  XX.  6,  we  have  the  geographical 
relations  of  Miletus  brought  out  as  distinctly 


Miletus. 

as  if  it  were  St.  Luke's  purpose  to  state  them. 
In  the  first  place  it  lay  on  the  coast  to  the  S. 
of  Ephesus.  Next,  it  was  a  day's  sail  from 
Trogyllium  (ver.  15).  Moreover  to  those  who 
are  sailing  from  the  north,  it  is  in  the  direct 
line  for  Cos.  All  these  details  correspond 
with  the  geographical  facts  of  the  case.  The 
site  of  Miletus  has  now  receded  ten  miles  from 
the  coast,  and  even  in  the  Apostle's  time  it 
must  have  lost  its  strictly  maritime  position. 
The  passage  in  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy, 
where  Miletus  is  mentioned,  presents  a  very 
serious  difliculty  to  the  theory  that  there  was 
only  one  Roman  imprisonment.  As  to  the  his- 
tory of  Miletus  itself,  it  was  far  more  famous 
five  hundred  years  before  St.  Paul's  day,"  than 
it  ever  became  afterwards.  In  early  times  it 
was  the  most  flourishing  city  of  the  Ionian 
Greeks.  In  the  natural  order  of  events,  it  was 
absorbed  in  the  Persian  empire.  After  a  brief 
period  of  spirited  independence,  it  received  a 
blow  from  which  it  never  recovered,  in  the 


MILK 


MILLO 


siege  conducted  by  Alexander,  when  on  his 
Eastern  campaign.  But  still  it  held,  even 
through  the  Roman  period,  the  rank  of  a  sec- 
ond-rate trading  town,  and  Strabo  mentions 
its  four  harI)ors.  At  this  time  it  was  political- 
ly in  the  province  of  Asia,  though  Caria  was 
the  old  ethnological  name  of  the  district  in 
which  it  was  situated. 

Milk.  As  an  article  of  diet,  milk  holds  a 
more  important  position  in  Eastern  countries 
than  with  us.  It  is  not  a  mere  adjunct  in 
cookery,  or  restricted  to  the  use  of  the  young, 
although  it  is  naturally  the  characteristic  food 
of  childhood,  both  from  its  simple  and  nutri- 
tive qualities  (i  Pet.  ii.  2),  and  particularly 
as  contracted  with  meat  (i  Cor.  iii.  2;  Heb.  v. 
12)  :  but  beyond  this  it  is  regarded  as  sub- 
stantial food  adapted  alike  to  all  ages  and 
classes.  Not  only  the  milk  of  cows,  but  of 
sheep  (Deut.  xxxii.  14),  of  camels  (Gen.  xxxii. 
15),  and  of  goats  (Prov.  xxvii.  27)  was  used; 
the  latter  appears  to  have  been  most  highly 
prized.  Milk  was  used  sometimes  in  its  nat- 
ural state,  and  sometimes  in  a  sour,  coagulated 
state.  In  the  A.  V.  the  latter  is  rendered  "but- 
ter," but  there  can  be  no  question  that  in  every 
case  (except  perhaps  Prov.  xxx.  33)  the  term 
refers  to  a  preparation  of  milk  well  known 
in  Eastern  countries  under  the  name  of  leben. 
The  method  now  pursued  in  its  preparation  is 
to  boil  the  milk  over  a  slow  fire,  adding  to  it 
a  small  piece  of  old  leben  or  some  other  acid  in 
order  to  make  it  coagulate.  The  refreshing 
dravight  which  Jael  offered  "in  a  lordly  dish" 


Eastern  Women  Grinding  at  the  Mill. 

to  Sisera  (Judg.  v.  25)  was  leben.  Leben  is 
still  extensively  used  in  the  East:  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  the  poor  almost  live  upon 
it,  while  the  upper  classes  eat  it  with  salad  or 
meat.  It  is  still  offered  in  hospitality  to  the 
passing  stranger,  exactly  as  of  old  in  Abra- 
liam's  tent  (Gen.  xxiii.  8). 

Mill.  The  mills  of  the  ancient  Hebrews 
probably  differed  but  little  from  those  at  pres- 


ent in  use  in  the  East.  These  consist  of  two 
circular  stones,  about  18  inches  or  two  feet  in 
diameter,  the  lower  of  which  is  fixed,  and  has 
its  upper  surface  slightly  convex,  fitting  into  a 
corresponding  concavity  in  the  upper  stone. 
The  latter  has  a  hole  in  it,  through  which  the 
grain  passes,  immediately  above  a  pivot  or 
shaft  which  rises  from  the  centre  of  the  lower 
stone,  and  about  which  the  upper  stone  is 
turned  by  means  of  an  upright  handle  fixed 


Millet. 

near  the  edge.  It  is  worked  by  wome4i,  some- 
times singly  and  sometimes  two  together,  who 
are  usually  seated  on  the  bare  ground  (Is. 
xlvii.  I,  2)  "facing  each  other;  both  have  hold 
of  the  handle  by  which  the  upper  is  turned 
on  the  'nether'  millstone.  The  one  whose  right 
hand  is  disengaged  throws  in  the  grain  as  oc- 
casion requires  through  the  hole  in  the  upper 
stone.  Both  retain  their  hold,  and  pull  to  or 
push  from,  as  men  do  with  the  whip  or  cross- 
cut saw."  So  essential  were  millstones  for  daily 
domestic  use,  that  they  were  forbidden  to  be 
taken  in  pledge  (Deut.  xxiv.  6),  in  order  that  a 
man's  family  might  not  be  deprived  of  the 
means  of  preparing  their  food. 

Millet,  a  kind  of  grain.  A  number  of  species 
are  cultivated  in -the  East.  When  green  it  is 
used  as  fodder  and  for  bread  when  ripe  (Ezek. 
iv.  9). 

MiFlo,  a  place  in  ancient  Jerusalem.  Both 
name  and  place  seem  to  have  been  already  in 
existence  when  the  city  was  taken  from  the 
Jebusites  by  David  (2  Sam.  v.  9;  i  Chr.  xi.  8). 
Its  repair  or  restoration  was  one  of  the  great 
works  for  which  Solomon  raised  his  "levy"  (i 
K.  ix.  15,  24,  xi.  27)  ;  and  it  formed  a  promi- 
nent part  of  the  fortifications  by  which 
Hezekiah  prepared  for  the  approach  of  the 
Assyrians  (2  Chr.  xxxii.  5).    The  last  passage 


246 


MINES— MINING 


MINSTREL 


seems  to  show  that  "the  Millo"  was  part  of 
the  "city  of  David,"  that  is,  of  Zion  (comp.  2 
K.  xii.  20). 

Mines — Mining.  A  highly  poetical  descrip- 
tion is  given  by  the  author  of  the  book  of 
Job  of  the  operations  ,of  mining  as  known 
in  his  day,  the  only  record  of  the  kind 
which  we  inherit  from  the  ancient  Hebrews 
(Job.  xxviii.  i-ii).  In  the  Wady  Mag- 
harah,  "the  valley  of  the  Cave,"  are  still  traces 
of  the  Egyptian  colony  of  miners  who  settled 
there  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  copper  from 
the  free-stone  rocks,  and  left  their  hieroglyphic 
inscriptions  upon  the  face  of  the  cliff.  The 
ancient  furnaces  are  still  to  be  seen,  and  on 
the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  are  found  the  piers 
and  wharves  whence  the  miners  shipped  their 
metal  in  the  harbor  of  Abu  Zelinieh.  The 
copper-mines  of  Phaeno  in  Idumaea,  accord- 
ing to  Jerome,  were  between  Zoar  and  Petra ; 
in  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  the  Christians 
were  condemned  to  work  them.  The  gold- 
mines of  Egypt  in  the  Bisharee  desert,  the 
principal  station  of  which  was  Eshuranib, 
about  three  days'  journey  beyond  Wady  Al- 
laga,  have  been  discovered  by  M.  Linant  and 
Mr.  Bonomi.  Three  methods  were  em- 
ployed for  refining  gold  and  silver,  i.  by  ex- 
posing the  fused  metal  to  a  current  of  air;  2. 
by  keeping  the  alloy  in  a  state  of  fusion  and 
throwing  the  nitre  upon  it ;  and  3.  by  mixing 
the  alloy  with  lead,  exposing  the  whole  to 
fusion  upon  a  vessel  of  bone-ashes  or  earth, 
and  blowing  upon  it  with  bellows  of  other 
blast.  To  this  process,  known  as  the  cupelling 
process,  there  seems  to  be  a  reference  in  Ps. 
xii.  6;  Jer.  vi.  28-30;  Ez.  xxii.  18-22.  The  chief 
supply  of  silver  in  the  ancient  world  appears 
to  have  been  brought  from  Spain.  A  strong 
proof  of  the  acquaintance  possessed  by  the 
ancient  Hebrews  with  the  manipulation  of 
metals  is  found  by  some  in  the  destruction  of 
the  golden  calf  in  the  desert  by  Moses.  How 
far  the  ancient  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with 
the  processes  at  present  in  use  for  extracting 
copper  from  the  ore  it  is  impossible  to  assert, 
as- there  are  no  references  in  Scripture  to  any- 
thing of  the  kind,  except  in  the  passage  of  Job 
already  quoted.  The  Egyptions  evidently 
possessed  the  art  of  working  bronze  in  great 
perfection  at  a  very  early  time,  and  much  of 
the  knowledge  of  metals  which  the  Israelites 
had  must  have  been  acquired  during  their  resi- 
dence among  them.  Of  tin  there  appears  to 
have  been  no  trace  in  Palestine.  The  hills  of 
Palestine  are  rich  in  iron,  and  the  mines  are 
still  worked  there,  though  in  a  very  simple, 
rude  manner. 

Minister.    This  term  is  used  in  the  A.  V.  to 


describe  various  officials  of  a  religious  and  civil 
character.  In  the  O.  T.  it  answers  to  the  He- 
l)rc\v  meshareth,  which  is  applied  (i)  to  an  at- 
tendant upon  a  person  of  high  rank  (Ex.  xxiv. 
13 ;  Josh.  i.  I  ;  2  K.  iv.  43)  ;  (2)  to  the  attaches 
of  a  royal  court  (i  K.  x.  5;  2  Chr.  xxii.  8; 
comp.  Ps.  civ.  4),  where  it  may  be  observed, 
they  are  distinguished  from  the  ""servants"  or 
officials  of  higher  rank ;  (3)  to  the  priests  and 
Levites  (Is.  Ixi.  6;  Ez.  xliv.  11;  Joel  i.  9,  13; 
Ezr.  viii.  17;  Neh.  x.  36).  In  the  N.  T.  we 
have  three  terms,  each  with  its  distinctive 
meaning.  The  first  answers  most  nearly  to 
the  Hebrew  meshareth,  and  is  usually  em- 
ployed in  the  LXX.  as  its  equivalent.  It  be- 
tokens a  subordinate  public  administrator 
(Rom.  xiii.  6,  xv.  16;  Heb.  viii.  2).  The  sec- 
ond term  differs  from  the  two  others  in  that  it 
contains  the  idea  of  actual  and  personal  at- 
tendance upon  a  superior.  Thus  it  is  used  of 
the  attendant  in  the  synagogue,  the  chazan  of 
the  Talmudists  (Luke  iv.  20),  whose  duty  it 
was  to  open  and  close  the  building,  to  produce 
and  replace  the  books  employed  in  the  serv- 
ice, and  generally  to  wait  on  the  officiating 
priest  or  teacher.  The  third  term  is  the  one 
usually  employed  in  relation  to  the  ministry  of 
the  Gospel :  its  application  is  twofold,  in  a 
general  sense  to  indicate  ministers  of  any  or- 
der, whether  superior  or  inferior,  and  in  a 
special  sense  to  indicate  an  order  of  inferior 
ministers.  [Deacon.] 


Mint. 

Minstrel.    The  Hebrew  word  in  2  K.  iii.  15 

properly  signifies  a  player  upon  a  stringed  in- 
strument like  the  harp  or  kinnor  [Harp]  what- 
ever its  precise  character  may  have  been  on 
which  David 'played  before  Saul  (i  Sam.  xvi. 
16,  xviii.  ID,  xix.  9),  and  which  the  harlots  of 
the  great  cities  used  to  carry  with  them  as  they 
walked,  to  attract  notice  (Is.  xxiii.  16).  The 
passage  in  which  it  occurs  has  given  rise  to 
much  conjecture;  Elisha,  upon  being  consulted 


247 


MINT 


MIRACLES 


by  Jehoram  as  to  the  issue  of  the  war  with 
Moab,  at  first  indignantly  refuses  to  answer, 
and  is  only  induced  to  do  so  by  the  presence  of 
Jehoshaphat.  He  calls  for  a  harper,  appar- 
ently a  camp  follower ;  "and  it  came  to  pass  as 
the  harper  harped  that  the  hand  of  Jehovah 
was  on  him."  The  "minstrels"  in  Matt.  ix.  23, 
were  the  flute-players  who  were  employed  as 
professional  mourners,  to  whom  frequent  allu- 
sion is  made  (Eccl.  xii.  5 ;  2  Chr.  xxxv.  25 ;  Jer. 
ix.  17-20). 

Mint  occurs  only  in  Matt,  xxiii.  23,  and 
Luke  xi.  42,  as  one  of  those  herbs,  the  tithe 
of  which  the  Jews  were  most  scrupulously 
exact  in  paying.  The  horse  mint  is  common 
in  Syria. 

Miracles.  A  miracle  may  be  defined  to  be  a 
plain  and  manifest  exercise  by  a  man,  or  by 
God  at  the  call  of  a  man,  of  those  powers 
which  belong  only  to  the  Creator  and  Lord 
of  nature;  and  this  for  the  declared  object  of 
attesting  that  a  divine  mission  is  given  to  that 
man.  It  is  not,  therefore,  the  wonder,  the  ex- 
ception to  common  experience,  that  constitutes 
the  miracle,  as  is  assumed  both  in  the  popular 
use  of  the  word,  and  by  most  objectors  against 
miracles.  No  phenomenon  in  nature,  however 
unusual,  no  event  in  the  course  of  God's  prov- 
idence, however  unexpected,  is  a  miracle  un- 
less it  can  be  traced  to  the  agency  of  man 
(including  prayer  under  the  term  agency),  and 
unless  it  be  put  forth  as  a  proof  of  divine  mis- 
sion. Prodigies  and  special  providences  are 
not  miracles.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  mere 
petitio  principii,  to  argue  against  all  miracles, 
on  the  ground  that  if  we  could  see  the  secret 
manner  of  God's  working,  we  might  find  them 
to  be  consistent  with  some  higher  law  un- 
known to  our  experience.  For  it  is  not  so 
much  the  violation  of  law,  as  the  manifest  ap- 
plication of  it  to  a  special  occasion,  that  at- 
tests the  immediate  power  of  God.  The  term 
"nature"  suggests  to  many  persons  the  idea  of 
a  great  system  of  things  endowed  with  pow- 
ers and  forces  of  its  own — a  sort  of  machine, 
set  a-going  originally  by  a  first  cause,  but  con- 
tinuing its  motions  of  itself.  Hence  we  are 
apt  to  imagine  that  a  change  in  the  motion  or 
operation  of  any  part  of  it  by  God,  would  pro- 
duce the  same  disturbance  of  the  other  parts, 
as  such  a  change  would  be  likely  to  produce  in 
them,  if  made  by  us,  or  any  other  natural 
agent.  But  if  the  motions  and  operations  of 
material  things  be  produced  really  by  the  di- 
vine will,  then  His  choosing  to  change,  for  a 
special  purpose,  the  ordinary  motion  of  one 
part,  does  not  necessarily,  or  probably,  infer 
His  choosing  to  change  the  ordinary  motions 
of  other  parts  in  a  way  not  at  all  requisite  for 


the  accomplishment  of  that  special  purpose. 
It  is  as  easy  for  Him  to  continue  the  ordinary 
course  of  the  rest,  with  the  change  of  one  part, 
as  of  all  the  phenomena  without  any  change  at 
all.  Thus,  though  the  stoppage  of  the  motion 
of  the  earth  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature 
would  be  attended  with  terrible  convulsions, 
the  stoppage  of  the  earth  miraculously,  for  a 
special  purpose  to  be  served  by  that  only, 
would  not  of  itself  be  followed  by  any  such 
consequences.  From  the  same  conception  of 
nature,  as  a  machine,  we  are  apt  to  think  of 
interference  with  the  ordinary  coarse  of  nature 
as  implying  some  imperfection  in  it.  But  it 
is  manifest  that  this  is  a  false  analogy ;  for  the 
reason  why  machines  are  made  is,  to  save  us 
trouble ;  and,  therefore,  they  are  more  perfect 
in  proportion  as  they  answer  this  purpose.  But 
no  one  can  seriously  imagine  that  the  uni- 
verse is  a  machine  for  the  purpose  of  saving 
trouble  to  the  Almighty.  Again,  when  mir- 
acles are  described  as  "interferences  with  the 
laws  of  nature,"  this  description  makes  them 
appear  improbable  to  many  minds,  from  their 
not  sufficiently  considering  that  the  laws  of 
nature  interfere  with  one  another ;  and  that  we 
cannot  get  rid  of  "interferences"  upon  any 
hypothesis  consistent  with  experience.  Fur- 
thermore, whatever  ends  may  be  contemplated 
by  the  Deity  for  the  laws  of  nature  in  refer- 
ence to  the  rest  of  the  universe — in  which 
question  we  have  as  little  information  as  in- 
terest— we  know  that,  in  respect  of  us,  they 
answer  discernible  moral  ends — that  they  place 
us,  practically,  under  government,  conducted 
in  the  way  of  rewards  and  punishments, — a 
government  of  which  the  tendency  is  to  en- 
courage virtue  and  repress  vice, — and  to -form 
in  us  a  certain  character  by  discipline;  which 
character  our  moral  nature  compels  us  to  con- 
sider as  the  highest  and  worthiest  object  which 
we  can  pursue.  The  New  Testament  Miracles 
do  not  seem  to  have  been  generally  denied  by 
the  opponents  of  Christianity.  They  appear  to 
have  preferred  adopting  the  expedient  of 
ascribing  them  to  art,  magic,  and  the  power 
of  evil  spirits.  W e  know  that  in  two  instances, 
in  the  Gospel  narrative,  the  cure  of  the  man 
born  blind  and  the  Resurrection,  the  Jewish 
priests  were  unable  to  pretend  such  a  solution, 
and  were  driven  to  maintain  unsuccessfully  a 
charge  of  fraud.  The  circumstances  of  the 
Christian  miracles  are  utterly  unlike  those  of 
any  pretended  instances  of  magical  wonders. 
This  difYerence  consists  in,  (i.)  The  greatness, 
number,  completeness,  and  publicity  of  the 
miracles.  (2.)  The  natural  beneficial  tendency 
of  the  doctrine  they  attested.  (3.)  The  con- 
nection of  them  with  a  whole  scheme  of  revela- 


248 


i 

I 


THE  UB'^ARt 

0?  THE 


MIRIAM 


MIZPAH 


tion  extending  from  the  first  origin  of  the 
human  race  to  the  time  of  Christ. 

Mir'iam,  the  sister  of  Moses,  was  the  eldest 
of  that  sacred  family ;  and  she  first  appears 
watching  her  infant  brother's  cradle  in  the 
Nile  (Ex.  ii.  4),  and  suggesting  her  mother  as 
a  nurse  (ib.  7).  She  is  the  first  personage  in 
that  household  to  whom  the  prophetic  gifts  are 
directly  ascribed — "Miriam  the  prophetess"  is 
her  acknowledged  title  (Ex.  xv.  20).  The 
prophetic  power  showed  itself  in  her  under  the 
same  form  as  that  which  it  assumed  in  the  days 
of  Samuel  and  David, — poetry,  accompanied 
with  music  and  processions  (Ex.  xv.  1-19). 
She  took  the  lead,  with  Aaron,  in  the  com- 
plaint against  ]\Ioses  for  his  marriage  with  a 
Cushite.  A  stern  rebuke  was  administered  to 
Miriam.  She  was  attacked  with  the  hateful 
Egyptian  leprosy.  This  stroke,  and  its  re- 
moval, which  took  place  at  Hazeroth,  form  the 
last  public  event  of  Miriam's  life.  She  died 
towards  the  close  of  the  wanderings  at  Kadesh, 
and  was  buried  there  (Num.  xx.  i). 

Mirror.  Two  Hebrew  words  in  Ex.  xxxviii. 
8,  and  Job  xxxvii.  18,  are  rendered  "looking- 
glass"  in  the  A.  V.,  but  from  the  context  evi- 
dently denote  a  mirror  of  polished  metal.  The 
Hebrew  women  on  coming  out  of  Egypt 
probably  brought  with  them  mirrors  like  those 
which  were  used  by  the  Egyptians,  and  were 
made  of  a  mixed  metal,  chiefly  copper,  wrought 
with  admirable  skill,  and  susceptible  of  a 
bright  lustre.  The  metal  of  which  the  mirrors 
were  composed,  being  liable  to  rust  and 
tarnish,  required  to  be  constantly  kept  bright 
(Wisd.  vii.  26;  Ecclus.  xii.  11).  The  obscure 
image  produced  by  a  tarnished  or  imperfect 
mirror,  appears  to  be  alluded  to  in  i  Cor. 
xiii.  12. 

Mite,  a  coin  current  in  Palestine  in  the  time 
of  our  Lord  (Mark  xii.  41-44;  Luke  xxi.  1-4). 
It  seems  in  Palestine  to  have  been  the  smallest 
piece  of  money,  being  the  half  of  the  farthing, 
which  was  a  coin  of  very  low  value.  From  St. 
Mark's  explanation,  "two  mites,  which  make  a 
farthing"  (ver.  42),  it  may  perhaps  be  inferred 
that  the  farthing  was  the  commoner  coin.  In 
the  Graeco-Roman  coinage  of  Palestine,  the 
two  smallest  coins,  of  which  the  assarion  is  the 
more  common,  seem  to  correspond  to  the 
farthing  and  the  mite,  the  larger  weighing 
about  twice  as  much  as  the  smaller. 

Mitre  (something  rolled  around  the  head), 
the  turban  or  headdress  of  the  high  priest, 
made  of  fine  linen  cloth,  eight  yards  long, 
folded  around  the  head.  On  the  front  was  a 
gold  plate  on  which  was  inscribed  Holiness  to 
the  Lord  (Ex.  xxviii.  4,  37,  39;  xxxix.  28,  30; 
Lev.  viii.  9). 


Mityle'ne,  the  chief  town  of  Lesbos,  and 
situated  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island. 
Mitylene  is  the  intermediate  place  where  St. 
Paul  stopped  for  the  night  between  Assos  and 
Chios  (Acts  XX.  14,  15).  The  town  itself  was 
celebrated  in  Roman  times  for  the  beauty  of 
its  buildings.  In  St.  Paul's  day  it  had  the 
privileges  of  a  free  city. 

Miz'pah,  and  Miz'peh,  "a  watch-tower,"  the 
name  of  several  places  in  Palestine,  i.  The 
earliest  of  all,  in  order  of  the  narrative,  is  the 
heap  of  stones  piled  up  by  Jacob  and  Laban 
(Gen.  xxxi.  48)  on  Mount  Gilead  (ver.  25),  to 
serve  both  as  a  witness  to  the  covenant  then 
entered  into,  and  also  as  a  landmark  of  the 
boundary  between  them  (ver.  52).  On  this 
natural  "watch-tower"  did  the  children  of 
Israel  assemble  for  the  choice  of  a  leader  to 
resist  the  children  of  Ammon  (Judg.  x.  17)  ; 
and  when  the  outlawed  Jephthah  had  been 
prevailed  on  to  leave  his  exile  and  take  the 


.Mitre. 


head  of  his  people,  his  first  act  was  to  go  to 
"the  Mizpah,"  and  on  that  consecrated  ground 
utter  all  his  words  "before  Jehovah."  At 
Mizpah  he  seems  to  have  henceforward  re- 
sided; th«re  the  fatal  meeting  took  place  with 
his  daughter  on  his  return  from  the  war  (xi. 
34),  and  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  on'the  altar 
of  that  sanctuary  the  father's  terrible  vow  was 
consummated.  It  seems  most  probable  that 
the  "Mizpeh-Gilead"  which  is  mentioned  here, 
and  here  only,  is  the  same  as  the  ham-Mizpah 
of  the  other  parts  of  the  narrative ;  and  both 
are  probably  identical  with  the  Ramath- 
Mizpeh  and  Ramoth-Gilead,  so  famous  in  the 
later  history.  2.  Mizpeh,  in  Joshua  and 
Samuel;  elsewhere  Mizpah,  a  "eity"  of  Ben- 
jamin, named  in  the  list  of  the  allotment  be- 
tween Beeroth  and  Chephira,  and  in  apparent 
proximity  to  Ramah  and  Gibeon  (Josh,  xviii. 
26).  It  was  one  of  the  places  fortified  by  Asa 
against  the  incursions  of  the  kings  of  the 
northern  Israel  (i  K.  xv.  22;  2  Chr.  xvi.  6;  Jer. 
xii.  9)  ;  and  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 


MIZRAIM 


MOAB 


it  became  the  residence  of  the  superintendent 
appointed  by  the  king  of  Babylon  (Jer.  xl.  7, 
(Sec),  and  the  scene  of  his  murder  and  of  the 
romantic  incidents  connected  with  the  name  of 
Ishmael  the  son  of  Nethaniah.  It  was  one  of 
the  three  holy  cities  which  Samuel  visited  in 
turn  as  judge  of  the  people  (vii.  6,  16),  the 
other  two  being  Bethel  and  Gilgal.  With  the 
conquest  of  Jerusalem  and  the  establishment 
there  of  the  Ark,  the  sanctity  of  Mizpah,  or  at 
least  its  reputation,  seems  to  have  declined. 
The  expression  "over  against,"  no  less  than  the 
circumstances  of  the  story,  seems  to  require 
that  from  jMizpah  the  City  or  the  Temple  was 
visible.  These  conditions  are  satisfied  by  the 
position  of  Scopus,  the  broad  ridge  which 
forms  the  continuation  of  the  Mount  of  Olives 
to  the  north  and  east,  from  which  the  traveller 
gains,"  like  Titus,  his  first  view,  and  takes  his 
last  farewell,  of  the  domes,  walls,  and  towers 
of  the  Holy  City. 

Miz'raim,  the  usual  name  of  Egypt  in  the 
O.  T.,  the  dual  of  Mazor,  which  is  less  fre- 
quently employed.  It  is  probably  derived  from 
the  Arabic  word  Alizr,  which  signifies  "red 
earth  or  mud."  Mizraim  first  occurs  in  the 
account  of  the  Hamites  in  Gen.  x.,  where  we 
read,  "And  the  sons  of  Ham:  Cush,  and  Miz- 
raim,  and  Phut,  and  Canaan"  (ver.  6;  comp.  i 
Chr.  i.  8).  In  the  use  of  the  name  Mizraim 
for  Egypt  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  dual 
indicates  the  two  regions  (Upper  and  Lower 
Egypt)  into  which  the  country  has  always 
been  divided  by  nature  as  well  as  by  its 
inhabitants. 

Mo'ab  (of  his  father),  Mo'abites.  Moab  was 
the  son  of  Lot's  eldest  daughter,  the  progenitor 
of  the  Moabites.  Zoar  was  the  cradle  of  the 
race  of  Lot.  From  this  centre  the  brother- 
tribes  spread  themselves.  The  Moabites  first 
inhabited  the  rich  highlands  which  crown  the 
eastern  side  of  the  chasm  of  the  Dead  Sea,  ex- 
tending as  far  north  as  the  mountain  of  Gilead, 
from  which  country  they  expelled  the  Emims, 
the  original  inhabitants  (Deut.  ii.  11).  But 
they  themselves  were  afterwards  driven  south- 
wards by  the  warlike  Amorites,  Avho  had 
crossed  the  Jordan,  and  were  confined  to  the 
country  south  of  the  river  Arnon,  which 
formed  their  northern  boundary  (Num.  xxi. 
13;  Judg.  xi'.  18).  The  territory  occupied  by 
Moab  at  the  period  of  its  greatest  extent,  be- 
fore the  invasion  of  the  Amorites,  divided  it- 
self naturally  into  three  distinct  and  independ- 
ent portions,  (i)  The  enclosed  corner  or  can- 
ton south  of  the  Arnon  was  the  "field  of  Moab" 
(Ruth  i.  1,2,  6,  &c.).  (2)  The  more  open  roll- 
ing country  north  of  the  Arnon,  opposite 
Jericho,  and  up  to  the  hills  of  Gilead,  -was  the 


"land  of  ]\Ioab"  (Deut.  i.  5,  xxxii.  49,  &c.).  (3) 
The  sunk  district  in  the  tropical  depths  of  the 
Jordan  valley,  taking  its  name  from  that  of  the 
great  valley  itself — the  Arabah — was  the 
Arboth-INIoab,  the  dry  regions — in  the  A.  V. 
very  incorrectly  rendered  the  "plains  of  Moab" 
(Num.  xxii.  i,  &c.).  The  Israelites,  in  enter- 
ing the  Promised  Land,  did  not  pass  through 
the  Moabites  (i  Judg.  xi.  18),  but  conquered 
the  Amorites,  who  occupied  the  country  from 
which  the  INIoabites  had  been  so  lately  ex- 
pelled. After  the  conquest  of  Canaan  the  re- 
lations of  Moab  with  Israel  were  of  a  mixed 
character.  With  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  whose 
possessions  at  their  eastern  end  were  separated 
from  those  of  Moab  only  by  the  Jordan,  they 
had  at  least  one  severe  struggle,  in  union  with 
their  kindred,  the  Ammonites  (Judg.  iii.  12-30). 
The  story  of  Ruth,  on  the  other  hand,  testifies 


Mountains  of  Moab. 

to  the  existence  of  a  friendly  intercourse  be- 
tween Moab  and  Bethlehem,  one  of  the  towns 
of  Judah.  By  his  descent  from  Ruth,  David 
may  be  said  to  have  had  Moabite  blood  in  his 
veins.  The  relationship  was  sufficient  to  war- 
rant his  visiting  the  land,  and  committing  his 
parents  to  the  protection  of  the  king  of  Moab, 
when  hard  pressed  by  Saul  (i  Sam.  xxii.  3,  4). 
TUit  here  all  friendly  relations  stop  forever. 
The  next  time  the  name  is  mentioned  is  in  the 
account  of  David's  war,  wlio  made  them 
tributary  (2  Sam.  viii.  2;  i  Chr.  xviii.  2).  At 
the  disruption  of  the  kingdom,  Moab  seems  to 
have  fallen  to  the  northern  realm.  At  the 
death  of  Ahab  the  Moabites  refused  to  pay 
tribute.  Their  first  step,  after  asserting  their 
independence,  was  to  attack  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  (2  Chr.  xx.).  The  army  was  a  huge 
heterogeneous  horde  of  ill-assorted  elements, 
and  the  expedition  contained  within  itself  the 


250 


MOLE 


MONEY 


elements  of  its  own  destruction.  As  a  natural 
consequence  of  the  late  events,  Israel,  Juclah, 
and  Edom,  united  in  an  attack  on  Moab, 
which  resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of  the 
Moabites.  Their  cities  and  farms  were  de- 
stroyed and  the  king  was  finally  shut  up 
within  the  walls  of  his  own  city,  where  an 
awful  tragedy  took  place.  The  king  and  his 
eldest  son,  the  heir  to  the  throne,  mounted 
the  wall,  and,  in  the  sight  of  the  thousands 
who  covered  the  sides  of  that  vast  amphi- 
theatre, the  father  killed  and  burnt  his  child 
as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  to  the  cruel  gods  of 
his  country.  Isaiah  (xv.,  xvi.,  xxv.  10-12)  pre- 
dicts the  utter  annihilation  of  Moab ;  and  they 
are  frequently  denounced  by  the  subsequent 
prophets. 

Mole.  Tinshemeth  (Lev.  xi.  30).  It  is 
probable  that  the  animals  mentioned  with  the 
tinshemeth  in  the  above  passage  denote  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  lizards ;  perhaps,  therefore,  the 
chameleon  may  be  the  animal  intended. 

Mo'lech.  The  fire-god  Molech  was  the 
tutelary  deity  of  the  children  of  Ammon,  and 
essentially  identical  with  the  Moabitish 
Chemosh.  Fire-gods  appear  to  have  been 
common  to  all  the  Canaanite,    Syrian,  and 


The  Persian  (or  golden)  Daric. 

Arab  tribes,  who  worshipped  the  destructive 
element  under  an  outward  symbol,  with  the 
most  inhuman  rites.  Among  these  were 
human  sacrifices,  purifications  and  ordeals  by 
fire,  devoting  of  the  first-born,  mutilation,  and 
vows  of  perpetual  celibacy  and  virginity.  The 
worship  of  IMolech  is  evidently  alluded  to, 
though  not  expressly  mentioned,  in  connec- 
tion with  star-worship  and  the  worship  of 
Baal  in  2  K.  xvii.  16,  17,  xxi.  5,  6,  which  seems 
to  show  that  Molech,  the  flame-god,  and  Baal, 
the  sun-god,  were  worshipped  with  the  same 
rites.  According  to  Jewish  tradition,  the 
image  of  Molech  was  of  brass,  hollow  within, 
and  was  situated  without  Jerusalem.  Kimchi 
(on  2  K.  xxiii.  10)  describes  it  as  "set  within 
seven  chapels,  and  whoso  oiTered  fine  flour, 
they  open  to  him  one  of  them  ;  (whoso  oflfered) 
turtle-doves  or  young  pigeons,  they  open  to 
him  two;  a  lamb,  they  open  to  him  three;  a 
ram,  they  open  to  him  four ;  a  calf,  they  open 
to  him  five;  an  ox,  they  open  to  him  six;  and 
so  whoever  ofifered  his  son,  they  open  to  him 
seven.    And  his  face  was  (that)  of  a  calf,  and 

25 


his  hands  stretched  forth  like  a  man  who 
opens  his  hands  to  receive  (something)  of 
his  neighbor.  And  they  kindled  it  with  fire, 
and  the  priests  took  the  babe  and  put  it  into 
the  hands  of  Molech,  and  the  babe  gave  up 
the  ghost."  "The  tabernacle  of  Moloch"  men- 
tioned in  Acts  vii.  43,  was  more  probably  a 


Assarion  (farthing),  actual  size. 

shrine  or  ark  in  which  the  figure  of  the  god 
was  carried  in  processions. 

Moloch,  the  same  as  Molech. 

Money.  It  is  well  known  that  ancient  na- 
tions that  were  without  a  coinage  weighed 
the  precious  metals,  a  practice  represented  on 
the  Egyptian  monuments,  on  which  gold  and 
silver  are  shown  to  have  been  kept  in  the 
form  of  rings.  We  have  no  certain  record  of 
the  use  of  ring-money  or  other  uncoined 
money  in  antiquity  excepting  among  the 
Egyptians.  It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that 
the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  adopted,  if 
they  did  not  originate,  this  custom.  Respect- 
ing the  origin  of  coinage  there  are  two  ac- 
counts seemingly  at  variance;  some  saying 
that  Phidon  king  of  Argos  first  struck  money, 
and  according  to  Ephorus,  in  Aegina ;  but 
Herodotus  ascribing  its  invention  to  the 
Lydians.  The  former  statement  probably 
refers  to  the  origin  of  the  coinage  of  Euro- 
pean Greece,  the  latter  to  that  of  Asiatic 
Greece.  On  the  whole  it  seems  reasonable 
to  carry  up  Greek  coinage  to  the  8th  century 
B.  C.  Purely  Asiatic  coinage  cannot  be  taken 
up  to  so  early  a  date.  The  more  archaic  Per- 
sian coins  seem  to  be  of  the  time  of  Darius 
Hystaspis,  or  possibly  Cyrus,  and  certainly 
not    much    older;    and    there   is    no  Asiatic 


Jewish  Halt-shekel. 

money,  not  of  Greek  cities,  that  can  be  reason- 
ably assigned  to  an  earlier  period.  We  have 
no  evidence  of  the  use  of  coined  money  before 
the  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity ;  but 
silver  was  used  for  money,  in  quantities  de- 
termined by  weights,  at  least  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Abraham;  and  its' earliest  mention  is 


MONEY 


MONEY-CHANGERS 


in  the  generic  sense  of  the  price  paid  for  a 
slave  (Gen.  xvii.  13).  The  1000  pieces  of  sil- 
ver paid  by  Abimelech  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xx. 
16),  and  the  20  pieces  of  silver  for  which 
Joseph  was  sold  to  the  Ishmeelites  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  28)  were  probably  rings  such  as  we 
see  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  in  the  act  of 
being  weighed.  In  the  first  recorded  transac- 
tion of  commerce,  the  cave  of  Machpelah  is 
purchased  by  Abraham  for  400  shekels  of  sil- 
ver, and  it  was  this  just  weight  that  was 
recognized  as  current  with  the  merchant 
("money"  is  not  in  the  original :  Gen.  xxiii. 
15-,  16).  The  shekel  weight  of  silver  was  the 
unit  of  value  through  the  whole  age  of 
Hebrew  history,  down  to  the  Babylonian  cap- 


Denarius  of  Csesar. 

tivity.    In  only  one  place  is  there  a  mention 
of  so  many  shekels  of  gold  as  a  sum  of  money 
(i  Chr.  xxi.  25),  and  even  here,  in  the  older 
parallel  passage,  silver  only  is  mentioned  (2 
Sam.  xxiv.  9).    In  the   transaction  between 
Naaman  and  Gehazi,   the   "six  thousand  of 
gold"  (2  K.  V.  5,  where  pieces  is  not  in  the 
original)  probably  denotes  shekels,  like  the 
"six  hundred  of  gold"  in  i  K.  x.  16.  The 
earliest    Greek   coins,   those   struck   in  the 
age  before  the  Persian   war,   are   of  three 
talents  or  standards:   the  Attic,  the  Aegine- 
tan,  and  the   Macedonian  or  earlier  Phoe- 
nician. The  oldest  coins  of  Athens,  of  Aegina, 
and  of  Macedon  and  Thrace,  we  should  select 
as  typical  respectively  of  these  standards ;  ob- 
taining as  the  weight  of  the  Attic  drachm 
about  67-5  grains  troy;   of   the  Aeginetan, 
about  96;  and  of  the  Macedonian,  about  58,  or 
116,  if  its  drachm  be  what  is  now  generally 
held  to  be  the  didrachm.    After  the  Captivity 
we  have  the  earliest  mention  of  coined  money, 
in  allusion,  as  might  have  been  expected,  to 
the  Persian  coinage,  the  gold  Daric  (A.  V. 
dram:   Ezra  ii.  69,  viii.  27 ;  Neh.  vii.  70,  71, 
72).    [Daric]    No  native  Jewish  coinage  ap- 
pears to  have  existed    till.  Antiochus  VII. 
Sidetes  granted  Simon  Maccabaeus  the  license 
to  coin  money  (B.  C.  140)  ;  and  it  is  now  gen- 
erally agreed  that  the  oldest   Jewish  silver 
coins  belong  to  this  period.   They  are  shekels 
and  half-shekels  of  the  weight  of  220  and  110 
grains.    With  this  silver  there  was  associated 
a  copper  coinage,  some  pieces  of  which  have 
been  supposed  to  reach  as  high  as  Judas  Mac- 
cabaeus ;  but  probably  none  are  really  older 


than  John  Hyrcanus  (B.  C.  135),  from  whom 
the  series  is  continued,  almost  without  inter- 
ruption, to  the  end  of  the  Asmonaean  house. 
Most  of  them  are  marked  as  the  half  or  quar- 
ter (doubtless  of  the  shekel),  their  average 
weight  being  235^  and  132  grains;  and  there 
is  a  third  piece  of  about  82  grains,  which 
seems  to  be  the  sixth  of  a  shekel.  The 
abundant  money  of  Herod  the  Great,  which  is 
of  a  thoroughly  Greek  character,  and  of  cop- 
per only,  seems  to  have  been  a  continuation 
of  the  copper  coinage  of  the  Maccabees,  with 
some  adaptation  to  the  Roman  standard.  In 
the  money  of  the  New  Testament  we  see  the 
native  copper  coinage  side  by  side  with  the 
Graeco-Roman  copper,  silver,  and  gold.  The 
coins  mentioned  by  the  Evangelists,  and  first 
those  of  silver,  are  the  following: — The  stater 
is  spoken  of  in  the  account  of  the  miracle  of 
the  tribute-money.  The  receivers  of  didrachms 
demanded  the  tribute,  but  St.  Peter  found  in 
the  fish  a  stater,  which  he  paid  for  our  Lord 
and  himself  (Matt.  xvii.  24-27).  The  stater 
was  therefore  a  tetradrachm  ;  and  it  is  note- 
worthy that  at  this  period  almost  the  only 
Greek  Imperial  silver  coin  in  the  East  was  a 
tetradrachm,  the  didrachm  being  probably  un- 
known, or  very  little  coined.  The  didrachm  is 
mentioned  as  a  money  of  account  in  the  pass- 
age above  cited,  as  the  equivalent  of  the  He- 
brew shekel.  The  denarius,  or  Roman  penny, 
as  well  as  the  Greek  drachm,  then  of  about 
the  same  weight,  are  spoken  of  as  current 
coins  (Matt.  xxii.  15-21;  Luke  xx.  19-25).  Of 
copper  coins  the  farthing  and  its  half,  the 
mite,  are  spoken  of,  and  these  probably 
formed  the  chief  native  currency.   The  proper 


Shekel  of  the  Sanctuary. 


Jewish  series  closes  with  the  money  of  the 
famous  Barkobab,  who  headed  the  'revolt  in 
the  tifne  of  Hadrian. 

Money-changers  (Matt.  xii.  12;  Mark  xi. 
15;  John  ii.  15.  According  to  Ex.  xxx.  13-15, 
every  Israelite  who  had  reached  or  passed  the 
age  of  twenty  must  pay  into  the  sacred  treas- 
ury, whenever  the  nation  was  numbered,  a 
half  shekel  as  an  ofifering  to  Jehovah. _  The 
money-changers  whom  Chfist,  for  their  im- 
piety, avarice,  and  fraudulent  dealing,  ex- 
pelled from  the  Temple,  were  the  dealers  who 
supplied  half-shekels,  for  such  a  premium  as 
they  might  be  able  to  exact,  to  the  Jews  from 

252 


I 


ST.  LUKE.    GIOV.  FRANCESCO  BARBIERI   (IL  GUERCINO).    AFTER  THE  ] 
PAINTING    IN    THE    DRESDEN    GALLERY.  i 


I 

\ 

i 

\ 
] 


THE  W^^^ 


0?  W 


1 


MONTH 


MORDECAI 


all  parts  of  the  world,  who  assembled  at  Jeru- 
salem during  the  great  festivals,  and  were  re- 
quired to  pay  their  tribute  or  ransom  money 
in  the  Hebrew  coin. 

Month.  From  the  time  of  the  institution  of 
the  Mosaic  law  downwards  the  month  was  a 
lupar  one.  The  cycle  of  religious  feasts  com- 
mencing with  the  Passover,  depended  not  sim- 
ply on  the  month,  but  on  the  moon;  the  14th 
of  Abib  was  coincident  with  the  full  moon ; 
and  the  new  moons  themselves  were  the  occa- 
sions of  regular  festivals  (Num.  x.  10,  xxviii. 
11-14).  The  commencement  of  the  month 
was  generally  decided  by  observation  of  the 
new  moon.  The  usual  number  of  months  in  a 
year  was  twelve,  as  implied  in  i  K.  iv.  7 ;  i 
Chr.  xxvii.  1-15  ;  but  inasmuch  as  the  Hebrew 
months  coincided  with  the  seasons,  it  follows 
as  a  matter  of  course  that  an  additional  month 
must  have  been  inserted  about  every  third 
year,  which  would  bring  the  number  up  to 
thirteen.  No  notice,  however,  is  taken  of  this 
month  in  the  Bible.  In  the  modern  Jewish 
calendar  the  intercalary  month  is  introduced 
seven  times  in  every  19  years.  The  usual 
method  of  designating  the  months  was  by 
their  numerical  order,  e.  g.  "the  second 
month"  (Gen.  vii.  11),  "the  fourth  month" 
(2  K.  XXV.  3)  ;  and  this  was  generally  retained 
even  when  the  names  were  given,  e.  g.  "in 
the  month  Zif,  which  is  the  second  month"  (l 
K.  vi.  i),  "in  the  third  month,  that  is,  the 
month  Sivan"  (Esth.  viii.  9).  The  names  of 
the  months  belong  to  two  distinct  periods ;  in 
the  first  place  we  have  those  peculiar  to  the 
period  of  Jewish  independence,  of  which  four 
only,  even  including  Abib,  which  we  hardly 
regard  as  a  proper  name,  are  mentioned,  viz. : 
Abib,  in  which  the  Passover  fell  (Ex.  xiii.  4, 
xxiti.  15,  xxxiv.  18;  Deut.  xvi.  i),  and  which 
was  established  as  the  first  month  in  com- 
memoration of  the  Exodus  (Ex.  xii,  2)  ;  Zif, 
the  second  month  (i  K.  vi.  I,  37)  ;  Bui,  the 
eighth  (i  K.  vi.  38)  ;  and  Ethanim,  the  sev- 
enth (i  K.  viii.  2).  In  the  second  place  we 
have  the  names  which  prevailed  subsequently 
to  the  Babylonish  Captivity;  of  these  the  fol- 
lowing seven  appear  in  the  Bible : — Nisan,  the 
first,  in  which  the  Passover  was  held  (Neh. 
ii.  I  ;  Esth.  iii.  7)  ;  Sivan,  the  third  (Esth.  viii. 
9;  Bar.  i.  8);  Elul,  the  sixth  (Neh.  vi.  15;  i 
Mace.  xiv.  27)  ;  Chisleu,  the  ninth  (Neh.  i.  i ; 
Zech.  vii.  I ;  I  Mace.  i.  54)  ;  Tebeth,  the  tenth 
(Esth.  ii.  16)  ;  Sebat,  the  eleventh  (Zech.  i. 
7;  I  Mace.  xvi.  14);  and  Adar,  the  twelfth 
(Esth.  iii.  7,  viii.  12;  2  Mace.  xv.  36).  The 
names  of  the  remaining  five  occur  in  the 
Talmud  and  other  works ;  they  were,  lyar, 
the  second  (Targum,  2  Chr.  xxx.  2)  ;  Tam- 


muz,  the  fourth ;  Ab,  the  fifth ;  Tisri,  the  sev- 
enth ;  and  Marcheshvan,  the  eighth.  The 
name  of  the  intercalary  month  was  Veadar, 
i.  e.  the  additional  Adar. 

Moon.  The  moon  held  an  important  place 
in  the  kingdom  of  nature,  as  known  to  the 
Hebrews.  In  the  history  of  the  creation  (Gen. 
i.  14-16),  it  appears  simultaneously  with  the 
sun.  Conjointly  with  the  sun,  it  was  ap- 
pointed "for  signs  and  for  seasons,  and  for 
days  and  years ;"  though  in  this  respect  it 
exercised  a  more  important  influence,  if  by 
the  "seasons"  we  understand  the  great  re- 
ligious festivals  of  the  Jews,  as  is  particularly 
stated  in  Ps.  civ.  19,  and  more  at  length  in 
Ecclus.  xliii.  6,  7.  The  worship  of  the  moon 
was  extensively  practised  by  the  nations  of 
the  East,  and  under  a  variety  of  aspects.  In 
Egypt  is  was  honored  under  the  form  of  Isis, 
and  was  one  of  the  only  two  deities  which 
commanded  the  reverence  of  all  the  Egyp- 
tians. In  Syria  it  was  represented  by  that 
one  of  the  Ashtaroth,  surnamed  "Karnaim," 
from  the  horns  of  the  crescent  moon  by  which 
she  was  distinguished.  There  are  indications 
of  a  very  early  introduction  into  the  countries 
adjacent  to  Palestine  of  a  species  of  worship 
distinct  from  any  that  we  have  hitherto 
noticed,  viz.  of  the  direct  homage  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies,  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  which  is 
the  characteristic  of  Sabianism.  The  first 
notice  we  have  of  this  is  in  Job  (xxxi.  26,  27), 
and  it  is  observable  that  the  warning  of  Moses 
(Deut.  iv.  19)  is  directed  against  this  nature- 
worship,  rather  than  .against  the  form  of 
moon-worship,  which  the  Israelites  must  have 
witnessed  in  Egypt.  At  a  later  period,  how- 
ever, the  worship  of  the  moon  in  its  grosser 
form  of  idol-worship  was  introduced  from 
Syria.  In  the  figurative  language  of  Scrip- 
ture, the  moon  is  frequently  noticed  as  presag- 
ing events  of  the  greatest  importance  through 
the  temporary  or  permanent  withdrawal  of  its 
light  (Is.  xiii.  10;  Joel  ii.  31;  Matt.  xxiv.  29; 
Mark  xiii.  24). 

Moon,  New.    [New  Moon.] 

Mor'decai,  the  deliverer,  under  Divine 
Providence,  of  the  Jews  from  the  destruction 
plotted  against  them  by  Haman  the  chief 
minister  of  Xerxes ;  the  institutor  of  the  feast 
of  Purim.  The  incidents  of  his  history  are 
too  well  known  to  need  to  be  dwelt  upon. 
[Esther.]  Three  things  are  predicated  of 
Mordecai  in  the  Book  of  Esther:  (i)  that  he 
lived  in  Shushan ;  (2)  that  his  name  was 
Mordecai,  son  of  Jair,  son  of  Shimei,  son  of- 
Kish  the  Benjamite  who  was  taken  captive 
with  Jehoiachin ;  (3)  that  he  brought  up 
Esther.     It  is-  probable  that  the  Mordecai 


253 


i 


MOREH 


MOSES 


mentioned  in  Ezr.  ii.  2 ;  Neh.  vii.  7,  as  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  captives  who  returned  from 
time  to  time  from  Babylon  to  Judaea,  was  the 
same  as  Mordecai  of  the  Book  of  Esther. 
Mordecai,  as  is  natural,  stands  very  high  in 
Rabbinical  estimation.  The  interpolations  in 
the  Greek  book  of  Esther  are  one  indication  of 
his  popularity  with  his  countrymen.  The 
Targum  (of  late  date)  shows  that  this  in- 
creased rather  than  diminished  with  the  lapse 
of  centuries.  It  .is  said  of  Mordecai  that  he 
knew  the  seventy  languages,  i.  e.  the  lan- 
guages of  all  the  nations  mentioned  in  Gen.  x., 
which  the  Jews  count  as  seventy  nations,  and 
that  his  age  exceeded  400  years.  He  is  con- 
tinually designated  by  the  appellation  "the 
Just."  Benjamin  of  Tudela  places  the  tomb  of 
Mordecai  and  Esther  at  Hamadan,  or  Ecbat- 
ana.  Others,  however,  place  the  tomb  of 
Mordecai  in  Susa. 

Mo'reh  (teacher).  The  Plain,  or  Plains 
(or,  as  it  should  rather  be  rendered,  the  Oak 
or  Oaks),  of  Moreh.  The  Oak  of  Moreh  was 
the  first  recorded  halting-place  of  Abram 
after  his  entrance  into  the  land  of  Canaan 
(Gen.  xii.  6).  It  was  at  the  "place  of 
Shechem"  (xii.  6),  close  to  the  mountains  of 
Ebal  and  Gerizim  (Deut.  xi.  30). 

Mori'ah  (chosen  by  Jehovah).  On  "one  of 
the  mountains"  in  this  district  took  place  the 
sacrifice  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  8).  What  the 
name  of  the  mountain  was  we  are  not  told ; 
but  it  was  a  conspicuous  one,  visible  from 
"afar  off"  (ver.  4).  Nor  does  the  narrative 
afford  any  data  for  ascertaining  its  position. 
It  is  most  natural  to  take  the  "land  of  Moriah" 
as  the  same  district  with  that  in  which  the 
"Oak,  (A.  V.  'plain')  of  Moreh"  was  situated, 
and  not  as  that  which  contains  Jerusalem,  as 
the  modern  tradition,  which  would  identify 
the  Moriah  of  Gen.  xxii.  and  that  of  2  Chr. 
iii.  I,  affirrqs.  Moriah  is  ascribed,  in  2  Chr. 
iii.  I  only,  to  the  eminence  on  which  Solomon 
built  the  Temple ;  "where  He  appeared  to 
David  his  father,  in  a  place  which  David  pre- 
pared in  the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah  the 
Jebusite."  A  tradition  which  first  appears  in 
a  definite  shape  in  Josephus,  and  is  now 
almost  universally  accepted,  asserts  that  the 
"Mount  Moriah"  of  the  Chronicles  is  identical 
with  the  "mountain"  in  "the  land  of  Moriah" 
of  Genesis,  and  that  the  spot  on  which 
Jehovah  appeared  to  David,  and  on  which  the 
Temple  was  built,  was  the  very  spot  of  the 
sacrifice  of  Isaac. 

Mortar.  The  simplest  and  probably  most 
ancient  method  of  preparing  corn  for  food 
was  by  pounding  it  between  two  stones.  The 
Israelites  in  the  desert  appear  to  have  pos- 


sessed mortars  and  handmills  among  their 
necessary  domestic  utensils.  When  the  manna 
fell  they  gathered  it,  and  either  ground  it  in 
the  mill  or  pounded  it  in  the  mortar  till  it  was 
fit  for  use  (Num.  xi.  8).  So  in  the  present 
day  stone  mortars  are  used  by  the  Arabs  to 
pound  wheat  for  their  national  dish  kibby. 
Another  word  occurring  in  Prov.  xxvii.  22, 
probably  denotes  a  mortar  of  a  larger  kind  in 
which  corn  was  pounded.  "Though  thou 
bray  the  fool  in  the  mortar  aniong  the  bruised 
corn  with  the  pestle,  yet  will  not  his  folly  de- 
part from  him."  Corn  may  be  separated  from 
its  husk  and  all  its  good  properties  preserved 
by  such  an  operation,  but  the  fool's  folly  is 
so  essential  a  part  of  himself  that  no  anal- 
ogous process  can  remove  it  from  him.  Such 
seems  the  natural  interpretation  of  this  re- 
markable proverb.  The  language  is  intention- 
ally exaggerated,  and  there  is  no  necessity  for 
supposing  an  allusion  to  a  mode  of  punish- 
ment by  which  criminals  were  put  to  death  by 
being  pounded  in  a  mortar.  A  custom  of  this 
kind  existed  among  the  Turks,  but  there  is  no 
distinct  trace  of  it  among  the  Hebrews.  Such, 
however,  is  supposed  to  be  the  reference  in 
the  proverb  by  Mr.  Roberts,  who  illustrates 
it  from  his  Indian  experience. 

Morter.  The  various  compacting  sub- 
stances used  in  Oriental  buildings  appear  to 
be — I.  bitumen,'  as  in  the  Babylonian  struc- 
tures ;  2.  common  mud  or  moistened  clay ;  3.  a 
very  firm  cement  compounded  of  sand,  ashes, 
and  lime,  in  the  proportions  respectively  of 
I,  2,  3,  well  pounded,  sometimes  mixed  and 
sometimes  coated  with  oil,  so  as  to  form  a 
surface  almost  impenetrable  to  wet  or  the 
weather.  In  Assyrian  and  also  Egyptian  brick 
buildings,  stubble  or  straw,  as  hair  or  wool 
among  ourselves,  was  added  to  increase  the 
tenacity. 

Mo'ses  (Heb.  M6sheh="drawn"),  the  leg- 
islator of  the  Jewish  people,  and  in  a  certain 
sense  the  founder  of  the  Jewish  religion.  The 
fact  that  he  was  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  no  doubt 
contributed  to  the  selection  of  that  tribe  as 
the  sacred  caste.  The  story  of  his  birth  is 
thoroughly  Egyptian  in  its  scene.  The  beauty 
of  the  new-born  babe  induced  the  mother  to 
make  extraordinary  efforts  for  its  preserva- 
tion from  the  general  destruction  of  the  male 
children  of  Israel.  For  three  months  the  child 
was  concealed  in  the  house.  Then  his  mother 
placed  him  in  a  small  boat  or  basket  of  papy- 
rus, closed  against  the  water  by  bitumen.  This 
was  placed  among  the  aquatic  vegetation  by 
the  side  of  one  of  the  canals  of  the  Nile.  The- 
mother  departed  as  if  unable  to  bear  the  sight. 
The  sister  lingered  to  watch   her  brother's 


254 


1 


MOSES 

fate.  The  Egyptian  princess  came  down,  after 
the  Homeric  simpHcity  of  the  age,  to  bathe  in 
the  sacred  river.  Her  attendant  slaves  fol- 
lowed her.  She  saw  the  basket  in  the  flags, 
and  despatched  divers  after  it.  The  divers, 
or  one  of  the  female  slaves,  brought  it.  It  was 
opened,  and  the  cry  of  the  child  moved  the 
princess  to  compassion.  She  determined  to 
rear  it  as  her  own.  The  sister  was  at  hand  to 
recommend  a  Hebrew  nurse.  The  child  was 
brought  up  as  the  princess's  son,  and  the 
memory  of  the  incident  was  long  cherished  in 
the  name  given  to  the  foundling  of  the  water's 
side — whether  according  to  its  Hebrew  or 
Egyptian  form.  Its  Hebrew  form  is  Mosheh, 
from  Mashah,  "to  draw  out" — "because  I  have 
drawn  him  out  of  the  water."  The  child  was 
adopted  by  the  princess.  From  this  time  for 
many  years  ]Moses  must  be  considered  as  an 
Egyptian.  In  the  Pentateuch  this  period  is  a 
blank,  but  in  the  N.  T.  he  is  represented  as 
''educated  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyp- 
tians," and  as  "mighty  in  words  and  deeds" 
(Acts  vii.  22).  But  the  time  at  last  arrived 
when  he  was  resolved  to  reclaim  his  nation- 
ality (Heb.  xi.  24-26).  Seeing  an  Israelite  suf- 
fering the  bastinado  from  an  Egyptian,  and 
thinking  that  they  were  alone,  he  slew  the 
Eg>-ptian,  and  buried  the  corpse  in  the  sand. 
The  fire  of  patriotism  which  thus  turned  him 
into  a  deliverer  from  the  oppressors,  turns 
him  into  the  peace-maker  of  the  oppressed.  It 
is  characteristic  of  the  faithfulness  of  the  Jew- 
ish records  that  his  flight  is  there  occasioned 
rather  by  the  malignity  of  his  countrymen 
than  by  the  enmity  of  the  Egyptians.  He  fled 
into  IMidian.  Moses,  who  up  to  this  time  had 
been  "an  Egyptian"  (Ex.  ii.  19),  now  became 
for  forty  years  (Acts  vii.  30),  an  Arabian.  He 
married  Zipporah,  daughter  of  his  host,  to 
whom  he  also  became  the  slave  and  shepherd 
(Ex.  ii.  21,  iii.  i).  But  the  chief  effect  of  this 
stay  in  Arabia  is  on  Moses  himself.  It  was  in 
the  seclusion  and  simplicity  of  his  shepherd- 
life  that  he  received  his  call  as  a  prophet.  The 
traditional  scene  of  this  great  event  is  in  the 
valley  of  Shoayb,  or  Hobab,  on  the  N.  side  of 
Jebcl  Musa.  The  original  indications  are  too 
slight  to  enable  us  to  fix  the  spot  with  any 
certainty.  It  was  at  "the  back  of  the  wilder- 
ness" at  Horeb  (Ex.  iii.  i),  "the  mountain  of 
God."  Upon  the  mountain  was  a  well-known 
acacia,  the  thorn-tree  of  the  desert,  spreading 
out  its  tangled  branches  thick  set  with  white 
thorn,  over  the  rocky  ground.  It  was  this 
tree  which  became  the  symbol  of  the  Divine 
Presence;  a  flame  of  fire  in  the  midst  of  it,  in 
which  the  dry  branches  would  naturally  have 
crackled  and  burnt  in  a  moment,  but  which 


MOSES 

played  around  it  without  consuming  it.  The 
rocky  ground  at  once  became  "holy,"  and  the 
shepherd's  sandal  was  to  be  taken  off  no  less 
than  on  the  threshold  of  a  palace  or  a  temple. 
The  call  or  revelation  was  twofold — i.  The 
declaration  of  the  Sacred  Name  expresses  the 
eternal  self-existence  of  the  One  God.  2.  The 
mission  was 'given  to  Moses  to  deliver  his 
people.  He  returns  to  Egypt  from  his  exile, 
and  at  the  same  spot  where  he  had  had  his 
vision  encountered  Aaron  (Ex.  iv.  27).  Aaron 
spoke  and  acted  for  Moses,  and^  was  the 
permanent  inheritor  of  the  sacred  staf¥  of 
power.  But  Moses  was  the  inspiring  soul  be- 
hind. The  history  of  Moses  henceforth  is  the 
history  of  Israel.  It  is  important  to  trace  his 
relation  to  his  immediate  circle  of  followers. 
In  the  Exodus,  he  takes  the  decisive  lead  on 
the  night  of  the  flight.  Up  to  that  point  he 
and  Aaron  appear  almost  on  an  equality.  But 
after  that,  Moses  is  usually  mentioned  alone. 
Aaron  still  held  the  second  place.  Another, 
nearly  equal  to  Aaron,  is  Hur,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah.  Miriam  always  held  the  independent 
position  to  which  her  age  entitled  her.  Her 
part  was  to  supply  the  voice  and  song  to  her 
brother's  prophetic  power.  But  Moses  is  in- 
contestably  the  chief  personage  of  the  history, 
in  a  sense  in  which  no  one  else  is  described 
before  or  since.  He  was  led  into  a  closer 
communion  with  the  invisible  world  than  was 
vouchsafed  to  any  other  in  the  O.  T.  There 
are  two  main  characters  in  which  he  appears 
— as  a  Leader  and  as  a  Prophet,  (a.)  As  a 
Leader,  his  life  divides  itself  into  the  three 
epochs — of  the  march  to  Sinai ;  the  march 
from  Sinai  to  Kadesh ;  and  the  conquest  of 
the  Trans-Jordanic  kingdoms.  On  approach- 
ing Palestine  the  office  of  the  leader  becomes 
blended  with  that  of  the  general  or  the  con- 
queror. By  Moses  the  spies  were  sent  to  ex- 
plore the  country.  Against  his  advice  took 
place  the  first  disastrous  battle  at  Hormah. 
To  his  guidance  is  ascribed  the  circuitous 
route  by  which  the  nation  approached  Pales- 
tine from  the  east,  and  to  his  generalship  the 
two  successful  campaigns  in  which  Sihon  and 
Og  were  defeated.  The  narrative  is  told  so 
shortly,  that  we  are  in  danger  of  forgetting 
that  at  this  last  stage  of  his  life  Moses  must 
have  been  as  much  a  conqueror  and  victorious 
soldier  as  Joshua,  (b.)  His  character  as  a 
Prophet  is,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  more 
distinctly  brought  out.  He  is  the  first  as  he 
is  the  greatest  example  of  a  prophet  in  the 
O.  T.  '  His  brother  and  sister  were  both  en- 
dowed with  prophetic  gifts.  The  seventy 
elders,  and  Eldad  and  Medad  also,  all  "prophe- 
sied" (Num.  xi.  25-27).    But  Moses  rose  high 


255 


MOSES 


MOSES 


above  all  these.  With  him  the  Divine  revela- 
tions were  made,  "mouth  to  mouth,  even  ap- 
parently, and  not  in  dark  speeches,  and  the 
similitude  of  Jehovah  shall  he  behold"  (Num. 
xii.  8).  Of  the  especial  modes  of  this  more 
direct  communication,  four  great  examples  are 
given,  corresponding  to  four  critical  epochs 
in  his  historical  career,  (i.)  The  appearance 
of  the  Divine  presence  in  the  flaming  acacia- 
tree  (Ex.  iii.  2-6).  (2.)  In  the  giving  of  the 
Law  from  Mount  Sinai,  the  outward  form  of 
the  revelation  was  a  thick  darkness  as  of  a 
thunder-cloud,  out  of  which  proceeded  a  voice 
(Ex.  xix.  19,  XX,  21).  On  two  occasions  he  is 
described  as  having  penetrated  within  the 
darkness  (Ex.  xxiv.  18,  xxxiv.  28).  (3.)  It 
was  nearly  at  the  close  of  those  communica- 
tions in  the  mountains  of  Sinai  that  an  espe- 
cial revelation  was  made  to  him  personally. 
He  besought  Jehovah  to  show  him  "His 
glory."  The  Divine  answer  announced  that 
an  actual  vision  of  God  was  impossible.  "Thou 
canst  not  see  my  face ;  for  there  shall  no  man 
see  my  face  and  live."  He  was  commanded 
to  hew  two  blocks  of  stone,  like  those  which 
he  had  destroyed.  He  was  to  come  absolutely 
alone.  He  took  his  place  on  a  well-known  or 
prominent  rock  ("the  rock")  (xxxiii.  21).  The 
cloud  passed  by  (xxxiv.  5,  xxxiii.  22).  A 
voice  proclaimed  the  two  immutable  at- 
tributes of  God,  Justice  and  Love — in  words 
which  became  part  of  the  religious  creed  of 
Israel  and  of  the  world  (xxxiv.  6,  7).  (4.)  The 
fourth  mode  of  Divine  manifestation  was  that 
which  is  described  as  commencing  at  this 
juncture,  and  which  continued  with  more  or 
less  continuity  through  the  rest  of  his  career. 
Immediately  after  the  catastrophe  of  the  wor- 
ship of  the  calf,  and  apparently  in  conse- 
quence of  it,  Moses  removed  the  chief  tent 
outside  the  camp,  and  invested  it  with  a  sacred 
character  under  the  name  of  "the  Tent  or 
Tabernacle  of  the  congregation"  (xxxiii.  7). 
This  tent  became  henceforth  the  chief  scene 
of  his  communications  with  God.  It  was  dur- 
ing these  communications  that  a  peculiarity  is 
mentioned  which  apparently  had  not  been 
seen  before.  It  was  on  his  final  descent  from 
Mount  Sinai,  after  his  second  long  seclusion, 
that  a  splendor  shone  on  his  face,  as  if  from 
the  glory  of  the  Divine  Presence.  The 
prophetic  office  of  Moses  can  only  be  fully 
considered  in  connection  with  his  whole  char- 
acter and  appearance  (Hos.  xii.  13).  He  was 
in  a  sense  peculiar  to  himself  the  founder  and 
representative  of  his  people.  And  in  accord- 
ance with  this  complete  identification  of  him- 
self with  his  nation  is  the  only  strong  per- 
sonal trait  which  we  are  able  to  gather  from 


his  history  (Num.  xii.  3).  The  word  "meek" 
is  hardly  an  adequate  reading  of  the  Hebrew 
term,  which  should  be  rather  "much  endur- 
ing." It  represents  what  we  should  now  desig- 
nate by  the  word  "disinterested."  All  that  is 
told  of  him  indicates  a  withdrawal  of  him- 
self, a  preference  of  the  cause  of  his  nation  to 
his  own  interests,  which  makes  him  the  most 
complete  example  of  Jewish  patriotism.  In 
exact  conformity  with  his  life  is  the  account 
of  his  end.  The  Book  of  Deuteronomy  de- 
scribes, and  is,  the  long  last  farewell  of  the 
prophet  to  his  people.  It  takes  place  on  the 
first  day  of  the  eleventh  month  of  the  fortieth 
year  of  the  wanderings,  in  the  plains  of  Moab 
(Deut.  i.  3,  5).  He  is  described  as  120  years 
of  age,  but  with  his  sight  and  his  freshness 
of  strength  unabated  (Deut.  xxxiv.  7).  The 
address  from  ch.  i.  to  ch.  xxx.  contains  the 
recapitulation  of  the  Law.  Joshua  is  then  ap- 
pointed his  successor.  The  Law  is  written 
out,  and  ordered  to  be  deposited  in  the  Ark 
(ch.  xxxi.).  The  song  and  the  blessing  of  the 
tribes    conclude    the    farewell    (ch.  xxxii., 

xxxiii.  ).  And  then  comes  the  mysterious 
close.  As  if  to  carry  out  to  the  last  the  idea 
that  the  prophet  was  to  live,  not  for  himself, 
but  for  his  people,  he  is  told  that  he  is  to  see 
the  good  land  beyond  the  Jordan,  but  not  to 
possess  it  himself.  The  sin  for  which  this 
penalty  was  imposed  on  the  prophet  is  diffi- 
cult to  ascertain  clearly.  He  ascends  a 
mountain  in  the  range  which  rises  above  the 
Jordan  valley.  The  mountain  tract  was  known 
by  the  general  name  of  the  Pisgah.  Its  sum- 
mits apparently  were  dedicated  to  dififerent 
divinities  (Num.  xxiii.  14).  On  one  of  these, 
consecrated  to  Nebo,  Moses  took  his  stand, 
and  surveyed  the  four  great  masses  of  Pales- 
tine west  of  the  Jordan — so  far  as  it  could  be 
discerned  from  that  height.  The  view  has 
passed  into  a  proverb  for  all  nations.  "So 
Moses  the  servant  of  Jehovah  died  there  in 
the  land  of  Moab,  according  to  the  word  of 
Jehovah,  and  He  buried  him  in  a  'ravine'  in 
the  land  of  Moab,  'before'  Beth-peor — but  no 
man  knoweth  of  his  sepulchre  unto  this  day. 
.  .  .  And  the  children  of  Israel  wept  for  Moses 
in  the  plains  of  Moab  thirty  days"  (Deut. 

xxxiv.  5,  8).  This  is  all  that  is  said  in  the 
sacred  record.  Jewish,  Arabian,  and  Chris- 
tian traditions  have  labored  to  fill  up  the 
detail.  Plis  grave,  though  studiously  con- 
cealed in  the  sacred  narrative,  is  shown  by 
the  Mussulmans  on  the  west  (and  therefore 
the  wrong)  side  of  the  Jordan,  between  the 
Dead  Sea  and  St.  Saba.  In  the  O.  T.  the  name 
of  Moses  does  not  occur  so  frequently,  after 
the  close  of  the  Pentateuch,  as  might  be  ex- 

56 


MOTH 


MOURNING 


pected.  In  the  Psalms  and  the  Prophets, 
however,  he  is  frequently  named  as  the  chief 
of  the  prophets.  In  the  N.  T.  he'  is  referred 
to  partly  as  the  representative  of  the  Law — 
as  in  the  numerous  passages  cited  above — and 
in  the  vision  of  the  Transfiguration,  where  he 
appears  side  by  side  with  Elijah.  As  the 
author  of  the  Law  he  is  contrasted  with 
Christ,  the  Author  of  the  Gospel:  "The  Law 
was  given  by  Closes"  (John  i.  17).  In  Jude  g 
is  an  allusion  to  an  altercation  between 
Michad  and  Satan  over  the  body  of  Moses. 
It  probably  refers  to  a  lost  apocryphal  book, 
mentioned  by  Origen,  called  the  "Ascension, 
or  Assumption  of  IMoses." — Respecting  the 
books  of  Moses,  see  Pentateuch. 

Moth.  By  the  Hebrew  word  we  are  cer- 
tainly to  understand  some  species  of  clothes- 


Cloth  Moths. 

moth.  Reference  to  the  destructive  habits  of 
the  clothes-moth  is  made  in  Job  iv.  19,  xiii. 
28;  Ps.  xxxix.  II,  &c.  In  Job  xxvii.  18,  "He 
buildeth  his  house  as  a  moth,"  it  is  clear  that 
allusion  is  made  either  to  the  well-known  case 
of  the  Tinea  pellionella,  or  some  allied  species, 
or  else  to  the  leaf-building  larvae  of  some 
other  member  of  the  Lepidoptera. 

Mother.  The  superiority  of  the  Hebrew 
over  all  contemporaneous  systems  of  legis- 
lation and  of  morals  is  strongly  shown  in  the 
higher  estimation  of  the  mother  in  the  Jewish 
family,  as  contrasted  with  modern  Oriental, 
as  well  as  ancient  Oriental  and  classical  usage. 
The  king's  mother,  as  appears  in  the  case  of 
Bathsheba,  was  treated  with  especial  honor. 

Mount,  Mountain.  The  Hebrew  word  bar, 
like  the  English  "mountain,"  is  employed  both 
for  single  eminences  more  or  less  isolated, 
such  as  Sinai,  Gerizim,  Ebal,  Zion,  and  Olivet, 
and  for  ranges,  such  as  Lebanon.  It  is  also 
applied  to  a  mountainous  country  or  district. 

Mourning.  The  numerous  list  of  words  em- 
ployed in  Scripture  to  express  the  various  ac- 
tions which  are  characteristic  of  mourning, 
shows  in  a  great  degree  the  nature  of  the  Jew- 
ish customs  in  this  respect.  They  appear  to 
have  consisted  chiefly  in  the  following  par- 


ticulars: I.  Beating  the  breast  or  other  parts 
of  the  body.  2.  Weeping  and  screaming  in  an 
excessive  degree.  3.  Wearing  sad-colored  gar- 
ments. 4.  Songs  of  lamentation.  5.  l'\meral 
feasts.  6.  Employment  of  persons,  especially 
women,  to  lament.'  (i.)  One  marked  feature 
of  Oriental  mourning  is  what  may  be  called 
its  studied  publicity,  and  the  careful  observ- 
ance of  the  prescribed  ceremonies  (Gen.  xxiii. 
2;  Job  i.  20,  ii.  8;  Is.  xv.  3,  &c.).  (2.)  Among 
the  particular  forms  observed  Ihe  following 
may  be  mentioned :  a.  Rending  the  clothes 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  29,  34,  xliv.  13,  &c.).  b.  Dress- 
ing in  sackcloth  (Gen.  xxxvii.  34;  2  Sam.  iii. 

31,  xxi.  10,  &c.).  c.  Ashes,  dust,  or  earth 
sprinkled  on  the  person  (2  Sam.  xiii.  19,  xv. 

32,  &c.).  d.  Black  or  sad-colored  garments 
(2  Sam.  xiv.  2;  Jer.  viii.  21,  &c.).  e.  Removal 
of  ornaments  or  neglect  of  person  (Deut.  xxi. 
12,  13,  &c.).  f.  Shaving  the  head,  plucking 
out  the  hair  of  the  head  or  beard  (Lev.  x.  6; 
2  Sam.  xix.  24,  &c.).  g.  Laying  bare  some 
part  of  the  body  (Is.  xx.  2,  xlvii.  2,  &c.).  h. 
Fasting  or  abstinence  in  meat  and  drink  (2 
Sam.  i.  12,  iii.  35,  xii.  16,  22,  &c.).  i.  In  the 
same  direction  may  be  mentioned  diminution 
in  offerings  to  God,  and  prohibition  to  partake 
in  sacrificial  food  (Lev.  vii.  20;  Deut.  xxvi. 
14).  k.  Covering  the  "upper  lip,"  i.  e.  the 
lower  part  of  the  face,  and  sometimes  the 
head,  in  token  of  silence  (Lev.  xiii.  45;  2  Sam. 


Mourning. 

XV.  30,  xix.  4).  1.  Cutting  the  flesh  (Jer.  xvi. 
6,  7,  xli.  5).  Beating  the  body  (Ez.  xxi.  12; 
Jer.  xxxi.  19).  m.  Employment  of  .  persons 
hired  for  the  purpose  of  mourning  (Eccl.  xii. 
5;  Jer.  ix.  17;  Am.  v.  16;  Matt.  ix.  23).  n. 
Akin  to  this  usage  the  custom  for  friends  or 
passers-by  to  join  in  the  lamentations  of  be- 
reaved or  afflicted  persons  (Gen.  1.  3;  Judg. 
xi.  40;  Job  ii.  II,  XXX.  25,  &c.)..  o.  The  sitting 
or  lying  posture  in.  silence  indicative  of  grief 
(Gen.  xxiii.  3;  Judg.  xx.  26,  &c.).  p.  Mourn- 
ing feast  and  cup  of  consolation  (Jer.  xvi.  7, 
8).  The  period  of  mourning  varied.  In  the 
case  of  Jacob  it  was  seventy  days  (Gen.  1.  3) ; 


257 


MOUSE 


MURDER 


of  Aaron  (Num.  xx.  29)  and  Moses  (Deut. 
xxxiv.  8),  thirty.  A  further  period  of  seven 
days  in  Jacob's  case,  Gen.  1.  10.  Seven  days 
for  Saul,  which  may  have  been  an  abridged 
period  in  time  of  national  danger,  i  Sam.  xxxi. 
13-  (3-)  the  last  place  we  may  mention — a. 
The  idolatrous  "mourning  for  Tammuz,"  Ez. 
viii.  14,  as  indicating  identy  of  practice  in  cer- 
tain cases  among  Jews  and  heathens ;  and  the 
custom  in  later  days  of  offerings  of  food  at 
graves,  Ecclus.  xxx.  18.  b.  The  prohibition, 
both  to  the  high-priest  and  to  Nazarites, 
against  going  into  mourning  even  for  a  father 
or  mother,  Lev.  xxi.  10,  11  ;  Num.  vi.  7.  The 
inferior  priests  were  limited  to  the  cases  of 
their  near  relatives.  Lev.  xxi.  i,  2,  4.  c.  The 
food  eaten  during  the  time  of  mourning  was 
regarded  as  impure,  Deut.  xxvi.  14;  Jer,'  xvi. 
5,  7;  Ez.  xxiv.  17;  Hos.  ix.  4. 

Mouse  occurs  in  Lev.  xi.  29;  i  Sam.  vi.  4, 
5;  Is.  Ixvi.  17.  The  Hebrew  word  is  in  all 
probability  generic,  and  is  not  intended  to 
denote  any  particular  species  of  mouse.  The 
original  word  denotes  a  field-ravager,  and  may 
therefore  comprehend  any  destructive  rodent. 
'It  is  probable, liowever,  that  in  i  Sam.  vi.  5, 


The  Field  Mouse. 


"the  mice  that  mar  the  land"  may  include  and 
more  particularly  refer  to  the  short-tailed 
field-mice  (arvicola  agrestis,  Flem.),  which 
cause  great  destruction  to  the  corn-lands  of 
Syria. 

Mowing.  As  the  great  heat  of  the  climate 
in  Palestine  and  other  similarly  situated  coun- 
tries soon  dries  up  the  herbage  itself,  hay- 
making in  our  sense  of  the  term  is  not  in  use. 
The  term  "hay,"  therefore,  in  Prov.  xxvii.  25 
and  Is.  XV.  6,  is  incorrect.  The  "king's  mow- 
ings" (Am.  vii.  i),  i.  e.  mown  grass  (Ps.  Ixxii. 
6),  may  perhaps  refer  to  some  royal  right  of 
early  pasturage  for  the  use  of  tlie  cavalry. 

Mulberry-trees  occur  only  in  2  Sam.  v.  23 
and  24,  and  i  Chr.  xiv.  14.  We  are  quite  un- 
able to  determine  what  kind  of  tree  is  denoted 
by  the  Hebrew  word.  Rosenmiiller  follows 
the  LXX.  of  I  Chr.  xiv.  14,  and  believes  "pear- 
trees"  are  signified.  As  to  the  claim  of  the 
mulberry-tree  to  represent  the  becaim  of 
Scripture,  it  is  difficult  to  see  any  foundation 
for  such  an  interpretation.    The  explanation 

2 


given  by  Royle,  that  some  poplar  is  signified, 
is  untenable^  for  the  Hebrew  baca  and  the 
Arabic  baka  are  clearly  distinct  both  in  form 
and  signification,  as  is  evident  from  the  dif- 
ference of  the  second  radical  letter  in  each 
word.  Though  there  is  no  evidence  to  show 
that  the  mulberry-tree  occurs  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  yet  the  fruit  of  this  tree  is  mentioned 
in  I  Mace.  vi.  34. 

Mule.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  we  do 
not  read  of  mules  till  the  time  of  David,  just 
at  the  time  when  the  Israelites  were  becom- 
ing well  acquainted  with  horses.  After  this 
time  horses  and  mules  are  in  Scripture  often 
mentioned  together.  In  Solomon's  time  it  is 
possible  that  mules  from  Egypt  occasionally 
accompanied  the  horses  which  we  know  the 
king  of  Israel  obtained  from  that  country ;  for 
though  the  mule  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  yet  it  is  not  easy 
to  believe  that  the  Egyptians  were  not  well 
acquainted  with  this  animal.  It  would  appear 
that  kings  and  great  men  only  rode  on  mules. 
We  do  hot  read  of  mules  at  all  in  the  N.  T. ; 
perhaps  therefore  they  had  ceased  to  be  im- 
ported. Mules  are  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxxvi. 
24:  "This  was  that  Anah  that  found  the  mules 
in  the  wilderness  as  he  fed  the  asses  of  Zibeon 
his  father :"  but  the  A.  V.  is  certainly  incor- 
rect ;  and  the  Hebrew  word  yemim,  here 
translated  "mules,"  probably  means  "warm 
springs,"  as  the  Vulg.  has  it. 

Murder.  The  principle  on  which  the  act  of 
taking  the  life  of  a  human  being  was  regarded 
by  the  Almighty  as  a  capital  offence  is  stated 
on  its  highest  ground  as  an  outrage  on  the 
likeness  of  God  in  man,  to  be  punished  even 
when  caused  by  an  animal  (Gen.  ix.  5,  6;  see 
also  John  viii.  44;  i  John  iii.  12,  15).  The  Law 
of  Moses,  while  it  protected  the  accidental 
homicide,  defined  with  additional  strictness 
the  crime  of  murder.  'It  prohibited  compensa- 
tion or  reprieve  of  the  murderer,  or  his  protec- 
tion if  he  took  refuge  in  the  refuge  city,  or 
even  at  the  altar  of  Jehovah  (Ex.  xxi.  12,  14; 
Lev.  xxiv.  17,  21;  I  K.  ii.  5,  6,  31).  If  an 
animal  known  to  be  vicious  caused  the  death 
of  any  one,  not  only  was  the  animal  destroyed, 
but  the  owner  also,  if  he  had  taken  no  steps 
to  restrain  it,  was  held  guilty  of  murder  (Ex. 
xxi.  29,  31).  The  duty  of  executing  punish- 
ment on  the  murderer  is  in  the  Law  expressly 
laid  on  the  "revenger  of  blood ;"  but  the  ques- 
tion of  guilt  was  to  be  previously  decided  by 
the  Levitical  tribunal.  In  regal  times  the 
duty  of  execution  of  justice  on  a  murderer 
seems  to  have  been  assumed  to  some  extent 
by  the  sovereign,  as  well  as  the  privilege  of 
pardon  (2  Sam.  xiii.  39,  xiv.  7,  11 ;  i  K.  ii.  34). 


MUSIC 


MUSIC 


It  was  lawful  to  kill  a  burglar  taken  at  night 
in  the  act,  but  unlawful  to  do  so  after  sunrise 
(Ex.  xxii.  2,  3). 

Music.  The  inventor  of  musical  instru- 
ments, like  the  first  poet  and  the  first  forger 
of  metals,  \vas  a  Cainite.  We  learn  from  Gen. 
iv.  that  Jubal  the  son  of  Lamech  was  "the 
father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and 
organ,"  that  is,  of  all  players  upon  stringed 
and  wind  instruments.  The  first  mention  of 
music  in  the  times  after  the  Deluge  is  in  the 


I.    Egj-ptian  Harps. 


narrative  of  Laban's  interview  with  Jacob 
(Gen.  xxxi.  27).  So  that,  in  whatever  way  it 
was  preserved,  the  practice  of  music  existed 
in  the  upland  country  of  Syria;  and  of  the 
three  possible  kinds  of  musical  instruments, 
two  were  known  and  employed  to  accompany 
the  song.  The  three  kinds  are  alluded  to  in 
Job  xxi.  12.  On  the  banks  of  the  Red  Sea 
!Moses  and  the  children  of  Israel  sang  their 
triumphal  song  of  deliverance  from  the  hosts 
of  Egypt ;  and  Miriam,  in  celebration  of  the 
same  event,  exercised  one  of  her  functions  as 
a  prophetess  by  leading  a  procession  of  the 
women  of  the  camp,  chanting  in  chorus  the 
burden  to  the  song  of  Moses,  "Sing  ye  to 
Jehovah,  for  He  hath  triumphed  gloriously; 
the  ,horse  and  his  rider  hath  He  thrown  into 
the  sea."  The  triumphal  hymn  of  Moses  had 
unquestionably  a  religious  character  about  it ; 
but  the  employment  of  music  in  religious 
service,  though  idolatrous,  is  more  distinctly 
marked  in  the  festivities  which  attended  the 
erection  of  the  golden  calf.  The  silver  trump- 
ets made  by  the  metal  workers  of  the  taber- 
nacle, which  were  used  to  direct  the  move- 
ments of  the  camp,  point  to  music  of  a  very 
simple  kind  (Num.  x.  i-io).  David  seems  to 
have  gathered  round  him  "singing  men  and 
singing  women"  (2  Sam.  xix.  35).  Solomon 
did  the  same  (Eccl.  ii.  8),  adding  to  the  luxury 
of  his  court  by  his  patronage  of  art,  and  ob- 
taining a  reputation  himself  as  no  mean  com- 


poser (i  K.  iv.  32).  But  the  Temple  was  the 
great  school  of  music,  and  it  was  consecrated 
to  its  highest  service  in  the  worship  of 
Jehovah.  Before,  however,  the  elaborate  ar- 
rangements had  been  made  by  David  for  the 
temple  choir,  there  must  have  been  a  consid- 
erable body  of  musicians  throughout  the  coun- 
try (2  Sam.  vi.  5),  and  in  the  procession  which 
accompanied  the  ark  from  the  house  of  Obed- 
edom,  the  Levites,  with  Chenaniah  at  their 
head,  who  had  acquired  skill  from  previous 
training,  played  on  psalteries,  harps,  and 
cymbals,  to  the  words  of  the  psalm  of  thanks- 
giving which  David  had  composed  for  the  oc- 
casion (i  Chr.  XV.,  xvi.).  It  is  not  improba- 
ble that  the  Levites  all  along  had  practised 
music,  and  that  some  musical  service  was  part 
of  the  worship  of  the  tabernacle.  The  three 
great  divisions  of  the  tribe  had  each  a  repre- 
sentative family  in  the  choir.  Asaph  him- 
self appears  to  have  played  on  the  cymbals  (i 
Chr.  xvi.  5),  and  this  was  the  case  with  the 
other  leaders  (i  Chr.  xv.  19),  perhaps  to  mark 


II.    Instruments  of  Percussion. 


the  time  more  distinctly,  while  the  rest  of  the 
band  played  on  psalteries  and  harps.  The 
singers  were  distinct  from  both,  as  is  evident 
in  Ps.  Ixviii.  25,  "the  singers  went  before,  the 
players  on  instruments  followed  after,  in  the 
midst  of  the  damsels  playing  with  timbrels." 
The  "players  on  instruments"  were  the  per- 
formers upon  stringed  instruments,  like  the 
psaltery  and  harp.  The  "players  on  instru- 
ments" in  Ps.  Ixxxvii.  7,  were  dif¥erent  from 
these  last,  and  were  properly  pipers  or  per- 


MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS 


MYRRH 


formers  on  perforated  wind-instruments  (see 
I  K.  i.  40).  "The  damsels  playing  with 
timbrels"  (comp.  i  Chr.  xiii.  8)  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  women  took  part  in  the  temple  choir. 
The  trumpets  which  are  mentioned  among  the 
instruments  played  before  the  ark  (i  Chr.  xiii. 
8),  appear  to  have  been  reserved  for  the 
priests  alone  (i  Chr.  xv.  24,  xvi.  6).    As  they 


III.  Wind  Instruments. — 1.  The  pandcan  pipe  or  bagpipe; 
translated  "organ"  in  Gen.  4  :'21.  2.  The  horn.  3.  The 
trumpet.  4.  The  straight  trumpet.  5.  The  Jiutc.  G.  The 
flute.   7.  The  duleimer. 

were  also  used  in  royal  proclamations  (2  K. 
xi.  14),  they  were  probably  intended  to  set 
forth  by  way  of  cymbal  the  royalty  of 
Jehovah,  the  theocratic  King  of  His  people, 
as  well  as  to  sound  the  alarm  against  His  ene- 
mies (2  Chr.  xiii.  12).  In  the  private  as  well 
as  in  the  religious  life  of  the  Hebrews  music 
held  a  prominent  place.  The  kings  had  their 
court  musicians  (Eccl.  ii.  8),  who  bewailed 
their  death  (2  Chr.  xxxv.  25).  The  triumphal 
processions  which  celebrated  a .  victory  were 
enlivened  by  minstrels  and  singers  (Ex.  xv.  i. 
20;  Judg.  V.  I,  xi.  34;  I  Sam.  xviii.  6,  xxi.  11  ; 
2  Chr.  XX.  28;  Jud.  xv.  12,  13),  and  on  extraor- 
dinary occasions  they  even  accompanied 
armies  to  battle. 

Musical  Instruments.  In  addition  to  the  in- 
struments of  music  which  have  been  repre- 
sented in  our  version  by  some  modern  word, 
and  are  treated  under  their  respective  titles, 
there  are  other  tenns  which  are  vaguely  or 
generally  rendered.  These  are — i.  Dachavan, 
Chald.,  rendered  "instruments  of  music"  in 
Dan.  vi.  18.  The  margin  gives  "or  table,  per- 
haps lit.  concubines."  The  last-mentioned 
rendering  is  that  approved  by  Gesenius,  and 
seems  most  probable.  2.  Minnim,  rendered 
with  great  probability  "stringed-instruments" 
in  Ps.  cl.  4.  It  appears  to  be  a  general  term, 
but  beyond  this  nothing  is  known  of  it.  3. 


'Asor,  "an  instrument  of  ten  strings,-"  Ps.  xcii. 
3.  The  full  phrase  is  nebel  asor,  "a  ten- 
stringed  psaltery,"  as  in  Ps.  xxxiii.  2,  cxliv. 
9;  and  the  true  rendering  of  the  first-men- 
tioned passage  would  be  "upon  an  instrument 
of  ten  strings,  even  upon  the  psaltery."  4. 
Shiddah,  in  Eccl.  ii.  8  only,  "I  gat  me  men- 
singers  and  women-singers,  and  the  delights 
of  the  sons  of  men,  musical  instruments,  and 
that  of  all  sorts."  The  words  thus  rendered 
have  received  a  great  variety  of  meanings. 
But  the  most  probable  interpretation  to  be 
put  upon  them  is  that  suggested  by  a  usage 
of  the  Talmud,  where  shidah  denotes  a  "pal- 
anquin" or  "litter"  for  women.  5.  Shalishim, 
rendered  "instruments  of  music"  in  the  A.  V. 
of  I  Sam.  xviii.  6,  and  in  the  margin  "three- 
stringed  instruments."  Roediger  translates 
"triangles,"  which  are  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented in  Syria,  from  the  same  root.  We 
have  no  means  of  deciding  which  is  the  more 
correct. 

Mustard  occurs  in  Matt.  xiii.  31,  xvii.  20; 
Mark  iv.  31  ;  Luke  xiii.  19,  xvii.  6.  The  mus- 
tard-tree of  Scripture  is  maintained  by  Dr. 
Royle  to  be  the  Salvadora  versica,  which  he 
supposes  to  be  the  same  as  the  tree  called 
Khardal  (The  Arabic  for  mustard),  seeds  of 
which  are  employed  throughout  Syria  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  mustard,  of  which  they  have  the 
taste  and  properties.    This  tree  is  found  all 


The  Mustard  Plant. 

along  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  near  the  lake 
of  Tiberias,  and  near  Damascus,  and  is  said 
to  be  generally  recognized  in  Syria  as  the 
mustard-tree  of  Scripture. 

Myrrh  is  mentioned,  in  Ex.  xxx.  23,  as  one 
of  the  ingredients  of  the  "oil  of  holy  oint- 
ment;" in  Esth.  ii.  12,  as  one  of  the  substances 
used  in  the  purification  of  women ;  in  Ps.  xlv. 
8,  Prov.  vii.  17,  and  in  several  passages  in 
Canticles,  as  a  perfume.    The  Greek  occurs 


260 


ST.   MARK.    GIOV.   FHANCESCO    BARBIERI    (IL   GUERCINO).    AFTER  THE 
PAINTING  IN  THE  DRESDEN  GALLEET. 


MYRTLE 


NAIL 


in  ^latt.  ii.  ii  amongst  the  gifts  brouglit  by 
the  wise  men  to  the  infant  Jesus,  and  in  Mark 
XV.  23,  it  is  said  that  "wine  mingled  with 
myrrh"  was  offered  to,  but  refused  by,  our 
Lord  on  the  cross.  Myrrh  was  also  used  for 
embalming  (see  John  xix.  39,  and  Herod,  ii. 
86).  The  Balsamodendron  myrrha,  which 
produces  the  myrrh  of  commerce,  has  a  wood 
and  bark  which  emit  a  strong  odor;  the  gum 
which  exudes  from  the  bark  is  at  first  oily. 


Myrrh. 

but  becomes  hard  by  exposure  to  the  air :  it 
belongs  to  the  natural  order  Terebinthaceae. 
For  the' "wine  mingled  with  myrrh,"  see  Gall. 
The  "myrrh"  mentioned  in  the  A.  V.  in  Gen. 
xxxvii.  25,  xliii.  11,  is  a  translation  of  the  He- 
brew word  lot,  and  is  generally  considered  to 
denote  the  odorous  resin  which  exudes  from 
the  Ijranches  of  the  Cistus  creticus,  known  by 
the  name  of  ladanum,  or  labdanum. 

Myrtle  is  mentioned  in  Neh.  viii.  15;  Is.  xli. 
19,  Iv.  13;  Zech.  i.  8,  10,  11.  The  modern  Jews 
still  adorn  with  myrtle  the  booths  and  sheds 
at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  Formerly,  as  we 
learn  from  Nehemiah  (viii.  15),  myrtles  grew 
on  the  hills  about  Jerusalem.  "On  Olivet," 
says  Dean  Stanley,  "nothing  is  now  to  be 
seen  but  the  olive  and  the  fig-tree;"  on  some 
of  the  hills,  however,  near  Jerusalem,  Hassel- 
quist  observed  the  myrtle.  Dr.  Hooker  says 
it  is  not  uncommon  in  Samaria  and  Galilee. 
The  Myrtus  communis  is  the  kind  denoted  by 
the  Hebrew  word.  | 

26 


Na'amah  (loveliness).  I.  One  of  the  four 
women  whose  names  are  preserved  in  the  rec- 
ords of  the  world  before  the  Flood ;  all  except 
Eve  being  Cainites.  She  was  daughter  of 
Lamech  by  his  wife  Zillah,  and  sister,  as  is 
expressly  mentioned,  to  Tubalcain  (Gen.  iv. 
22  only).  II.  Mother  of  king  Rheoboam  (i  K. 
xiv.  21,  31  ;  2  Chr.  xii.  13).  On  each  occasion 
she  is  distinguished  by  the  title  "the  (not  'an,' 
as  in  A.  V.)  Ammonite."  She  was  therefore 
one  of  the  foreign  women  whom  Solomon 
took  into  his  establishment  (i  K.  xi.  i). 

Na'aman  (pleasantness).  "Naaman  the 
Syrian"  (Luke  iv.  27).  A  Jewish  trandition, 
at  least  as  old  as  the  time  of  Josephus,  and 
which  may  very  well  be  a  genuine  one,  identi- 
fies him  with  the  archer  whose  arrow,  whether 
at  random  or  not,  struck  Ahab  with  his  mortal 
wound,  and  thus  "gave  deliverance  to  Syria." 
The  expression  in  2  K.  v.  i,  is  remarkable — 
"because  that  by  him  Jehovah  had  given  de- 
liverance to  Syria."  The  most  natural  ex- 
planation perhaps  is,  that  Naaman,  in  deliv- 
ering his  country,  had  killed  one  who  was  the 
enemy  of  Jehovah  not  less  than  he  was  of 
Syria.  Whatever  the  particular  exploit  re- 
ferred to  was,  it  had  given  Naaman  a  great 
position  at  the  court  of  Benhadad.  He  was 
commander-in-chief   of   the   army,   and  was 


Xfyrtle. 

nearest  to  the  person  of  the  king,  whom  he 
accompanied  officially,  and  supported,  when 
he  went  to  worship  in  the  temple  of  Rimmon 
(ver.  18). 

Nail.  I.  (of  finger),  i.  A  nail  or  claw  of 
man  or  animal.  2.  A  point  or  style,  e.  g.  for 
writing;  see  Jer.  xvii.  i.  II.  i.  A  nail  (Is. 
xli.  7),  a  stake  (Is.  xxxiii.  20),  also  a  tent-peg. 
Tent-pegs  are  usually  of  wood  and  of  large 
size;  but  sometimes,  as  was  the  case  with 
I 


NAIN 


NAZARETH 


those  used  to  fasten  the  curtains  of  the  Taber- 
nacle, of  metal  (Ex.  xxvii,  19,  xxxviii.  20). 
2.  A  nail,  primarily  a  point.  We  are  told  that 
David  prepared  iron  for  the  nails  to  be  used 
in  the  Temple ;  and  as  the  Holy  of  Holies  was 
plated  with  gold,  the  nails  also  for  fastening 
the  plates  were  probably  of  gold. 

Na'in,  a  village  of  Galilee,  the  gate  of  which 
is  made  illustrious  by  the  raising  of  the 
widow's  son  (Luke  vii.  12).  The  modern 
Nein  is  situated  on  the  north-western  edge  of 
the  "Little  Hermon,"  or  Jebel-ed-Duhy,  where 
the  ground  falls  into  the  plain  of  Esdraelon. 
The  entrance  to  the  place,  where  our  Saviour 


Nain  and  Mount  Tabor. 


met  the  funeral,  must  probably  always  have 
been  up  the  steep  ascent  from  the  plain ;  and 
here,  on  the  west  side  of  the  village,  the  rock 
is  full  of  sepulchral  caves. 

Na'omi,  the  wife  of  Elimelech,  and  mother- 
in-law  of  Ruth  (Ruth  i.  2,  &c.,  ii.  I,  &c.,  iii.  I, 
iv.  3,  &c.).  The  name  is  derived  from  a  root 
signifying  sweetness  or  pleasantness ;  whence 
we  read:  "Call  me  not  Naomi  (pleasant),  call 
me  Mara  (bitter)  .  .  .  why  call  ye  me 
Naomi,  when  Jehovah  had  testified  against 
me?" 

Nathan'ael,  a  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ,  con- 
.  cerning  whom,  under  that  name  at  least,  we 
learn  from  Scripture  little  more  than  his  birth- 
place, Cana  of  Galilee  (John  xxi.  2),  and  his 
simple  truthful  character  (John  i.  47).  The 
name  does  not  occur  in  the  first  three  Gospels. 
But  it  is  commonly  believed  that  Nathanael 
and  Bartholomew  are  the  same  person.  The 
evidence  for  that  belief  is  as  follows :  St.  John, 
who  twice  mentions  Nathanael,  never  intro- 
duces the  name  of  Bartholomew  at  all.  St. 
Matt.  x.  3;  St.  Mark  iii.  18;  and  St.  Luke  vi. 
14,  all  speak  of  Bartholomew,  but  never  of 
Nathanael.  It  may  be  that  Nathanael  was  the 
proper  name,  and  Bartholomew  (son  of  Thol- 
mai)  the  surname  of  the  same  disciple,  just 


as  Simon  was  called  Bar  Jona  and  Joses,  Bar- 
nabas. It  was  Philip  who  first  brought  Na- 
thanael to  Jesus,  just  as  Andrew  had  brought 
his  brother  Simon ;  and  Bartholomew  is  named 
by  each  of  the  first  three  Evangelists  imme- 
diately after  Philip,  while  by  St.  Luke  he  is 
coupled  with  Philip  precisely  in  the  same  way 
as  Simon  with  his  brother  Andrew,  and  James 
with  his  brother  John. 

Na'than  (a  giver),  i.  An  eminent  Hebrew 
prophet  in  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon. 
He  first  appears  in  the  consultation  with  David 
about  the  building  of  the  Temple  (2  Sam.  vii. 
2,  3,  17).  He  next  comes  forward  as  the  re- 
prover of  David  for  the  sin  with  Bathsheba ; 
and  his  famous  apologue  on  the  rich  man  and 
the  ewe  lamb,  which  is  the  only  direct  ex- 
ample of  his  prophetic  power,  shows  it  to  have 
been  of  a  very  high  order  (2  Sam.  xii.  1-12). 
On  the  birth  of  Solomon  he  was  either  spe- 
cially charged  with  giving  him  his  name, 
Jedediah,  or  else  with  his  education  (2  Sam. 
xii.  25).  At  any  rate,  in  the  last  years  of 
David,  it  is  Nathan  who,  by  taking  the  side 
of  Solomon,  turned  the  scale  in  his  favor.  He 
advised  Bathsheba ;  he  himself  ventured  to 
enter  the  royal  presence  with  a  remonstrance 
against  the  king's  apathy ;  and  at  David's  re- 
quest he  assisted  in  the  inauguration  of  Solo- 
mon (i  K.  i.  8,  10,  II,  22,  23,  24,  32,  34,  38, 
45).  This  is  the  last  time  that  we  hear  directly 
of  his  intervention  in  the  history.  He  left  two 
works  behind  him — a  Life  of  David  (i  Ghr. 
xxix.  29),  and  a  Life  of  Splomon  (2  Chr.  ix. 
29).  The  last  of  these  may  have  been  incom- 
plete, as  we  cannot  be  sure  that  he  outlived 
Solomon.  But  the  biography  of  David  by 
Nathan  is,  of  all  the  losses  which  antiquity, 
sacred  or  profane,  has  sustained,  the  most  de- 
plorable. His  grave  is  shown  at  Halhul,  near 
Hebron. 

Naz'areth,  the  ordinary  residence  of  our 
Saviour,  is  not  mentioned  in  the  O.  T.,  but 
occurs  first  in  Matt.  ii.  23.  It  derives  its 
celebrity  from  its  connection  with  the  history 
of  Christ,  and  in  that  respect  has  a  hold  on 
the  imagination  and  feelings  of  men  which  it 
shares  only  with  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem. 
It  is  situated  among  the  hills  which  constitute 
the  south  ridges  of  Lebanon,  just  before  they 
sink  down  into  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon.  Of 
the  identification  of  the  ancient  site  there  can 
be  no  doubt.  The  name  of  the  present  village 
is  en-Nazirah,  the  same,  therefore,  as  of  old; 
it  is  formed  on  a  hill  or  mountain  (Luke  iv. 
29)  ;  it  is  within  the  limits  of  the  province  of 
Galilee  (Mark  i.  9)  ;  it  is  near  Cana,  accord- 
ing to  the  implication  in  John  ii.  i,  2,  11  ;  a 
precipice  exists  in  the  neighborhood  (Luke  iv. 


262 


NAZARITE 


NEBO 


29);  and,  -finally,  a  scries  of  testimonies 
reaches  back  to  Eusebius,  the  father  of  Church 
history,  which  represent  the  place  as  having 
occupied  an  invariable  position.  The  modern 
Nazareth  belongs  to  the  better  class  of  east- 
ern villages.  It  has  a  population  of  3000  or 
4000;  a  few  are  Mohammedans,  the  rest  Latin 
and  Greek  Christians.  The  origin  of  the  dis- 
repute in  which  Nazareth  stood  (John  i.  47) 
is  not  certainly  known.  All  the  inhabitants 
of  Galilee  w^ere  looked  upon  with  contempt  by 
the  people  of  Judaea  because  they  spoke  a 
ruder  dialect,  were  less  cultivated,  and  were 


Nazareth. 

more  exposed  by  their  position  to  contact 
with  the  heathen.  But  Nazareth  labored 
under  a  special  opprobrium,  for  it  was  a  Gali- 
lean and  not  a  southern  Jew  who  asked  the 
reproachful  question  whether  "any  good 
thing"  could  come  from  that  source. 

Naz'arite,  more  properly  Naz'irite  (one  sep- 
arated), one  of  either  sex  who  was  bound  by 
a  vow  of  a  peculiar  kind  to  be  set  apart'from 
others  for  the  service  of  God.  The  obligation 
was  either  for  life  or  for  a  defined  time.  There 
is  no  notice  in  the  Pentateuch  of  Nazarites 
for  life;  but  the  regulations  for  the  vow  of  a 
Nazarite  of  days  are  given  Num.  vi.  1-21.  The 
Nazarite,  during  the  term  of  his  consecration, 
was  bound  to  abstain  from  wine,  grapes,  with 
every  production  of  the  vine,  and  from  every 
kind  of  intoxicating  drink.  He  was  forbidden 
to  cut  the  hair  of  his  head,  or  to  approach  any 
dead  body,  even  that  of  his  nearest  relation. 
When  the  period  of  his  vow  was  fulfilled,  he 
was  brought  to  the  door  of  the  tabernacle, 
and  was  required  to  offer  a  he  lamb  for  a 
burnt-offering,  a  ewe  lamb  for  a  sin-offering, 
and  a  ram  for  a  peace-offering,  with  the  usual 
accompaniments  of  peace-offerings  (Lev.  vii. 

2 


12,  13)  and  of  the  offering  made  at  the  con- 
secration of  priests  (Ex.  xxix,  2),  "a  basket 
of  unleavened  bread,  cakes  of  fine  flour 
mingled  with  oil,  and  wafers  of  unleavened 
bread  anointed  with  oil"  (Num.  vi.  15).  He 
brought  also  a  meat-offering  and  a  drink- 
offering,  which  appear  to  have  been  presented 
by  themselves  as  a  distinct  act  of  service  (ver. 
17).  He  was  to  cut  off  the  hair  of  "the  head 
of  his  separation"  (that  is,  the  hair  which  had 
grown  during  the  period  of  his  consecration) 
at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  and  to  put  it 
into  the  fire  under  the  sacrifice  on  the  altar. 
The  priest  then  placed  upon  his  hands  the 
sodden  left  shoulder  of  the  ram,,  with  one  of 
the  unleavened  cakes  and  one  of  the  wafers, 
and  then  took  them  again  and  waved  them  for 
a  wave-offering.  Of  the  Nazarites  for  life 
three  are  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures :  Sam- 
son, Samuel,  and  St.  John  the  Baptist. 

Neap'olis  is  the  place  in  northern  Greece 
where  Paul  and  his  associates  first-  landed  in 
Europe  (Acts  xvi.  11)  ;  where,  no  doubt,  he 
landed  also  on  his  second  visit  to  Macedonia 
(Acts  XX.  i),  and  whence  certainly  he  em- 
barked on  his  last  journey  through  that  prov- 
ince to  Troas  and  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  6). 
Philippi  being  an  inland  town,  Ncapolis  was 
evidently  the  port,  and  is  represented  by  the 
present  Kavalla. 


Neapolis  and  the  Temple  of  Diana. 

Ne'bo,  Mount,  the  mountain  from  which 
Moses  took  his  first  and  last  view  of  the  Prom- 
ised Land  (Deut.  xxxii.  49,  xxxiv.  i).  It  is 
described  as  in  the  land  of  Moab,  facing 
Jericho;  the  head  or  summit  of  a  mountain 
called  the  Pisgah ;  but  notwithstanding  the 
minuteness  of  this  description,  no  one  has  yet 
succeeded  in  pointing  out  any  spot  which  ans- 
wers to  Nebo. 

Ne'bo.  I.  A  town  of  Reuben  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  Jordan  (Num.  xxxii.  3,  38).  In 
the  remarkable  prophecy  adopted  by  Isaiah 
(xv.  2)  and  Jeremiah  (xlviii.  i,  22)  concern- 
ing Moab,  Nebo  is  mentioned  in  the  same  con- 
nection as  before,  but  in  the  hands  of  Moab. 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  identify  it  with  Nobah 

63 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR 


or  Kenath,  and  place  it  8  miles  south  of  Hesh- 
bon,  where  the  ruins  of  el-Habis  appear  to 
stand  at  present.  2.  The  children  of  Nebo 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezr.  ii.  29,  X.  43;  Neh.  vii.  33).  The  name 
occurs  between  Bethel  and  Ai,  and  Lydda, 
which  implies  that  it  was  situated  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Benjamin  to  the  N.  W.  of  Jerusalem. 
This  is  possibly  the  modern  Beit-Niibah, 
about  12  miles  N.  W.  by  W.  of  Jerusalem,  8 


Nebo. 


from  Lydda.  3.  Nebo,  which  occurs  both  in 
Isaiah  (xlvi.  i)  and  Jeremiah  (xlviii.  i)  as 
"the  name  of  a  Chaldaean  god,  is  a  well-known 
deity  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  He 
was  the  god  who  presided  over  learning  and 
letters.  His  general  character  corresponds  to 
that  of  the  Egyptian  Thoth,  the  Greek  Hermes 
and  the  Latin  Mercury.  Astronomically  he 
is  identified  with  the  planet  nearest  the  sun. 
In  Babylonia  Nebo  held  a  prominent  place 
from  an  early  time.  The  ancient  town  of  Bor- 
sippa  was  especially  under  his  protection,  and 
the  great  temple  there  (the  modern  Birs- 
Nimrud)  was  dedicated  to  him  from  a  very 
remote  age.  He  was  the  tutelar  god  of  the 
most  important  Babylonian  kings,  in  whose 
names  the  word  Nabu,  or  Nebo,  appears  as 
an  element. 

Nebuchadnez'zar,  or  Nebuchadrez'zar,  the 
greatest  and  most  powerful  of  the  Babylonian 
kings.  His  name  is  explained  to  mean  "Nebo 
is  the  protector  against  misfortune."  He  was 
the  son  and  successor  of  Nabopolassar,  the 
founder  of  the  Babylonian  Empire.  In  the 
lifetime  of  his  father,  Nebuchadnezzar  led  an 
army  against  Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egypt, 
defeated  him  at  Carchemish  (B.  C.  605)  in  a 
great  battle  (Jer.  xlvi.  2-12),  recovered  Coele- 
syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine,  took  Jerusa- 


lem (Dan.  i.  i,  2),  pressed  forward  to  Egypt, 
and  was  engaged  in  that  country  or  upon  its 
borders  when  intelligence  arrived  which  re- 
called him  hastily  to  Babylon.  Nabopolassar, 
after  reigning  21  years,  had  died,  and  the 
throne  was  vacant.  In  some  alarm  about  the 
succession  he  hurried  back  to  the  capital,  ac- 
companied only  by  his  light  troops;  and  cross- 
ing the  desert,  probably  by  way  of  Tadmor 
or  Palmyra,  reached  Babylon  before  any  dis- 
turbance had  arisen,  and  entered  peaceably  on 
his  kingdom  (B.  C.  604).  Within  three  years 
of  Nebuchadnezzar's  first  expedition  into 
Syria  and  Palestine,  disaffection  again  showed 
itself  in  those  countries.  Jehoiakim,  who,  al- 
though threatened  at  first  with  captivity  (2 
Chr.  xxxvi.  6)  had  been  finally  maintained  on 
the  throne  as  a  Babylonian  vassal,  after  three 
years  of  service  "turned  and  rebelled"  against 
his  suzerain,  probably  trusting  to  be  supported 
by  Egypt  (2  K.  xxiv.  i).  Not  long  afterwards 
Phoenicia  seems  to  have  broken  into  revolt ; 
and  the  Chaldaean  monach,  who  had  pre- 
viously endeavored  to  subdue  the  disafifected 
by  his  generals  (ib.  ver.  2),  once  more  took 
the  field  in  person,  and  marched  first  of  all 
against  Tyre.  Having  invested  that  city,  and 
left  a  portion  of  his  army  there  to  continue 
the  siege,  he  proceeded  against  Jerusalem, 
which  submitted  without  a  struggle.  Accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  who  is  here  our  chief  author- 
ity, Nebuchadnezzar  punished  Jehoiakim  with 
death  (comp.  Jer.  xxii.  18,  19,  and  xxxvi.  30), 
but  placed  his  son  Jehoiachin  upon  the  throne. 
Jehoiachin  reigned  only  three  months ;  for,  on 
his  showing  symptoms  of  disaffection,  Ne- 
buchadnezzar came  up  against  Jerusalem  for 


Cameo  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 


the  third  time,  deposed  the  young  prince  and 
made  his  uncle,  Zedekiah,  king  in  his  place. 
Tyre  still  held  out ;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
thirteenth  year  from  the  time  of  its  first  in- 
vestment that  the  city  of  merchants  fell  (B.  C. 
585).  Ere  this  happened,  Jerusalem  had  been 
totally  destroyed.  This  consummation  was 
owing  to  the  folly  of  Zedekiah,  who,  Respite 
the  warnings  of  Jeremiah,  made  a  treaty  with 
Apries  (Hophra),  king  of  Egypt  (Ez.  xvii. 
15),  and  on  the  strength  of  this  alliance  re- 


Of  M  ■ 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR 


NEHEMIAH 


nounced  his  allegiance  to  the  king  of  Babylon. 
Nebuchadnezzar  commenced  the  final  siege  of 
Jerusalem  in  the  ninth  year  of  Zedekiah, — 
his  own  seventeenth  year  (B.  C.  588),  and 
took  it  two  years  later  (B.  C.  586).  Zedekiah 
escaped  from  the  city,  but  was  captured  near 
Jericho  (ib.  xxxix.  5),  and  brought  to  Ne- 
buchadnezzar at  Riblah  in  the  territory  of 
Hamath,  where  his  e\-es  were  put  out  by  the 
king's  order,  while  his  sons  and  his  chief 
nobles  were  slain.  Nebuchadnezzar  then  re- 
turned to  Babylon  with  Zedekiah,  whom  he 
imprisoned  for  the  remainder  of  his  life ;  leav- 
ing Nebuzar-adan,  the  captain  of  his  guard,  to 
complete  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  the 
pacification  of  Judaea.  Gedaliah,  a  Jew,  was 
appointed  governor  but  he  was  shortly  mur- 
dered, and  the  rest  of  the  Jews  either  fled  to 
Egypt  or  were  carried  by  Nebuzar-adan  to 
Babylon.  The  military  successes  of  Nebauchad- 
nezzar  cannot  be  traced  minutely  beyond  this 
point.     It  may  be  gathered  from  the  pro- 


inscribed  Brick 


ebuchadnezzar. 


phetical  Scriptures  and  from  Josephus,  that 
the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  was  rapidly  fol- 
lowed by  the  fall  of  Tyre  and  the  complete 
submission  of  Phoenicia  (Ez.  xxvi.-xxviii.)  ; 
after  which  the  Babylonians  carried  their 
arms  into  Egypt,  and  inflicted  severe  injuries 
on  that  fertile  country  (Jer.  xlvi.  13-26;  Ez. 
xxix.  2-20).  We  are  told  that  the  first  care 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  on  obtaining  quiet  pos- 
session of  his  kingdom  after  the  first  Syrian 
expedition,  was  to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Bel 
(Bel-Merodach)  at  Babylon  out  of  the  spoils 
of  the  Syrian  war.  He  next  proceeded  to 
strengthen  and  beautify  the  city,  which  he 
renovated  throughout,  and  surrounded  with 
several  lines  of  fortification,  himself  adding 
one  entirely  new  quarter.  Having  finished  the 
walls  and  adorned  the  gates  magnificently, 


he  constructed  a  new  palace.  In  the  grounds 
of  this  palace  he  formed  the  celebrated  "hang- 
ing garden."  But  he  did  not  confine  his  efforts 
to  tlie  ornamentation  an<l  improvement  of  his 
capital.  Throughout  the  empire,  at  Borsippa, 
Sippara,  Cutha,  Chilmad,  Duraba,  Tercdon, 
and  a  multitude  of  other  places,  he  built  or 
rebuilt  cities,  repaired  temples,  cor)structed 
quays,  reservoirs,  canals,  and  aqueducts,  on 
a  scale  of  grandeur  and  magnificence  surpass- 
ing everything  of  the  kind  recorded  in  history, 
unless  it  be  the  constructions  of  one  or  two 
of  the  greatest  Egyptian  monarchs.  The 
wealth,  greatness,  and  general  prosperity  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  are  strikingly  placed  before 
us  in  the  book  of  Daniel.  Towards  the  close 
of  his  reign  the  glory  of  Nebuchadnezzar  suf- 
fered a  temporary  eclipse.  As  a  punishment 
for  his  pride  and  vanity,  that  strange  form  of 
madness  was  sent  upon  him  which  the  Greeks 
called  Lycanthropy,  wherein  the  sufferer  im- 
agines himself  a  beast,  and  quitting  the  haunts 
of  men,  insists  on  leading  the  life  of  a  beast 
(Dan.  iv.  33).  After  an  interval  of  four  or 
perhaps  seven  years  (Dan.  iv.  16),  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's malady  left  him.  W e  are  told  that 
"his  reason  returned,  and  for  the  glory  of  his 
kingdom  his  honor  and  brightness  returned ;" 
and  he  "was  established  in  his  kingdom,  and 
excellent  majesty  was  added  to  him"  (Dan. 
iv.  36).  He  died  in  the  year  B.  C.  561,  at  an 
advanced  age  (eighty-three  or  eighty-four), 
having  reigned  forty-three  years.  A  son,  Evil- 
Merodach,  succeeded  him. 

Nehemi'ah.  Son  of  Hachaliah,  and  appar- 
ently of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  All  that  we  know 
certainly  concerning  him  is  contained  in  the 
book  which  bears  his  name.  We  first  find 
him  at  Shushan,  the  winter  residence  of  the 
kings  of  Persia,  in  high  office  as  the  cupbearer 
of  king  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  In  the  20th 
year  of  the  king's  reign,  i.  e.  B.  C.  445,  cer- 
tain Jews  arrived  from  Judaea,  and  gave 
Nehemiah  a  deplorable  account  of  the  state  of 
Jerusalem.  He  immediately  conceived  the 
idea  of  going  to  Jerusalem  to  endeavor  to  bet- 
ter their  state,  and  obtained  the  king's  con- 
sent to  his  mission.  Having  received  his  ap- 
pointment as  governor  of  Judaea,  he  started 
upon  his  journey,  being  under  promise  to  re- 
turn to  Persia  within  a  given  time.  Nehe- 
miah's  great  work  was  rebuilding,  for  the  first 
time  since  their  destruction  by  Nebuzaradan, 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  restoring  that  city 
to  its  former  state  and  dignity  as  a  fortified 
town.  It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the 
importance  to  the  future  political  and  ecclesias- 
tical prosperity  of  the  Jewish  nation  of  this 
great  achievement  of  their  patriotic  governor. 


265 


NEHEMIAH,  BOOK  OF 


NEW  MOON 


How  low  the  community  of  the  Palestine 
Jews  had  fallen  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that 
from  the  6th  of  Darius  to  the  7th  of  Artax- 
erxes  there  is  no  history  of  them  whatever. 
The  one  step  which  could  resuscitate  the  na- 
tion, preserve  the  Mosaic  institutions,  and  lay 
the  foundation  of  future  independence,  was 
the  restoration  of  the  city  walls.  To  this  great 
object  therefore  Nehemiah  directed  his  whole 
energies  without  an  hour's  unnecessary  delay. 
In  a  wonderfully  short  time  the  walls  seemed 
to  emerge  from  the  heaps  of  burnt  rubbish, 
and  to  encircle  the  city  as  in  the  days  of  old. 
During  his  government  Nehemiah  firmly  re- 
pressed the  exactions  of  the  nobles,  and  the 
usury  of  the  rich,  and  rescued  the  poor  Jews 
from  spoliation  and  slavery.  He  refused  to 
receive  his  lawful  allowance  as  governor  from 
the  people,  in  consideration  of  their  poverty, 
during  the  whole  twelve  years  that  he  was  in 
office,  but  kept  at  his  own  charge  a  table  for 
150  Jews,  at  which  any^  who  returned  from 
captivity  were  welcome.  He  made  most  care- 
ful provision  for  the  maintenance  of  the  min- 
istering priests  and  Levites,  and  for  the  due 
and  constant  celebration  of  Divine  worship. 
Beyond  the  32d  year  of  Artazerxes,  to  which 
Nehemiah's  own  narrative  leads  us,  we  have 
no  account  of  him  whatever. 

Nehemi'ah,  Book  of,  like  the  preceding  one 
of  Ezra,  is  clearly  and  certainly  not  all  by  the 
same  hand.  [Ezra,  Book  of.]  By  far  the 
principal  portion,  indeed,  is  the  work  of  Ne- 
hemiah ;  but  other  portions  are  either  extracts 
from  various  chronicles  and  registers,  or  sup- 
plementary narratives  and  reflections,  some 
apparently  by  Ezra,  others,  perhaps,  the  work 
of  the  same  person  who  inserted  the  latest 
genealogical  extracts  from  the  public  chron- 
icles.— The  main  history  contained  in  the  book 
of  Nehemiah  covers  about  12  years,  viz.,  from 
the  20th  to  the  32d  year  of  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
manus,  i.  e.  from  B.  C.  445  to  433.  The  whole 
narrative  gives  us  a  graphic  and  interesting 
account  of  the  state  of  Jerusalem  and  the  re- 
turned captives  in  the  writer's  times,  and,  in 
cidentally,  of  the  nature  'of  the  Persian  gov- 
ernment and  the  condition  of  its  remote  prov- 
inces. The  documents  appended  to  it  also 
gives  some  further  information  as  to  the  times 
of  Zerubbabel,  on  the  one  hand,  and  as  to  'the 
continuation  of  the  genealogical  registers  and 
the  succession  of  the  high-priesthood  to  the 
close  of  the  Persian  empire  on  the  other.  The 
view  given  of  the  rise  of  two  factions  among 
the  Jews — the  one  the  strict  religious  party, 
the  other  the  gentilizing  party — sets  before  us 
the  germ  of  much  that  we  meet  with  in  a 
more  developed  state  in  later  Jewish  history 


Again,  in  this  history  as  well  as  in  the  book 
of  Ezra,  we  see  the  bitter  enmity  between  the 
Jews  and  Samaritans  acquiring  strength  and 
definite  form  on  both  religious  and  political 
grounds.  The  book  also  throws  much  light 
upon  the  domestic  institutions  of  the  Jews. 
Some  of  its  details  give  us  incidentally  infor- 
mation of  great  historical  importance.  The 
account  of  the  building  and  dedication  of  the 
wall,  lii.,  xii.,  contains  the  most  valuable  ma- 
terials for  settling  the  topography  of  Jerusa- 
lem to  be  found  in  Scripture.  The  Book 
of  Nehemiah  has  always  had  an  undisputed 
place  in  the  Canon,  being  included  by  the  He- 
brews under  the  general  head  of  the  Book  of 
Ezra,  and  as  Jerome  tells  us  in  the  Prolog. 
Gal.  by  the  Greeks  and  Latins  under  the  name 
of  the  second  Book  of  Ezra.  There  is  no 
quotation  from  it  in  the  N.  T.,  and  it  has  been 
comparatively  neglected  by  both  the  Greek 
and  Latin  fathers. 

Neph'toah,  The  Water  of.  The  spring  or 
source  of  the  water  or  (inaccurately)  '  waters 
of  Nephtoah,  was  one  of  the  landmarks  in  the 


Ain  Lifta  (Nephtoah). 


boundary-line  which  separated  Judah  from 
Benjamin  (Josh.  xv.  9,  xviii.  15).  It  lay  N. 
W.  of  Jerusalem,  in  which  direction  it  seems 
to  have  been  satisfactorily  identified  in  Ain 
Lifta,  a  spring  situated  a  little  distance  above 
the  village  of  the  same  name. 

Nettle.  The  Hebrew  word  so  translated  in 
Job.  XXX.  7;  Prov.  xxiv.  31,  was  perhaps  some 
species  of  wild  mustard.  The  Hebrew  word 
translated  nettle  in  Is.  xxxiv.  13;  Hos.  ix.  6; 
Prov.  xxiv.  31,  may  be  understood  to  denote 
some  species  of  nettle  (Urtica). 

New  Moon.  The  first  day  of  the  lunar 
month  was  observed  as  a  holy  day.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  daily  sacrifice  there  were  offered 
two  young  bullocks,  a  ram,  and  seven  lambs 

266 


NEW  MOON 

of  the  first  year  as  a  burnt-ofifering,  with  the 
proper  nieat-ofiferings  and  drink-offerings, 
and  a  kid  as  a  sin-offering  (Num.  xxviii.  u- 
15).  As  on  the  Sabbath,  trade  and  handicraft 
work  were  stopped  (Am.  viii.  5),  and  the 
Temple  was  opened  for  public  worship  (Ez. 
xlvi.  3;  Is.  Ixvi.  23).  The  trumpets  were 
blown  at  the  offering  of  the  special  sacrifices 
for  the  day,  as  on  the  SQlemn  festivals  (Num. 
X.  10;  Ps.' Ixxxi.  3).  It  was  an  occasion  for' 
state-banquets  (i  Sam.  xx.  5-24).  In  later,  if 
not  in  earlier  times,  fasting  was  intermitted 
at  the  new  moons  (Jud.  viii.  6).  The  new 
moons  are  generally  mentioned  so  as  to  show 
that  they  were  regarded  as  a  peculiar  class  of 
holy  days  distinguished  from  the  solemn 
feasts  and  the  Sabbaths  (Ez.  xlv.  17;  i  Chr. 
xxiii.  31  ;  2  Chr.  ii.  4,  viii.  13,  xxxi.  3;  Ezr.  Hi. 
5;  Neh.  X.  33).  The  seventh  new  moon  of  the 
religious  year,  being  that  of  Tisri,  commenced 


the  civil  year,  and  had  a 


significance 


and 


The  Nettle  of  Palestine. 

rights  of  its  own.  It  was  a  day  of  holy  con- 
vocation. By  what  method  the  commence- 
ment of  the  month  was  ascertained  in  the 
time  of  Moses  is  uncertain.  The  Mishna  de- 
scribes the  manner  in  which  it  was  determined 
seven  times  in  the  year  by  observing  the  first 
appearance  of  the  moon,  which,  according  to 
Maimonides,  derived  its  origin,  by  tradition, 
from  Moses,  and  continued  in  use  as  long  as 
the  Sanhedrim  existed;  On  the  30th  day  of 
the  month  watchmen  were  placed  on  com- 
manding heights  round  Jerusalem  to  watch 
the  sky.  As  soon  as  each  of  them  detected 
the  moon,  he  hastened  to  a  house  in  the  city, 
which  was  kept  for  the  purpose,  and  was 
there  examined  by  the  president  of  tl>e  San- 
hedrim. When  the  evidence  of  the  appear- 
ance was  deemed  satisfactory,  the  president 
rose  up  and  formally  announced  it,  uttering 


NEW  TESTAMENT 

the  words,  "It  is  consecrated."  The  informa- 
tion was  immediately  sent  throughout  the 
land  from  the  Mount  of  Olives,  by  beacon- 
fires  on  the  tops  of  the  hills.  The  religious 
observance  of  the  day  of  the  new  moon  may 
plainly  be  regarded  as  the  consecration  of  a 
natural  division  of  time. 

New  Testament.  The  origin,  history,  and 
characteristics  of  the  constituent  books  and 
of  the  .great  versions  of  the  N.  T.,  the  mutual 
relations  of  the  Gospels,  and  the. formation  of 
the  Canon,  are  discussed  in  other  articles.  It 
is  proposed  now  to  consider  the  Text  of  the 
N.  T. 

The  early  history  of  the  Apostolic  writings 
externally,  as  far  as  it  can  be  traced,  is  the 
same  as  that  of  other  contemporary  books. 
St.  Paul,  like  Cicero  or  Pliny,  often  employed 
the  services  of  an  amanuensis,  to  whom  he 
dictated  his  letters,  affixing  the  salutation 
"with  his  own  hand"  (i  Cor.  xvi.  21 ;  2  Thess. 
iii.  17;  Col.  iv.  18)..  In  one  case  the  scribe 
has  added  a  clause  in  his  own  name  (Rom. 
xvi.  22).  If  we  pass  onwards  one  step,  it  does 
not  appear  that  any  special  care  was  taken  in 
the  first  age  to  preserve  the  books  of  the  N.  T. 
from  the  various  injuries  of  time,  or  to  insure 
perfect  accuracy  of  transcription.  They  were 
given  as  a  heritage  to  man,  and  it  was  some 
time  before  men  felt  the  full  value  of  the  gift. 
The  original  copies  seem  to  have  soon  per- 
ished. In  the  natural  course  of  things  the 
Apostolic  autographs  would  be  likely  to  perish 
soon.  The  material  which  was  commonly 
used  for  letters,  the  papyrus-paper,  to  which 
St.  John  incidentally  alludes  (2  John  12 ; 
comp.  3  John  13),  was  singularly  fragile,  and 
even  the  stouter  kinds,  likely  to  be  used  for 
the  historical  books,  were  not  fitted  to  bear 
constant  use.  The  papyrus  fragments  which 
have  come  down  to  the  present  time.have  been 
preserved  under  peculiar  circumstances,  as  at 
Herculaneum  or  in  the  Egyptian  tombs.  In 
the  time  of  the  Diocletian  persecution  (A.  D. 
303)  copies  of  the  Christian  Scriptures  were 
sufficiently  numerous  to  furnish  a  special 
object  for  persecutors,  and  a  characteristic 
name  to  renegades  who  saved  themselves  by 
surrendering  the  sacred  books.  Partly,, per- 
haps, owing  to  the  destruction  thus  caused, 
but  still  more  from  the  natural  effects  of  time, 
no  MS.  of  the  N.  T.  of  the  first  three  centuries 
remains.  As  soon  as  definite  controversies 
arose  among  Christians,  the  text  of  the  N.  T. 
assumed  its  true  importance.  Several  very 
important  conclusions  follow  from  this  earliest 
appearance  of  textual  criticism.  It  is  in  the 
first  place  evident  that  various  readings  exist- 
ed in  the  books  of  the  N.  T.  at  a  time  prior 


267 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


to  all  extant  authorities.  History  affords  no 
trace  of  the  pure  Apostolic  originals.  Again, 
from  the  preservation  of  the  first  variations 
noticed,  which  are  often  extremely  minute, 
in  one  or  more  of  the.  i:)rimary  docu- 
ments still  left,  we  may  be  certain  that  no 
important  changes  have  been  made  in  the 
sacred  text  which  we  cannot  now  detect. 
Passing  from  these  isolated  quotations  we  find 
the  first  great  witnesses  to  the  apostolic  text 
in  the  early  Syriac  and  Latin  versions,  and 
in  the  rich  quotations  of  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria (t  cir.  A.  D.  220)  and  Origen  (A.  D. 
184-254).  From  the  extant  works  of  Origen 
alone  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  whole 
N.  T.  might  be  transcribed.  Two  chief  causes 
contributed  especially  to  corrupt  the  text  of 
the  Gospels,  the  attempts  to  harmonize 
parallel  narratives,  and  the  influence  of  tradi- 
tion. But  Origen  stands  as  far  first  of  all  the 
ante-Nicene  fathers  in  critical  authority  as  he 
does  in  commanding  genius,  and  his  writings 
are  an  almost  inexhaustible  storehouse  for  the 
history  of  the  text.  In  thirteen  cases  Origen 
has  expressly  noticed  varieties  of  reading  in 
the  Gospels  (Matt.  viii.  28,  xvi.  20,  xviii.  i, 
xxi.  5,  xxi.  9,  15,  xxvii.  17;  Mark  iii.  18;  Luke 
i.  46,  ix.  48,  xiv.  19,  xxiii.  45;  John  i.  3,  4,  28). 
In  three  of  these  passages  the  variations  which 
he  notices  are  no  longer  found  in  our  Greek 
copies.  Matt.  xxi.  9  or  15 ;  Mark  iii.  18  (ii.  14)  ; 
Luke  i.  46;  in  seven  our  copies  are  still  divid- 
ed ;  in  two  (Matt.  viii.  28 ;  John  i.  28)  the  read- 
ing which  was  only  found  in  a  fevv  MSS.  is 
now  widely  spread :  in  the  remaining  place 
(Matt,  xxvii.  17),  a  few  copies  of  no  great  age 
retain  the  interpolation  which  was  found  in 
his  time  "in  very  ancient  copies."  The  honor 
of  carefully  determining  the  relations  of  crit- 
ical authorities  for  the  N.  T.  text  belongs  to 
Griesbach.  According  to  him  two  distinct  re- 
censions of  the  Gospels  existed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  century :  the  Alexandrine  and 
the  Western.  From  the  consideration  of  the 
earliest  history  of  the  N.  T.  text  we  now  pass 
to  the  area  of  MSS.  The  quotations  of  Diony- 
sius  Alex,  (t  A.  D.  264),  Petrus  Alex,  (f  c. 
A.  D.  312),  Methodius  (f  A.  D.  311),  and 
Eusebius  (f  A.  D.  340),  confirm  the  preva- 
lence of  the  ancient  type  of  text ;  but  the  pub- 
lic establishment  of  Christianity  in  the  Roman 
empire  necessarily  led  to  important  changes. 
The  nominal  or  real  adherence  of  the  higher 
ranks  to  the  Christian  faith  must  have  largely 
increased  the  demand  for  costly  MSS.  As  a 
natural  consequence  the  rude  Hellenistic 
forms  gave  way  before  the  current  Greek,  and 
at  the  same  time  it  is  reasonable  to  believe 
that  smoother  and  fuller  constructions  were 


substituted  for  the  rougher  turns,  of  the  apos- 
tolic language.  In  this  way  the  foundation 
of  the  Byzantine  text  was  laid.  Meanwhile 
the  multiplication  of  copies  in  Africa  and 
Syria  was  checked  by  Mohammedan  con- 
quests. The  division  of  the  Gospels  into 
"chapters"  must  have  come  into  general  use 
some  time  before  the  5th  century.  The  divi- 
sion of  the  Acts  and  Epistles  into  chapters 
came  into  use  at  a  later  time.  It  is  commonly 
referred  to  Euthalius,  who,  however,  says  that 
he  borrowed  the  divisions  of  the  Pauline  Epis- 
tles from  an  earlier  father;  and  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  division  of  the  Acts  and 
Catholic  Epistles  which  he  published  was 
originally  the  work  of  Paniphilus  the  Martyr. 
The  Apocalypse  was  divided  into  sections  by 
Andreas  of  Caesarca  about  A.  D.  500.  The 
titles  of  the  sacred  books  are  from  their  nature 
additions  to  the  original  text.  The  distinct 
names  of  the  Gospels  imply  a  tollection,  and 
the  titles  of  the  Epistles  are  notes  by  the 
possessors,  and  not  addresses  by  the  writers. 
Very  few  MSS.  contain  the  whole  N.  T., 
twenty-seven  in  all  out  of  the  vast  mass  of 
extant  documents.  Besides  the  TvISS.  of  the 
N.  T.,  or  of  parts  of  it,  there  are  also  Lection- 
aries,  which  contain  extracts  arranged  for  the 
Church-services.  The  extent  and  nature  of  the 
variations  which  exist  in  different  copies  of 
the  early  MSS.  cannot  be.  estimated  exactly, 
but  they  cannot  be  less  than  120,000  in  all, 
though  of  these  a  very  large  proportion  con- 
sists of  differences  of  spelling  and  isolated 
aberrations  of  scribes,  and  of  the  remainder 
comparatively  few  alterations  are  sufficiently 
well  supported  to  create  reasonable  doubt  as 
to  the  final  judgment.  Probably  there  are  not 
more  than  1600-2000  pWces  in  which  the  true 
reading  is  a  matter  of  "uncertainty.  Various 
readings  are  due  to  different  causes :  some 
arose  from  accidental,  others  from  intentional 
alterations  of  the  original  text.  Other  varia- 
tions are  due  to  errors  of  sight.  Others  may 
be  described  as  errors  of  impression  or  mem- 
ory. The  copyist,  after  reading  a  sentence 
from  the  text  before  him,  often  failed  to  repro- 
duce it  exactly.  Variations  of  order  are  the 
most  frequent,  and  very  commonly  the  most 
puzzling  questions  of  textual  criticism.  Ex- 
amples occur  in  every  page,  almost  in  every 
verse,  of  the  N.  T.  Of  intentional  changes 
some  affect  the  expression,  others  the  sub- 
stance of  the  passage.  The  number  of  read- 
ings which  seem  to  have  been  altered  for 
distinctly  dogmatic  reason  is  extremely  small. 
In  spite  of  the  great  revolutions  in  thought, 
feeling,  and  practice  through  which  the  Chris- 
tian Church  passed  in  fifteen  centuries,  the 


268 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


NEW  VFAR 


copyists  of  the  N.  T.  faithfully  preserved, 
according  to  their  ability,  the  sacred  trust 
committed  to  them.  There  is  not  any  trace 
of  intentional  revision  designed  to  give  sup- 
port to  current  opinions  (Alatt.  xvii.  21  ;  Mark 
ix.  29;  I  Cor.  vii.  5,  need  scarcely  be  noticed). 
The  great  mass  of  various  readings  are  simply 
variations  in  form.  There  are,  however,  one 
or  two  greater  variations  of  a  different  char- 
acter. The  most  important  of  these  are  John 
vii.  53-viii.  12 ;  Mark  xvi.  g-end ;  Rom.  xvi. 
25-27.  The  first  stands  quite  by  itself ;  and 
there  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  it  con- 
tains an  authentic  narrative,  but  not  by  the 
hand  of  St.  John.  The  two  others,  taken  in 
connection  with  the  last  chapter  of  St.  John's 
Gospel,  suggest  the  possibility  that  the  apos- 
tolic writings  may  have  undergone  in  some 
cases  authoritative  revision.  Manuscripts,  it 
must  be  remembered,  are  but  one  of  the  three 
sources  of  textual  criticism.  The  versions  and 
patristic  quotations  are  scarcely  less  impor- 
tant in  doubtful  cases. 

The  history  of  the  printed  text  of  the  N.  T. 
may  be  divided  into  three  periods.  The  first 
of  these  extends  from  the  labors  of  the  Com- 
plutensian  editors  to  those  of  Mill ;  the  second 
from  Mill  to  Scholz;  the  third  from  Lachmann 
to  the  present  time.  The  criticism  of  the  first 
period  was  necessarily  tentative  and  partial : 
the  materials  available  for  the  construction  of 
the  text  were  few',  and  imperfectly  known. 
The  second  period  marks  a  great  progress :  the 
evidence  of  MSS.,  of  versions,  of  Fathers,  was 
collected  with  the  greatest  diligence  and  suc- 
cess ;  authorities  were  compared  and  classified ; 
principles  of  observation  and  judgment  were 
laid  down.  But  the  influence  of  the  former 
period  still  lingered.  The  third  period  was 
introduced  by  the  declaration  of  a  new  and 
sounder  law.  It  was  laid  down  that  no  right 
of  possession  could  be  pleaded  against  evt- 
dence.  The  "received"  text,  as  such,  was 
allowed  no  weight  whatever.  Its  authority, 
on. this  view,  must  depend  solely  on  critical 
worth.  From  first  to  last,  in  minute  details 
of  order  and  orthography,  as  well  as  in  graver 
questions  of  substantial  alteration,  the  text 
must  be  formed  by  a  free  and  unfettered  judg- 
ment. The  glory  of  printing  the  first  Greek 
Testament  is  due  to  the  princely  Cardinal 
Ximene.s.  This  great  prelate  as  early  as  1502 
engaged  the  services  of  a  number  of  scholars 
to  superintend  an  edition  of  the  whole  Bible 
in  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek,  with  the 
addition  of  the  Chaklec  Targum  of  Onkelos, 
the  LXX.  version,  and  the  Vulgate.  The  vol- 
ume containing  the  N.  T.  was  printed  first, 
and  was  completed  on  Jan.  10,  1514.  The 


whole  work  was  not  finished  till  July  10,  15 17. 

The  eastern  conquests. of  Alexander  opened 
a  new  field  for  the  development  of  the  Greek 
language.  At  no  place  could  the  corruption 
have  been  greater  or  more  rapid  than  at  Alex- 
andria, where  a  motley  population,  engaged 
in  active  commerce,  adopted  Greek  as  their 
common  medium  of  communication.  And  it  is 
in  Alexandria  that  we  must  look  for  the  origin 
of  the  language  of  the  New  Testament.  Two 
distinct  elements  were  combined  in  this  mar- 
vellous dialect,  which  was  destined  to  pre- 
serve forever  the  fullest  tidings  of  the  Gospel. 
On  the  one  side  there  was  Hebrew  concep- 
tion, on  the  other  Greek  expression.  The 
thoughts  of  the  East  were  wedded  to  the 
words  of  the  West.  This  was  accomplished 
by  the  gradual  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  into  the  vernacular  Greek.  The 
Greek  of  the  LXX.,  like  the  English  of  the  A. 
V.  or  the  German  of  Luther,  naturally  deter- 
mined the  Greek  dialect  of  the  mass  of  the 
Jews.  It  is  more  correct  to  call  the  N.  T. 
dialect  Hellenistic  than  Alexandrine,  though 
the  form  by  which  it  is  characterized  may 
have  been  peculiarly  Alexandrine  at  first. 
The  position  of  Palestine  was  peculiar.  The 
Aramaic  (Syro-Chaldaic) ,  which  was  the  na- 
tional dialect  after  the  Return,  existed  side 
by  side  with  the  Greek.  It  was  in  this  lan- 
guage, we  may  believe,  that  our  Lord  was 
accustomed  to  teach  the  people ;  and  it  ap- 
pears that  He  used  the  same  in  the  more  pri- 
vate acts  of  His  life  (Mark  iii.  17,  v.  41,  vii. 
34 ;  Matt,  xxvii.  46 ;  John  i.  43 ;  cf .  John  xx. 
16).  But  the  habitual  use  of  the  LXX.  is  a 
sufficient  proof  of  the  familiarity  of  the  Pales- 
tinian Jews  with  the  Greek  dialect;  and -the 
judicial  proceedings  before  Pilate  must  have 
been  conducted  in  Greek.  The  literal  sense 
of  the  Apostolic  writings  must  be  gained  in 
the  same  way  as  the  literal  sense  of  any  other 
writings — by  the  fullest  use  of  every  appliance 
of  scholarship,  and  the  most  complete  confi- 
dence in  the  necessary  and  absolute  connec- 
tion of  words  and  thoughts.  No  variation  of 
phrase,  no  peculiarity  of  idiom,  no  change  of 
tense,  no  change  of  order,  can  be  neglected. 
The  truth  lies  in  the  whole  expression,  and  no 
one  can  presume  to  set  aside  any  part  as 
trivial  or  indifferent.  The  importance  of  in- 
vestigating most  patiently  and  most  faithfully 
the  literal  meaning  of  the  sacred  text  must 
he  felt  with  tenfold  force,  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  the  literal  sense  is  the  outward 
embodiment  of  a  spiritual  sense,  which  lies 
beneath  and  quickens  every  part  of  Holy 
Scripture.  [Bible.] 

New  Year.    [Trumpets,  Feast  of.] 


269 


NICODEMUS 


NINEVEH 


Nicode'mus,  a  Pharisee,  a  ruler  of  the  Jews, 
and  teacher  of  Israel  (John  iii.  i,  lo),  whose 
secret  visit  to  our  Lord  was  the  occasion  of 
the  discourse  recorded  onlj?  by  St.  John.  A 
constitutional  timidity  is  discernible  in  the 
character  of  the  inquiring  Pharisee.  Thus  the 
few  words  which  he  interjooscd  against  the 
rash  injustice  of  his  colleagues  are  cautiously 
rested  on  a  general  principle  (John  vii.  50). 
And  even  when  the  power  of  Christ's  love, 
manifested  on  the  cross,  had  made  the  most 
timid  disciple  bold,  Nicodemus  does  not  come 
forward  with  his  -splendid  gifts  of  affection 
until  the  example  had  been  set  by  one  of  his 
own  rank,  and  wealth,  and  station  in  society 
(xix.  39).  In  these  three  notices  of  Nico- 
demus a  noble  candor  and  a  simple  love  of 
truth  shine  out  in  the  midst  of  hesitation  and 
fear  of  man.  We  can  therefore  easily  believe 
the  tradition  that  after  the  resurrection  he 
became  a  professed  disciple  of  Christ,  and  re- 
ceived baptism  at  the  hands  of  Peter  and 
John. 

Night.  [Day.] 

Night-hawk.  The  Hebrew  word  so  trans- 
lated (Lev.  xi.  16;  Deut.  xiv.  15),  probably 
denotes  some  kind  of  owl. 

Nile,  the  great  river  of  Egypt.  The  word 
Nile  nowhere  occurs  in  the  A.  V.,  but  it  is 
spoken  of  under  the  name  of  Sibor  [Sihor], 
and  "the  river  of  Egypt"  (Gen.  xv.  18).  We 
cannot  as  yet  determine  the  length  of  the  Nile, 
although  recent  discoveries  have  narrowed 
the  question.  There  is  scarcely  a  doubt  that 
its  largest  confluent  is  fed  by  the  great  lakes 
on  and  south  of  the  equator.  It  has  been 
traced  upwards  for  about  2700  miles,  meas- 
ured by  its  course,  not  in  a  direct  line,  and 
its  extent  is  probably  upwards  of  1000  miles 
more,  making  it  longer  than  even  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  the  longest  of  rivers.  On  the 
inundation  of  the  Nile,- see  Egypt.  The  great 
difference  between  the  Nile  of  Egypt  in  the 
present  day  and  in  ancient  times  is  caused  by 
the  failure  of  some  of  its  branches,  and  the 
ceasing  of  some  of  its  chief  vegetable  prod- 
ucts ;  and  the  chief  change  in  the  aspect  of 
the  cultivable  land,  as  dependent  on  the  Nile, 
is  the  result  of  the  ruin  of  the  fish-pools  and 
their  conduits,  and  the  consequent  decline  of 
the  fisheries.  The  river  was  famous  for  its 
seven  branches,  and  under  the  Roman  domin- 
ion eleven  were  counted,  of  which,  however, 
there  were  but  seven  principal  ones.  The 
monuments  and  the  narratives  of  ancient 
writers  show  us  in  the  Nile  of  Eg>'pt  in  old 
times  a  stream  bordered  by  flags  and  reeds, 
the  covert  of  abundant  wild-fowl,  and  bearing 
on   its  waters  the  fragrant  flowers  of  the 


various-colored  lotus.  Now  in  Egypt  scarcely 
any  reeds  or  water-plants — the  famous  papy- 
rus being  nearly  if  not  quite  extinct,'  and  the 
lotus  almost  unknown — are  to  be  ceen,  ex- 
cepting in  the  marshes  near  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Of  old  the  great  river  must  have 
shown  a  more  fair  and  busy  scene  than  now. 
Boats  of  many  kinds  were  ever  passing  along 
it,  by  the  painted  walls  of  temples,  and  the 
gardens  that  extended  around  the  light  sum- 
mer pavilions,  from  the  pleasure-galley,  with 
one  great  square  sail,  white  or  with  variegated 
pattern,  and  many  oars,  to  the  little  papyrus 
skiff,  dancing  on  the  water  and  carrying  the 
seekers  of  pleasure  where  they  could  shoot 
with  arrows,  or  knock  down  with  the  throw- 
stick,  the  wild-fowl  that  abounded  among  the 
reeds,  or  engage  in  the  dangerous  chase  of  the 
hippopotamus  or  the  crocodile.  The  Nile  is 
constantly  before  us  in  the  history  of  Israel 
in  Egypt.  Into  it  the  male  children  were  cast ; 
in  it,  or  rather  in  some  canal  or  pool,  was  the 
ark  of  Moses  put,  and  found  by  Pharaoh's 
daughter  when  she  went  down  to  bathe. 
When  the  plagues  were  sent,  the  sacred  river 
— a  main  support  of  the  people — and  its 
waters  everywhere  were  turned  into  blood. 

Nim'rod,  a  son  of  Cush  and  grandson  of 
Ham.  The  events  of  his  life  are  recorded  in 
Gen.  X.  8,  ff.,  from  which  we  learn  (i)  that 
he  was  a  Cushite ;  (2)  that  he  established  an 
empire  in  Shinar  (the  classical  Babylonia), 
the  chief  towns  being  Babel,  Erech,  Accad, 
and  Calneh ;  and  (3)  that  he  extended  this 
empire  northwards  along  the  course  of  the 
Tigris  over  Assyria,  where  he  founded  a  sec- 
ond group  of  capitals,  Nineveh,  Rehoboth, 
Calah,  and  Resen. 

Nin'eveh,  the  capital  of  the  ancient  king- 
dom and  empire  of  Assyria,  The  name  ap- 
pears to  be  compounded  from  that  of  an  As- 
syrian deity,  "Nin,"  corresponding,  it  is  con- 
jectured, with  the  Greek  Hercules,  and  occur- 
ring in  the  names  of  several  Assyrian  kings, 
as  in  "Ninus,"  the  mythic  founder,  according 
to  Greek  tradition,  of  the  city.  Nineveh  - is 
first  mentioned  in  the  O.  T.  in  connection 
with  the  primitive  dispersement  and  migra- 
tions of  the  human  race.  Asshur,  or,  accord- 
ing to  the  marginal  reading,  which  is  gen- 
erally preferred,  Nimrod,  is  there  described 
(Gen.  X.  11)  as  extending  his  kingdom  from 
the  land  of  Shinar,  or  Babylonia,  in  the  south, 
to  Assyria  in  the  north,  and  founding  four 
cities,  of  which  the  most  famous  was  Nineveh. 
Hence  Assyria  was  subsequently  known  to  the 
Jews  as  "the  land  of  Nimrod"  (cf.  Mic.  v.  6), 
and  was  believed  to  have  been  first  peopled 
by  a  colony  from  Babylon.    The  kingdom  of 


270 


NINEVEH 


NINEVEH 


Assyria  and  of  the  Assyrians  is  referred  to  in 
the  O.  T.  as  connected  with  the  Jews  at  a 
very  early  period;  as  in  Num.  xxiv.  22,  24, 
and  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  8;  but  after  the  notice  of  the 
foundation  of  Nineveh  in  Genesis  no  further 
mention  is  made  of  the  city  until  the  time  of 
the  book  of  Jonah,  or  the  8th  century  B.  C. 
In  this  book  neither  Assyria  nor  the  Assyrians 
are  mentioned,  the  king  to  whom  the  prophet 


M  V-  a- 

Cherubim  on  Doorway  at  Nlnevah. 

was  sent  being  termed  the  "king  of  Nineveh," 
and  his  subjects  "the  people  of  Nineveh." 
Assyria  is  first  called  a  kingdom  in  the  time 
of  Menahem,  about  B.  C.  770.  Nahum  ( ?  B. 
C.  645)  directs  his  prophecies  against  Nine- 
veh ;  only  once  against  the  king  of  Assyria, 
ch.  iii.  18.  In  2  K,  (xix.  36)  and  Is.  xxxvii. 
37,  the  city  is  first  distinctly  mentioned  as  the 
residence  of  the  monarch.  Sennacherib  was 
slain  there  when  worshipping  in  the  temple 
of  Nisroch  his  god.  Zephaniah,  about  B.  C. 
630,  couples  the  capital  and  the  kingdom  to- 
gether (ii.  13)  ;  and  this  is  the  last  mention 
of  Nineveh  as  an  existing  city.  The  destruc- 
tion of  Nineveh  occurred  B.  C.  606.  The  city 
was  then  laid  waste,  its  monuments  destroyed, 
and  its  inhabitants  scattered  or  carried  away 
into  captivity.  It  never  rose  again  from  its 
ruins.  This  total  disappearance  of  Nineveh 
is  fully  confirmed  by  the  records  of  profane 
history.  The  political  history  of  Nineveh  is 
that  of  Assyria,  of  which  a  sketch  has  already 
been  given.  [Assyria.] — Previous  to  recent 
excavations  and  researches,  the  ruins  which 
occupied  the  presumed  site  of  Nineveh  seemed 
to  consist  of  mere  shapeless  heaps  or  mounds 
of  earth  and  rubbish.  Unlike  the  vast  masses 
of  brick  masonry  which  mark  the  site  of  Baby- 
lon, they  showed  externally  no  signs  of  arti- 
ficial construction,  except  perhaps  here  and 
there  the  traces  of  a  rude  wall  of  sun-dried 


bricks.  Some  of  these  mounds  were  of  enor- 
mous dimensions — looking  in  the  distance 
rather  like  natural  elevations  than  the  work  of 
men's  hands.  They  dififer  greatly  in  form, 
size,  and  height.  Some  are  mere  conical 
heaps,  varying  from  50  to  150  feet  high ;  others 
have  a  broad  flat  summit,  and  very  precipitous 
clii¥-like  sides,  furrowed  by  deep  ravines  worn 
by  the  winter  rains.  The  principal  ruins  are — 
I,  the  group  immediately  opposite  Mosul,  in- 
cluding the  great  mounds  of  Kouyunjik  and 
Nebbi  Yunus ;  2,  that  near  the  junction  of  the 
Tigris  and  Zab,  comprising  the  mounds  of 
Nimroud  and  Athur ;  3,  Khorsabad,  about  10 
miles  to  the  east  of  the  former  river ;  4,  She- 
reef  Khan,  about  53/^  miles  to  the  north  of 
Kouyunjik ;  and  5,  Selamiyah,  3  miles  to  the 
north  of  Nimroud.  In  1843  M.  Botta,  the 
French  consul  at  Mosul,  fully  explored  the 
ruins.  They  consisted  of  the  lower  part  of  a 
number  of  halls,  rooms,  and  passages,  for  the 
most  part  wainscoted  with  slabs  of  coarse 
gray  alabaster,  sculptured  with  figures  in  re- 
lief, the  principal  entrances  being  formed  by 
colossal  human-headed  winged  bulls.  No  re- 
mains of  exterior  architecture  of  any  great 
importance  (were,  discovered.  The  calcined 
limestone  and  the  great  accumulation  of 
charred  wood  and  charcoal  showed  that  the 
building  had  been  destroyed  by  fire.  Its  upper 
part  had  entirely  disappeared,  and  its  general 
plan  could  only  be  restored  by  the  remains  of 
the  lower  story.    The  collection  of  Assyrian 


Nisi'och. 

sculptures  in  the  Louvre  came  from  these 
ruins.  M.  Botta's  discoveries  at  Khorsabad 
were  followed  by  those  of  Mr.  Layard  at  Nim- 
roud and  Kouyunjik,  made  between  the  years 
1845  and  1850.  The  mound  of  Nimroud  was 
found  to  contain  the  ruins  of  several  distinct 
edifices,  erected  at  difTerent  periods.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  the  palaces  had  several  stories  iDuilt 
of  wood  and  sun-dried  bricks,  which,  when  the 


271 


NINEVEH 


NOAH 


building  was  deserted  and  allowed  to  fall  to 
decay,  gradually  buried  the  lower  chambers 
with  their  ruins,  and  protected  the  sculptured 
slabs  from  the  effects  of  the  weather.  The 
depth  of  soil  and  rubbish  above  the  alabaster 
slabs  varied  from  a  few  inches  to  about  20 
feet.  It  is  to  this  accumulation  of  rubbish 
above  them  that  the  bass-reliefs  owe  their 
extraordinary  preservation.  The  portions  of 
the  edifices  still  remaining  consist  of  halls, 
chambers,  and  galleries,  opening  for  the  most 
part  into  large  uncovered  courts.  The  wall, 
above  the  wainscoting  of  alabaster,  was 
plastered,  and  painted  with  figures  and  orna- 
ments. The  sculptures,  with  the  exception  of 
the  human-headed  lions  and  bulls,  were  for 
the  most  part  in  low  relief.  The  colossal  fig- 
ures usually  represent  the  king,  his  attendants, 
and  the  gods;  the  smaller  sculptures,  which 
either  cover  the  whole  face  of  the  slab,  or  are 
divided  into  two  compartments  by  bapds  of 
inscriptions,  represent  battles,  sieges,  the 
chase,  single  combats  with  wild  beasts,  re- 
ligious ceremonies,  &c.,  &c.  Much  diversity 
of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  identification  of 
the  ruins  which  may  be  properly  included 
within  the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh.  Accord- 
ing to  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  and  those  who  concur 
in  his  interpretation  of  the  cuneiform  char- 
acters, each  group  of  mounds  already  men- 
tioned represents  a  separate  and  distinct  city. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  conjectured, 
with  much  probability,  that  these  groups  of 
mounds  are  not  ruins  of  separate  cities,  but 
of  fortified  royal  residences,  each  combining 
palaces,  temples,  propylaea,  gardens,  and 
parks,  and  having  its  peculiar  name ;  and  that 
they  all  formed  part  of  one  great  city  built 
and  added  to  at  different  periods,  and  con- 
sisting of  distinct  quarters  scattered  over  a 
very  large  area,  and  frequently  very  distant 
one  from  the  other.  Nineveh  might  thus  be 
compared  with  Damascus,  Ispahan,  or  per- 
haps more  appropriately  with  Delhi.  It  is 
thus  alone  that  the  ancient  descriptions  of 
Nineveh,  if  any  value  whatever  is  to  be  at- 
tached to  them,  can  be  reconciled  with  exist- 
ing remains.  As  at  Babylon,  no  great  con- 
secutive wall  of  enclosure  comprising  all  the 
ruins  has  been  discovered  at  Nineveh,  and  no 
such  wall  ever  existed.  The  ruins  of  Nineveh 
have  furnished  a  vast  collection  of  inscriptions 
partly  carved  on  marble  or  stone  slabs,  and 
partly  impressed  upon  bricks,  and  upon  clay 
cylinders,  or  six-sided  and  eight-sided  prisms, 
barrels,  and  tablets,  which,  used  for  the  pur- 
pose when  still  moist,  were  afterwards  baked 
in  a  furnace  or  kiln  (Comp.  Ez.  iv.  4).  The 
character  employed  was  the  arrow-headed  or 


cuneiform — so  called  from  each  letter  being 
formed  by  marks  or  elements  resembling  an 
arrow-head  or  a  wedge.  These  inscribed  bricks 
are  of  the  greatest  value  in  restoring  the  royal 
dynasties.  The  most  important  inscription 
hitherto  discovered  in  connection  with  Biblical 
history,  is  that  upon  a  pair  of  colossal  human- 
headed  bulls  from  Kouyunjik,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  containing  the  records  of 
Sennacherib,  and  describing,  amongst  other 
events,  his  wars  with  Hezekiah.  It  is  ac- 
companied by  a  series  of  bass-reliefs  believed 
to  represent  the  siege  and  capture  of  Lachish. 
A  list  of  nineteen  or  twenty  kings  can  already 
be  compiled,  and  the  annals  of  the  greater 
number  of  them  will  probably  be  restored  to 
the  lost  history  of  one  of  the  most  powerful 
empires  of  the  ancient  world,  and  of  one  which 
appears  to  have  exercised  perhaps  greater  ih- 
fluence  than  any  other  upon  the  subsequent 
condition  and  development  of  civilized  man. 
Ni'san.  [Months.] 

Nis'roch,  an  idol  of  Nineveh,  in  whose  tem- 
ple Sennacherib  was  worshipping  when  as- 
sassinated by  his  sons,  Adrammelech  and 
Sharezer  (2  K.  xix.  37;  Is.  xxxvii.  38).  The 
word  signifies  "the  great  eagle."  It  is  identi- 
fied with  the  eagle-headed  human  figure, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  on  the 
earliest  Assyrian  monuments,  and  is  always 
represented  as  contending  with  and  conquer- 
ing the  lion  or  the  bull. 

Nitre  occurs  in  Prov.  xxv.  20,  "and  as  vine- 
gar upon  nitre;"  and  in  Jer.  ii.  22.  The  sub- 
stance denoted  is  not  that  which  we  now  un- 
derstand by  the  term  nitre,  i.  e.  nitrate  of 
potassa — "saltpetre" — but  the  nitrum  of  the 
Latins,  and  the  natron  or  native  carbonate  of 
soda  of  modern  chemistry.  The  latter  part  of 
the  passage  in  Proverbs  is  well  explained  by- 
Shaw,  who  says  (Trav.  ii.  387),  "the  unsuita- 
bleness  of  the  singing  of  songs  to  a  heavy 
heart  is  very  finely  compared  to  the  con- 
trariety there  is  between  vinegar  and  natron. 

No'ah  (rest),  the  tenth  in  descent  from 
Adam,  in  the  line  of  Seth,  was  the  son  of 
Lamech,  and  grandson  of  Methuselah  (B.  C. 
2948-1998).  Of  Noah  himself  we  hear  nothing 
till  he  is  500  years  old,  when  it  is  said  he  begat 
three  sons,  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  grievous  and  hopeless  wicked- 
ness of  the  world  at  this  time,  God  resolved  to 
destroy  it.  Of  Noah's  life  during  this  age  of 
almost  universal  apostasy  we  are  told  but  lit- 
tle. It  is  merely  said,  that  he  was  a  righteous- 
man  and  perfect  in  his  generations  (i.  e. 
amongst  his  contemporaries),  and  that  he,  like 
Enoch,  walked  with  God.  St.  Peter  calls  him 
"a  preacher  of  righteousness"  (2  Pet.  ii.  5). 


272 


NOAH 


NOAH 


Besides  this  we  are  merely  told  that  he  had 
three  sons,  each  of  whom  had  married  a  wife ; 
that  he  built  the  Ark  in  accordance  with 
Divine  direction;  and  that  he  was  600  years 
old  when  the  flood  came  (Gen.  vi.,  vii.)-  The 
Ark. — The  precise  meaning  of  the  Hebrew 
word  (tebah)  is  uncertain.  The  word  occurs 
only  in  Genesis  and  in  Exodus  (ii.  3).  In  all 
probability  it  is  to  the  old  Egyptian  that  we 
are  to  look  for  its  original  form.  This  "chest," 
or  "boat,"  was  to  be  made  of  goplier  (i.  e. 
cypress)  wood,  a  kind  of  timber  which  both 
for  its  lightness  and  its  durability  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Phoenicians  for  building  their 
vessels.  The  planks  of  the  ark,  after  being 
put  together,  were  to  be  protected  by  a  coat- 
ing of  pitch,  or  rather  bitumen,  which  was  to 
be  laid  on  both  inside  and  outside,  as  the  most 
effectual  means  of  making  it  water-tight,  and 
perhaps  also  as  a  protection  against  the  at- 
tacks of  marine  animals.  The  ark  was  to  con- 
sist of  a  number  of  "nests"  or  small  compart- 
ments, w-ith  a  view,  no  doubt,   to  the  con- 


Apamean  coin  showing  the  word  "noe"  on  the  Ark. 


venient  distribution  of  the  different  animals 
and  their  food.  These  were  to  be  arranged  in 
three  tjers,  one  above  another;  "with  lower, 
second,  and  third  (stories)  shalt  thou  make 
it."  Means  were  also  to  be  provided  for  let- 
ting light  into  the  ark.  Of  the  shape  of  the 
ark  nothing  is  said;  but  its  dimensions  are 
given.  It  was  to  be  300  cubits  in  length,  50  in 
breadth,  and  30  in  height.  Taking  21  inches 
for  the  cubit,  the  ark  would  be  525  feet  in 
length,  87  feet  6  inches  in  breadth,  and  52  feet 
6  inches  in  height.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  this  huge  structure  was  only  intended  to 
float  on  the  water,  and  was  not  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  word  a  ship.  It  had  neither  mast, 
sail,  nor  rudder ;  it  was  in  fact  nothing  but  an 
enormous  floating  house,  or  oblong  box 
rather.  Two  objects  only  were  aimed  at  in  its 
construction :  the  one  was  that  it  should  have 
ample  stowage,  and  the  other  that  it  should 
be  able  to  keep  steady  upon  the  water.  After 
having  given  Noah  the  necessary  instructions 
for  the  building  of  the  ark,  God  tells  him  the 
purpose  for  which  it  was  designed.   The  earth 


is  to  be  destroyed  by  water.  The  inmates  of 
the  ark  arc  then  specified.  They  are  to  be 
Noah  and  his  wife,  and  his  three  sons  with 
their  wives.  Noah  is  also  to  take  a  pair  of 
each  kind  of  animal  into  the  ark  with  him 
that  he  may  preserve  them  alive:  birds,  do- 
mestic animals,  and  creeping  things  arc  par- 
ticularly mentioned.  The  Flood. — The  ark 
was  finished,  and  all  its  living  freight  was 
gathered  into  it  as  in  a  place  of  safety. 
Jehovah  shut  him  in,  says  the  chronicler, 
speaking  of  Noah.  And  then  there  ensued  a 
solemn  pause  of  seven  days  before  the  threat- 
ened destruction  was  let  loose.  At  last  the 
Flood  came ;  the  waters  were  upon  the  earth. 
The  waters  of  the  Flood  increased  for  a  period 
of  190  days  (40-1-150,  comparing  vii.  12  and 
24).  And  then  "God  remembered  Noah,"  and 
made  a  wind  to  pass  over  the  earth,  so  that 
the  waters  were  assuaged.  The  ark  rested  on 
the  seventeenth  day  of  the  seventh  month  on 
the  mountains  of  Ararat.  After  this  the  waters 
gradually  decreased  till  the  first  day  of  the 
tenth  month,  when  the  tops  of  the  mountains 
were  seen.  It  was  then  that  Noah  sent  forth, 
first,  the  raven,  which  flew  hither  and  thither, 
resting  probably  on  the  mountain-tops,  but 
not  returning  to  the  ark ;  and  next,  after  an 
interval  of  seven  days  (cf.  ver.  10),  the  dove, 
to  see  if  the  waters  were  abated  from  the 
ground  (i.  e.  the  lower  plain  country).  After 
waiting  for  another  seven  days  he  again  sent 
forth  the  dove,  which  returned  this  time  with 
a  fresh  olive-leaf  in  her  mouth,  a  sign  that  the 
waters  were  still  lower.  And  once  more,  after 
another  interval  of  seven  days,  he  sent  forth 
the  dove,  and  she  "returned  not  again  unto 
him  any  more,"  having  found  a  home  for  her- 
self upon  the  earth.  The  truth  of  the  Biblical 
narrative  is  confirmed  by  the  numerous  tra- 
ditions of  other  nations,  which  have  preserved 
the  memory  of  a  great  and  destructive  flood, 
from  which  but  a  srnall  part  of  mankind 
escaped.  They  seem  to  point  back  to  a  com- 
mon centre,  whence  they  were  carried  by  thq 
different  families  of  man,  as  they  wandered 
cast  and  .west.  The  traditions  which  come 
nearest  to  the  Biblical  account  are  those  of  the 
nations  of  Western  Asia.  Foremost  among 
these  is  the  Chaldean.  It  is  preserved  in  a 
fragment  of  Berosus,  and  tells  how  Xisuthrus 
built  a 'vessel  in  which  he  was  saved  from  a 
great  deluge,  with  different  animals,  birds,  and 
quadrupeds.  Other  notices  of  a  Flood  may  be 
found  (a)  in  the  Phoenician  mythology,  where 
the  victory  of  Pontus  (the  sea)  over  Demarous 
(the  earth)  is  mentioned:  (b)  in  the  Sibylline 
Oracles,  partly  borrowed  no  doubt  from  the 
Biblical  narrative,  and  partly  perhaps  from 


NOD 


NUMBER 


some  Babylonian  story.  To  these  must  be 
added  (c)  the  Phyrgian  story  of  king  Annakos 
or  Nannakos  (Enoch)  in  Iconium,  who 
reached  an  age  of  more  than  300  years,  fore- 
told the  Flood,  and  wept  and  prayed  for  his 
people,  seeing  the  destruction  that  was  com- 
ing upon  them.  Noah's  first  act  after  he  left 
the  ark  was  to  build  an  altar,  and  to  offer  sac- 
rifices. This  is  the  first  altar  of  which  we  read 
in  Scripture,  and  the  first  burnt  sacrifice.  Then 
follows  the  blessing  of  God  upon  Noah  and 
his  sons.  All  living  creatures  are  now  given 
to  man  for  food ;  but  express  provision  is  made 
that  the  blood  (in  which  is  the  life)  should 
not  be  eaten.  Next,  God  makes  provision  for 
the  security  of  human  life.  The  blood  of  man, 
in  which  is  his  life,  is  yet  more  precious  than 
the  blood  of  beasts.  Hence  is  laid  the  first 
foundation  of  the  civil  power.  Thus  with  the 
beginning  of  a  new  world  God  gives,  on  the 
one  hand,  a  promise  which  secures  the  sta- 
bility of  the  natural  order  of  the  universe,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  consecrates  human  life  with 
a  special  sanctity  as  resting  upon  these  two 
pillars — the  brotherhood  of  men,  and  man's 
likeness  to  God.  Of  the  seven  precepts  of 
Noah,  as  they  are  called,  the  observance  of 
which  was  required  of  all  Jewish  proselytes, 
three  only  are  here  expressly  mentioned.  It 
is  in  the  terms  of  the  blessing  and  the  cove- 
nant made  with  Noah  after  the  Flood  that  we 
find  the  strongest  evidence  that  it  extended 
to  all  the  then  known  world.  Noah  is  clearly 
the  head  of  a  new  human  family,  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  whole  race.  It  is  as  such  that 
God  makes  his  covenant  with  him ;  and  hence 
selects  a  natural  phenomenon  as  the  sign  of 
that  covenant.  The  bow  in  the  cloud,  seen  by 
every  nation  under  heaven,  is  an  unfailing 
witness  to  the  truth  of  God. 
Nod.  [Cain.] 


Nose-jewels  worn  in  the  East. 

Nose-jewel  (Gen.  xxix.  22;  Ex.  xxxv.  22, 
"ear-ring;"  Is.  iii.  21;  Ez.  xvi.  12,  "jewel  on 
the  forehead"),  a  ring  of  metal,  sometimes  of 
gold  or  silver,  passed  usually  through  the  right 
nostril,  and  worn  by  way  of  ornament  by 
women  in  the  East.   Upon  it  are  strong  beads. 


coral,  or  jewels.  In  Egypt  it  is  now  almost 
confined  to  the  lower  classes. 

Number.  Like  most  Oriental  nations,  it  is 
probable  that  the  Hebrews  in  their  written 
calculations  made  use  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet.  That  they  did  so  in  post-Babylonian 
times  we  have  conclusive  evidence  in  the  Mac- 
cabaean  coins ;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that 
this  was  the  case  also  in  earlier  times.  But 
though,  on  the  one  hand,  it  is  certain  that  in 
all  existing  MSS.  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 

0.  T.  the  numerical  expressions  are  written 
at  length,  yet,  on  the  other,  the  variations  in 
the  several  versions  between  themselves  and 
from  the  Hebrew  text,  added  to  the  evident 
inconsistencies  in  numerical  statement  be- 
tween certain  passages  of  that  text  itself, 
seem  to  prove  that  some  shorter  mode  of  writ- 
ing was  originally  in  vogue,  liable  to  be  mis- 
understood, and  in  fact  misunderstood  by 
copyists  and  translators.  These  variations  ap- 
pear to  have  proceeded  from  the  alphabetic 
method  of  writing  numbers.  There  can  be  lit- 
tle doubt,  however,  that  some  at  least  of  the 
numbers  mentioned  in  Scripture  are  intended 
to  be  representative  rather  than  determinative. 
Certain  numbers,  as  7,  10,  40,  100,  were  re- 
garded as  giving  the  idea  of  completeness.  We 
give  some  instances  of  numbers  used,  (a)  rep- 
resentatively, and  thus  probably  by  design  in- 
definitely, or,  (b)  definitely,  but,  as  we  may 
say,  preferentially,  i.  e.  because  some  mean- 
ing (which  we  do  not  in  all  cases  understand) 
was  attached  to  them.  i.  Seven,  as  denoting 
either  plurality  or  completeness,  is  so  frequent 
as  to  make  a  selection  only  of  instances  neces- 
sary, e.  g.  seven-fold,  Gen.  iv.  24;  seven  times, 

1.  e.  completely.  Lev.  xxvi.  24;  Ps.  xii.  6;  seven 
(i.  e.  many)  ways,  Deut.  xxviii.  25.  2.  Ten  as 
a  preferential  number  is  exemplified  in  the 
Ten  Commandments  and  the  law  of  Tithe.  3. 
Seventy,  as  compounded  of  7X10,  appears  fre- 
quently, e.  g.  seventy  fold  (Gen.  iv.  24;  Matt, 
xviii.  22).  Its  definite  use  appears  in  the 
of?ering&  of  70  shekels  (Num.  vii.  13,  19,  and 
foil.)  ;  the  70  elders  (xi.  16)  ;  70  years  of  cap- 
tivity (Jer.  XXV.  11).  4.  Five  appears  in  the 
table  of  punishments  of  legal  requirements 
(Ex.  xxii.  i;  Lev.  v.  16,  xxii.  14,  xxvii.  15; 
Num.  V.  7,  xviii.  16),  and  in  the  five  empires 
of  Daniel  (Dan.  ii.).  5.  Four  is  used  in  ref- 
erence to  the  4  winds  (Dan.  vii.  2)  ;  and  the 
so-called  4  corners  of  the  earth ;  the  4 
creatures,  each  with  4  wings  and  4  faces,  of 
Ezekiel  (i.  5,  and  foil.)  ;  4  rivers  of  Paradise 
(Gen.  ii.  10)  ;  4  beasts  (Dan.  vii.,  and  Rev.  iv, 
6)  ;  the  4  equal-sided  Temple-chamber  (Ez.  xl. 
47).  6.  Three  was  regarded,  both  by  the  Jews 
and  other  nations,  as  a  specially  complete  and 


274 


NUMBERING 


OAK 


mystic  number.  7.  Twelve  (3X4)  appears  in 
12' tribes,  12  stones  in  the  high-priest's  breast- 
plate, 12  Apostles,  12  foundation-stones,  and 
12  gates  (Rev.  xxi.  19-21).  8.  Lastly,  the 
mystic  number  666  (Rev.  xiii.  18). 
Numbering.  [Census.] 

Numbers,  the  Fourth  Book  of  the  Law  or 
Pentateuch.  It  takes  its  name  in  the  LXX. 
and  Vulg.  (whence  our  "Nu^nbers")  from  the 


Pistachio  Nuts. 


double  numbering  or  census  of  the  people ;  the 
first  of  which  is  given  in  chaps,  i.-iv.,  and  the 
second  in  chap.  xxvi.  The  Book  may  be  said 
to  contain  generally  the  history  of  the  Israel- 
ites from  the  time  of  their  leaving  Sinai,  in 
the  second  year  after  the  Exodus,  till  their  ar- 
rival at  the  borders  of  the  Promised  Land  in 
the  fortieth  year  of  their  journeyings.  This, 
like  the  other  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  is  sup- 
posed by  many  critics  to  consist  of  a  compila- 
tion from  two  or  thrfie,  or  more,  earlier  docu- 
ments. But  the  grounds  on  which  this  dis- 
tinction of  documents  rests  are  in  every  re- 
spect most  unsatisfactory.  The  Book  of  Num- 
bers is  rich  in  fragments  of  ancient  poetry, 
some  of  them  of  great  beauty,  and  all  throw- 
ing an  interesting  light  on  the  character  of 
the  times  in  which  they  were  composed.  Such, 
for  instance,  is  the  blessing  of  the  high-priest 
(vi.  24-26).  Such  too  arc  the  chants  which 
were  the  signal  for  the  Ark  to  move  when  the 
people  journeyed,  and  for  it  to  rest  when  they 
were  about  to  encamp.  In  chap.  xxi.  we  have 
a  passage  cited  from  a  book  called  the"Book 
of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah."  This  was  probably 
a  collection  of  ballads  and  songs  composed  on 
different  occasions  by  the  watch-fires  of  the 
camp,  and  for  the  most  part,  though  not  per- 


haps exclusively,  in  commemoration  of  the  vic- 
tories of  the  Israelites  over  their  enemies. 

Nurse.  It  is  clear,  both  from  Scripture  and 
from  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  that  in  ancient 
times  the  position  of  the  nurse,  wherever  one 
was  maintained,  was  one  of  much  honor  and 
importance.  (See  Gen.  xxiv.  59,  xxxv.  8;  2 
Sam.  iv.  4;  2  K.  xi.  2;  3  Mace.  i.  20).  The 
same  term  is  applied  to  a  foster-father  or 
mother,  e.  g.  Num.  xi.  12;  Ruth  iv.  16;  Is. 
xlix.  23. 

Nuts  are  mentioned  among  the  good  things 
of  the  land  which  the  sons  of  Israel  were  to 
take  as  a  present  to  Joseph  in  Egypt  (Gen. 
xliii.  11).  There  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt  that 
the  Hebrew  word,  here  translated  "nuts,"  de- 
notes the  fruit  of  the  Pistachio  tree,  for  which 
Syria  and  Palestine  have  been  long  famous. 
In  Cant.  vi.  ii,  a  different  Hebrew  word  is 
translated  "nuts."  In  all  probability  it  here 
refers  to  the  Walnut-tree.  According  to 
Josephus  the  walnut-tree  was  formerly  com- 
mon, and  grew  most  luxuriantly  around  the 
lake  of  Gennesareth. 

O. 

Oak.  The  following  Hebrew  words,  which 
appear  to  be  merely  various  forms  of  the  same 
root,  occur  in  the  O.  T.  as  the  names  of  some 
species  of  oak,  viz.,  el,  elah,  el6n,ilan,allah,and 
allon.  There  is  much  difficulty  in  determining 
the  exact  meanings  of  the  several  varieties  of 
the  term  mentioned  above.    Celsius  has  en- 


Oak  of  I'alestino. 


dcavored  to  show  that  el,  elim,  elon,  elah,  and 
allah,  all  stand  for  the  terebinth-tree,  while 
allon  denotes  an  oak.  If  we  examine  the 
claims  of  the  terebinth  to  represent  the  elah, 
we  shall  see  that  in  point  of  size  it  cannot 
compete  with  some  of  the  oaks  of  Palestine. 
Dr.  Thomson  (The  Land  and  the  Book,  p. 


OATH 

243)  remarks  on  this  point :  "There  are  more 
mighty  oaks  here  in  this  immediate  vicinity 
than  there  are  terebinths  in  all  Syria  and 
Palestine  together."  Two  species  are  well 
worthy  of  the  name  of  mighty  trees ;  though  it 
is  equally  true  that  over  a  greater  part  of  the 
country  the  oaks  of  Palestine  are  at  present 
merely  bushes. 

Oath.  The  principle  on  which  an  oath  is 
held  to  be  binding  is  incidentally  laid  down  in 
Heb.  vi.  16,  viz.  as  an  ultimate  appeal  to 
divine  authority  to  ratify  an  assertion.  There 
the  Almighty  is  represented  as  promising  or 
denouncing  with  an  oath,  i.  e.  doing  so  in  the 
most  positive  and  solemn  manner.  On  the 
same  principle,  that  oath  has  always  been  held 
most  binding  which  appealed  to  the  highest 
authority,  both  as  regards  individuals  and 
communities.  As  a  consequence  ^of  this  prin- 
ciple, appeals  to  God's  name  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  heathen  deities  on  the  other,  are  treated 
in  Scripture  as  tests  of  allegiance  (Ex.  xxiii. 
13,  xxxiv.  6;  Deut.  xxix.  12,  &c.).  So  also  the 
sovereign's  name  is  sometimes  used  as  a  form 
of  obligation  (Gen.  xlii.  15;  2  Sam.  xi.  11,  xiv. 
19).  Other  forms  of  oath,  serious  or  frivolous, 
are  mentioned,  some  of  which  are  condemned 
by  our  Lord  (Matt.  v.  xxiii.  16-22;  and  see 
Jam.  V.  12).  The  forms  of  abjuration  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  are — i.  Lifting  up  the 
hand.  Witnesses  laid  their  hands  on  the  head 
of  the  accused  (Gen.  xiv.  22;  Lev.  xxiv.  14; 
Deut.  xxxiii.  40;  Is.  iii.  7).  2.  Putting  the 
hand  under  the  thigh  of  the  person  to  whom 
the  promise  was  made  (Gen.  xxiv.  2,  xlvii.  29). 
3.  Oaths  were  sometimes  taken  before  the 
altar,  or,  as  some  understand  the  passage,  if 
the  persons  were  not  in  Jerusalem,  in  a  posi- 
tion looking  towards  the  Temple  (i  K.  viii. 
31;  2  Chr.  vi.  22).  4.  Dividing  a  victim  and 
passing  between  or  distributing  the  pieces 
(Gen.  XV.  10,  17;  Jer.  xxxiv.  18). — As  the 
sanctity  of  oaths  was  carefully  inculcated  by 
the  Law,  so  the  crime  of  perjury  was  strongly 
condemned ;  and  to  a  false  witness  the  same 
punishment  was  assigned  which  was  due  for 
the  crime  to  which  he  testified-  (Ex.  xx.  7; 
Lev,  xix.  12;  Deut.  xix,  16-19;  Ps.  xv.  4;  Jer. 
V.  2,  vii.  9;  Ez..xvi.  59;  Hos.  x.  4;  Zech.  viii. 
17). — The  Christian  practice  in  the  matter  of 
oaths  was  founded  in  great  measure  on  the 
Jewish.  Thus  the  oath  on  the  Gospels  was 
an  imitation  of  the  Jewish  practice  of  placing 
the  hands  on  the  book  of  the  Law. — The 
stringent  nature  of  the  Roman  military  oath, 
and  the  penalties  attached  to  infraction  of  it, 
are  alluded  to,  more  or  less  certainly,  in  sev- 
eral places  in  the  N.  T.,  e.  g.  Matt.  viii.  9; 
Acts  xii.  19,  xvi.  27,  xxvii.  42. 


OG 

Obadi'ah  (Servant  of  the  Lord),  the  fourth 
of  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  We  know  noth- 
ing of  him  except  what  we  can  gather  from 
the  short  book  which  bears  his  name.  The 
Hebrew  tradition  that  he  is  the  same  person  as 
the  Obadiah  of  Ahab's  reign  (i  K.  xviii.  7-16), 
is  destitute  of  all  foundation.  The  question  of 
his  date  must  depend  upon  the  interpretation 
of  the  nth  verse  of  his  prophecy.  He  there 
speaks  of  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
captivity  of  Jacob.  If  he  is  referring  to  the 
well-known  captivity  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  he 
must  have  lived  at  the  time  of  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  and  Ijave  prophesied  subsequently 
to  the  year  B.  C.  588.  If,  further,  his  prophecy 
against  Edom  found  its  first  fulfilment  in  the 
conquest  of  that  country  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  the  year  B.  C.  583,  we  have  its  date  fixed. 
It  must  have  been  uttered  at  some  time  in  the 
five  years  which  intervened  between  those  two 
dates.  The  only  argument  of  any  weight  for 
the  early  date  of  Obadiah  is  his  position  in  the 
list  of  the  books  of  the  minor  prophets.  Why 
should  he  have  been  inserted  between  Amos 
and  Jonah  if  his  date  is  about  B.  C.  585?  The 
answer  seems  to  be,  that  the  prophecy  of 
Obadiah  is  an  amplification  of  the  last  five 
verses  of  Amos,  and  was  therefore  placed  next 
after  the  book  of  Amos.  The  book  of  Obadiah 
is  a  sustained  denunciation  of  the  Edomites, 
melting  into  a  vision  of  the  future  glories  of 
Zion,  when  the  arm  of  the  Lord  should  have 
wrought  her  deliverance  and  have  repaid 
double  upon  her  enemies. 

Oblation.  [Sacrifice.] 

Offerings.  [Sacrifice.] 

Officer.  It  is  obvious  that  most,  if  not  all, 
of  the  Hebrew  words  rendered  "officer,"  are 
either  of  an  indefinite  character,  or  are  synony- 
mous terms  for  functionaries  known  under 
other  and  more  specific  names,  as  "scribe," 
"eunuch,"  &c. 

Og,  an  Amoritish  king  of  Bashan,  whose 
rule  extended  over  sixty  cities  (Josh.  xiii.  12). 
He  was  one  of  the  last  representatives  of  the 
giant  race  of  Rephaim,  and  was,  with  his  chil- 
dren and  his  people,  defeated  and  exterminated 
by  the  Israelites  at  Edrei  immediately  after 
the  conquest  of  Sihon  (Deut.  iii.  1-13;  Num. 
xxxii.  33.  Also  Deut.  i.  4,  iv.  47,  xxxi.  4;  Josh, 
ii.  10,  ix.  10,  xiii.  12,  30).  The  belief  in  Og's 
enormous  stature  is  corroborated  by  an  appeal 
to  his  iron  bedstead  preserved  in  "Rabbath  of 
the  children  of  Ammon"  (Deut.  iii.  11).  Some 
have  supposed  that  this  was  one  of  the  com- 
mon flat  beds  used  sometimes  on  the  house- 
tops of  Eastern  cities,  but  made  of  iron  in- 
stead of  palm-branches,  which  would  not  have 
supported  the  giant's  weight.   It  is  more  prob- 


276 


THE  \mm 


OIL 

able  that  the  words  mean  a  "sarcophagus  of 
black  basalt,"  a  rendering  of  which  they  un- 
doubtedly admit. 

Oil.  Of  the  numerous  substances, — animal 
and  vegetable, — which  were  known  to  the 
ancients  as  yielding  oil,  the  olive-berry  is  the 
one  of  which  most  frequent  mention  is  made 
in  the  Scriptures.  Great  care  is  necessary,  in 
gathering,  not  to  injure  either  the  fruit  itself 
or  the  boughs  of  the  tree ;  and  with  this  view 
it  was  either  gathered  by  hand  or  shaken  off 
carefully  with  a  light  reed  or  stick.  In  order 
to  make  oil,  the  fruit  was  either  bruised  in  a 
mortar,  crushed  in  a  press  loaded  with  wood 
or  stones,  ground  in  a  mill,  or  trodden  with 
the  feet.  The  "beaten"  oil  of  Ex.  xxvii.  20; 
Lev.  xxiv.  2,  and  Ex.  xxix.  40;  Num.  xxviii.  5, 
was  probably  made  by  bruising  in  a  mortar. 
The  principal  uses  of  olive-oil  may  be  thus 
stated.  Dried  wheat,  boiled  with  either  but- 
ter or  oil,  but  more  commonly  the  former,  is  a 
common  dish  for  all  classes  in  Syria.  As  is 
the  case  generally  in  hot  climates,  oil  was  used 


Olive  Tree  and  Oil  Press. 

by  the  Jews  for  anointing  the  body,  e.  g.  after 
the  bath,  and  giving  to  the  skin'  and  hair  a 
smooth  and  comely  appearance,  e.  g.  before  an 
entertainment.  The  bodies  of  the  dead  were 
anointed  with  oil  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
probably  as  a  partial  antiseptic,  and>  a  similar 
custom  appears  to  have  prevailed  among  the 
Jews.  The  prophet  Isaiah  (i.  6)  alludes  to  the 
use  of  oil  as  ointment  in  medical  treatment; 
and  it  thus  furnished  a  fitting  symbol,  perhaps 
also  an  efficient  remedy,  when  used  by  our 
Lord's  disciples  in  the  miraculous  cures  which 
they  were  enabled  to  perform  (Mark  vi.  13). 
With  a  similar  intention,  no  doubt,  its  use  was 
enjoined  by  St.  James  (v.  14).  The  oil  for 
"the  light"  was  expressly  ordered  to  be  olive- 
oil,  beaten.  In  the  same  manner  the  great 
lamps  used  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  were 


OINTMENT 

fed.  Oil  was  poured  on,  or  mixed  with  the 
flour  or  meal  used  in  offerings.  On  the  other 
hand,  certain  offerings  were  to  be  devoid  of 
oil;  the  sin-offering.  Lev.  v.  11,  and  the  offer- 
ing of  jealousy.  Num.  v.  15.  The  principle  on 
which  both  the  presence  and  the  absence  of  oil 
were  prescribed  is,  clearly,  that  as  oil  is  in- 
dicative of  gladness,  so  its  absence  denoted 
sorrow  or  humiliation  (Is.  Ixi.  3;  Joel  ii.  19; 
Rev.  vi.  6).  Kings,  priests,  and  prophets  were 
anointed  with  oil  or  ointment.  As  so  im- 
portant a  necessary  of  life,  the  Jew  was  re- 
quired to  include  oil  among  his  first-fruit  offer- 
ings (Ex.  xxi..  29,  xxiii.  16;  Num.  xviii.  12; 
Deut.  xviii.  4;  2  Chr.  xxxi.  5).  Tithes  of  oil 
were  also  required  (Deut.  xii.  17;  2  Chr.  xxxi. 
5,  &c.).  [Olive.] 

Oil-tree  (Heb.  ets  shemen).  The  Hebrew 
words  occur  in  Neh.  viii.  15  (A.  V.  "pine- 
branches"),  I  K.  vi.  23  ("olive-tree"),  and  in 
Is.  xli.  19  ("oil-tree").  From  the  passage  in 
Nehemiah,  where  the  ets  shemen  is  mentioned 
as  distinct  from  the  "olive-tree,"  it  may  per- 
haps be  identified  with  the  zackum-tree  of  the 
Arabs,  the  Balanites  Aegyptiaca,  a  well-known 
and  abundant  shrub  or  small  tree  in  the  plain 
of  Jordan.  The  zackum-oil  is  held  in  high 
repute  by  the  Arabs  for  its  medicinal  prop- 
erties. [Olive.] 

Ointment.  The  Greek  and  Roman  practice 
of  anointing  the  head  and  clothes  on  festive  oc- 
casions prevailed  also  among  the  Egyptians, 
and  appears  to  have  had  place  among  the  Jews 
(Ruth  iii.  3;  Feci.  vii.  i,  ix.  8;  Prov.  xxvii.  9, 
16,  &c.).  Oil  of  myrrh,  for  like  purposes,  is 
mentioned  Esth.  ii.  12.  Ointments  as  well  as 
oil  were  used  to  anoint  dead  bodies  and  the 
clothes  in  which  they  were  wrapped  (Matt, 
xxvi.  12;  Mark  xiv.  3,  8;  Luke  xxiii.  56;  John 
xii.  3,  7,  xix.  40).  Ointment  formed  an  im- 
portant feature  in  ancient  medical  treatment 
(Is.  i.  6).  The  mention  of  balm  of  Gilead  and 
of  eye-salve  (collyrium)  points  to  the  same 
method  (Is.  i.  6;  John  ix.  6;  Jer.  viii.  22; 
Rev.  iii.  18,  &c.).  Besides  the  oil  used 
in  many  ceremonial  observances,  a  special 
ointment  was  appointed  to  be  used  in  conse- 
cration (Fx.  XXX.  23,  33,  xxix.  7,  xxxvii.  29,  xl. 
9,  15).  Strict  prohibition  was  issued  against 
using  this  unguent  for  any  secular  purpose, 
or  on  the  person  of  a  foreigner,  and  against 
imitating  it  in  any  way  whatsoever  (Ex.  xxx. 
32,  33).— A  person  whose  business  it  was  to 
compound  ointtfients  in  general  was  called  an 
"apothecary"  (Neh.  iii.  8;  Feci.  x.  i;  Ecclus. 
xlix.  i).  The  work  was  sometimes  carried  on 
by  women  "confectionaries"  (i  Sam.  viii.  13). 
In  the  Christian  Church  the  ancient  usage  of 
anointing  the  bodies  of  the  dead  was  long  re- 


277 


OLD  TESTAMENT 


OLD  TESTAMENT 


tained.  The  ceremony  of  Chrism  or  anointing 
was  also  added  to  baptism. 

Old  Testament.  A  history  of  the  text  of  the 
O.  T.  should  properly  commence  from  the  date 
of  the  completion  of  the  canon.  As  regards 
the  form  in  which  the  sacred  writings  were 
preserved,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
text  was  ordinarily  written  on  skins,  rolled 
up  into  volumes,  like  the  modern  synagogue- 
rolls  (Ps.  xl.  7;  Jer.  xxxvi.  14;  Zech.  v.  i ;  Ez. 
ii.  9).  The  original  character  in  which  the 
text  was  expressed  is  that  still  preserved  to 
us,  with  the  exception  of  four  letters,  on  the 
Maccabaean  coins,  and  having  a  strong  affinity 
to  the  Samaritan  character.  At  what  date  this 
was  exchanged  for  the  present  Aramaic  or 
square  character  is  still  as  undetermined,  as  it 
is  at  what  date  the  use  of  the  Aramaic  lan- 
guage in  Palestine  superseded  that  of  the 
Hebrew.  The  Old  Jewish  tradition,  repeated 
by  Origen  and  Jerome,  ascribed  the  change  to 
Ezra.  [Writing.]  Of  any  logical  division,  in 
the  written  text,  of  the  prose  of  the  O.  T.  into 
Pesukim,  or  verses,  we  find  in  the  Talmud  no 
mention ;  and  even  in  the  existing  synagogue- 
rolls  such  division  is  generally  ignored.  In 
the  poetical  books,  the  Pesukim  mentioned  in 
the  Talmud  correspond  to  the  poetical  lines, 
not  to  our  modern  verses.  Of  the  documents 
which  directly  bear  upon  the  history  of  the 
Hebrew  text,  the  two  earliest  are  the  Samari- 
tan copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  Greek 
translation  of  the  LXX.  In  the  translations 
of  Aquila  and  the  other  Greek  interpreters, 
the  fragments  of  whose  works  remain,  to  us  in 
the  Hexapla,  we  have  evidence  of  the  exist- 
ence of  a  text  differing  but  little  from  our 
own :  so  also  in  the  Targums  of  Onkelos  and 
Jonathan.  A  few  centuries  later  we  have,  in 
the  Hexapla,  additional  evidence  to  the  same 
effect  in  Origen's  transcriptions  of  the  Hebrew 
text.  And  yet  more  important  are  the  proofs 
of  the  firm  establishment  of  the  text,  and  of 
its  substantial  identity  with  our  own,  supplied 
by  the  translation  of  Jerome,  who  was  in- 
structed by  the  Palestinian  Jews,  and  mainly 
relied  upon  their  authority  for  acquaintance 
not  only  with  the  text  itself,  but  also  with  the 
traditional  unwritten  vocalization  of  it.  This 
brings  us  to  the  middle  of  the  Talmudic 
period.  The  care  of  the  Talmudic  doctors  for 
the  text  is  shown  by  the  pains  with  which  they 
counted  up  the  number  of  verses  in  the  dif- 
ferent books,  and  computed  which  were  the 
middle  verses,  words,  and  letters  in  the  Penta- 
teuch and  in  the  Psalms.  The  scrupulousness 
with  which  the  Talmudists  noted  what  they 
deemed  the  truer  readings,  and  yet  abstained 
from  introducing  them  into  the  text,  indicates 


at  once  both  the  diligence  with  which  they 
scrutinized  the  text,  and  also  the  care  with 
which,  even  while  acknowledging  its  occa- 
sional imperfections,  they  guarded  it.  Critical 
procedure  is  also  evinced  in  a  mention  of  their 
rejection  of  manuscripts  which  were  found  not 
to  agree  with  others  in  their  readings ;  and  the 
rules  given  with  reference  to  the  transcription 
and  adoption  of  manuscripts  attest  the  care 
bestowed  upon  them.  It  is  evident  from  the 
notices  of  the  Talmud  that  a  number  of  oral 
traditions  had  been  gradually  accumulating 
respecting  both  the  integrity  of  particular 
passages  of  the  text  itself,  and  also  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  was  to  be  read.  This  vast 
heterogeneous  mass  of  traditions  and  criti- 
cisms, compiled  and  embodied  in  writing, 
forms  what  is  known  as  the  Masorah,  i.  e. 
Tradition.  From  the  end  of  the  Masoretic 
period  onward,  the  Masorah  became  the  great 
authority  by  which  the  text  given  in  all  the 
Jewish  MSS.  was  settled.  We  must  now  give 
an  account  of  the  O.  T.  MSS.  known  to  us. 
They  fall  into  two  main  classes:  Synagogue- 
rolls  and  MSS.  for  private  use.  Of  the  latter, 
some  are  written  in  the  square,  others  in  the 
rabbinic  or  cursive  character.  The  synagogue- 
rolls  contain,  separate  from  each  other,  the 
Pentateuch,  the  Haphtaroth,  or  appointed  sec- 
tions of  the  Prophets,  and  the  so-called  Megil- 
loth,  viz.  Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  and  Esther.  No  satisfactory  criteria 
have  been  yet  established  by  which  the  ages  of 
MSS.  are  to  be  determined.  Few  existing 
MSS.  are  supposed  to  be  older  than  the  12th 
century.  The  history  of  the  printed  text  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible  commences  with  the  early 
Jewish  editions  of  the  separate  books.  First 
appeared  the  Psalter,  in  1477,  probably  at 
Bologna,  in  4to.,  with  Kimchi's  commentary 
interspersed  among  the  verses.  Only  the  first 
four  psalms  had  the  vowel-points,  and  these 
but  clumsily  expressed.  At  Bologna  there 
subsequently  appeared,  in  1482,  the  Penta- 
teuch, in  folio,  pointed,  with  the  Targum  and 
the  commentary  of  Rashi ;  and  the  five  Megil- 
loth  (Ruth — Esther),  in  folio,  with  the  com- 
mentaries of  Rashi  and  Aben  Ezra.  ,  From 
Soncino,  near  Cremona,  issued  in  i486  the 
Prophetae  priores  (Joshua — Kings),  folio,  un- 
pointed, with  Kimchi's  commentary.  The 
honor  of  printing  the  first  entire  Hebrew  Bible 
belongs  to  the  above-mentioned  town  of 
Soncino.  The  edition  is  in  folio,  pointed  and 
accentuated.  Nine  copies  only  of  it  are  now 
known,  of  which  one  belongs  to  Exeter  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  The  method  of  procedure  re- 
quired in  the  criticism  of  the  O.  T.  is  widely 
dififerent  'from  that  practised  in  the  criticism 


278 


OLD  TESTAMENT 


OLIVE 


of  the  N.  T.  Our  O.  T.  textus  receptus  is  a 
far  more  faithful  representation  of  the  genuine 
Scripture,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  means 
of  detecting  and  correcting  the  errors  con- 
tained in  it  are  more  precarious,  the  results 
are  more  uncertain,  and  the  ratio  borne  by 
the  value  of  the  diplomatic  evidence  of  MSS. 
to  that  of  a  good  critical  judgment  and 
sagacity  is  greatly  diminished.  It  is  indeed  to 
the  direct  testimony  of  the  MSS.  that,  in  en- 
deavoring to  establish  the  true  text,  we  must 
first  have  recourse.  The  comparative  purity 
of  the  Hebrew  text  is  probably  different  in 
different  parts  of  the  O.  T.  In  the  revision  of 
Dr.  Davidson,  who  has  generally  restricted 
himself  to  the  admission  of  corrections  war- 
ranted by  MS.,  Masoretic,  or  Talmudic 
authority,  those  in  the  book  of  Genesis  do  not 
exceed  ii;  those  in  the  Psalms  are  propor- 
tionately three  times  as  numerous ;  those  in 
the  historical  books  and  the  Prophets  are  pro- 
portionately more  numerous  than  those  in  the 
Psalms.  From  the  outward  form  of  the 
O.  T.  we  proceed  to  its  moral  element  or 
soul.  It  was  with  reference  to  this  that  St. 
Paul  declared  that  all  Scriptvire  was  given  by 
inspiration  of  God,  and  was  profitable  for  doc- 
trine, for  reproof,  for  correction,  for  instruc- 
tion in  righteousness  (2  Tim.  iii.  16)  ;  and  it  is 
in  the  implicit  recognition  of  the  essentially 
moral  character  of  the  whole,  that  our  Lord 
and  His  apostles  not  only  appear  to  its  direct 
precepts  (e.  g.  Matt.  xy.  4;  xix.  17-19),  and  set 
forth  the  fulness  of  their  bearing  (e.  g.  Matt, 
ix.  13),  but  also  lay  bare  moral  lessons  in  O. 
T.  passages  which  lie  rather  beneath  the  sur- 
face than  upon  it  (Matt.  xix.  5,  6,  xxii.  32; 
John  X.  34,  35 ;  Acts  vii.  48,  49 ;  i  Cor.  ix.  9,  10 ; 
2  Cor.  viii.  13-15).  With  regard  more  par- 
ticularly to  the  Law,  our  Lord  shows  in  His 
Sermon  on  the  ]\Iount  how  deep  is  the  moral 
teaching  implied  in  its  letter;  and  in  His  de- 
nunciation of  the  Pharisees,  upbraids  them  for 
their  omission  of  its  weightier  matters — judg- 
ment, mercy,  and  faith.  But  the  O.  T.  has 
further  its  spiritual  and  therefore  prophetical 
element.  Our  attention  is  here  first  attracted 
to  the  avowedly  predictive  parts  of  the  O.  T., 
of  the  prospective  reference  of  which,  at  the 
time  that  they  were  uttered,  no  question  can 
exist,  and  the  majority  of  which  still  awaited 
their  fulfilment  when  the  Redeemer  of  the 
world  was  born.  With  Christ  the  new  era  of 
the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  commenced.  The 
New  Testament  quotations  from  the  Old  form 
one  of  the  outward  bonds  of  connection  be- 
tween the  two  parts  of  the  Bible.  They  are 
manifold  in  kind.  In  the  quotations  of  all 
kinds,  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New, 


we  find  a  continual  variation  from  the  letter 
of  the  older  Scriptures.  To  this  variation 
three  causes  may  be  specified  as  having  con- 
tributed :  First,  all  the  N.  T.  writers  cpioted 
from  the  Septuagint ;  correcting  it  indeed  more 
or  less  by  the  Hebrew,  especially  when  it  was 
needful  for  their  purpose ;  occasionally  desert- 
ing it  altogether ;  still  abiding  by  it  to  so  large 
an  extent  as  to  show  that  it  was  the  primary 
source  whence  their  quotations  were  drawn. 
Secondly,  the  N.  T.  writers  must  have  fre- 
quently quoted  from  memory.  Thirdly,  com- 
bined with  this,  there  was  an  alteration  of  con- 
scious or  unconscious  design.  Sometimes  the 
object  of  this  was  to  obtain  increased  force. 
Sometimes  an  O.  T.  passage  is  abridged,  and 
in  the  abridgment  so  adjusted,  by  a  little 
alteration,  as  to  present  an  aspect  of  complete- 
ness, and  yet  omit  what  is  foreign  to  the  im- 
mediate purpose  (Acts  i.  20;  i  Cor.  i.  31). 
[Bible.] 

Olive.  No  tree  is  more 'closely  associated 
with  the  history  and  civilization  of  man.  Many 
of  the  Scriptural  associations  of  the  olive-tree 
are  singularly  poetical.    It  has  this  remarkable 


Olive  Branches  and  Olives. 


interest,  in  the  first  place,  that  its  foliage  is 
the  earliest  that  is  mentioned  by  name,  when 
the  waters  of  the  flood  began  to  retire  (Gen. 
viii.  11).  Next  we  find  it  the  most  prominent 
tree  in  the  earliest  allegory  (Judg.  ix.  8,  9). 
With  David  it  is  the  emblem  of  prosperity  and 
the  divine  blessing  (Ps.  Hi.  8,  cxxviii.  3).  So 
with  the  later  prophets  it  is  the  symbol  of 
beauty,  luxuriance,  and  strength.  We  must 
bear  in  mind,  in  reading  this  imagery,  that  the 
olive  was  among  the  most  abundant  and  char- 
acteristic vegetation  of  Judea.  Turning  now 
to  the  mystic  imagery  of  Zechariah  (iv.  3, 


.  279 


OLIVES,  MOUNT  OF 


OLIVES,  MOUNT  OF 


11-14),  and  of  St.  John  in  the  Apocalypse 
(Rev.  xi.  3,  4),  we  find  the  oHve-tree  used,  in 
both  cases,  in  a  very  remarkable  way.  Finally, 
in  the  argumentation  of  St.  Paul  concerning 
the  relative  positions  of  the  Jews  and  Gentiles 
in  the  counsels  of  God,  this  tree  supplies  the 
bases  of  one  of  his  most  forcible  allegories 
(Rom.  xi.  16-25).  The  Gentiles  are  the  "wild 
olive"  grafted  in  upon  the  "good  olive,"  to 
which  once  the  Jews  belonged,  and  with  which 
they  may  again  be  incorporated.  The  olive- 
tree  grows  freely  almost  everywhere  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  it  was  pecu- 
liarly abundant  in  Palestine  (see  Deut.  vi.  11, 
viii.  8,  xxviii.  40).  Olive-yards  are  a  matter 
of  course  in  descriptions  of  the  country,  like 
vineyards  and  cornfields  (Judg.  xv.  5 ;  i  Sam. 
viii.  14).  The  kings  had  very  extensive  ones 
(i  Chr.  xxvii.  28).  Even  now  the  tree  is  very 
abundant  in  the  country.  Almost  every  vil- 
lage has  its  olive-'grove.  Certain  districts  may 
be  specified  where  at  various  times  this  tree 
has  been  very  luxuriant.  The  cultivation  of 
the  olive-tree  had  the  closest  connection  with 
the  domestic  life  of  the  Israelites  (2  Chr.  ii. 
10),  their  trade  (Ez.  xxvii.  17;  Hos.  xii.  i),  and 
even  their  public  ceremonies  and  religious 
worship.  As  to  the  growth  of  the  tree,  it 
thrives  best  in  warm  and  sunny  situations.  It 
is  of  a  moderate  height,  with  knotty  gnarled 
trunks,  and  a  smooth  ash-colored  bark.  It 
grows  slowly,  but  it  lives  to  an  immense  age. 
Its  look  is  singularly  indicative  of  tenacious 
vigor,  and  this  is  the  force  of  what  is  said  in 
Scripture  of  its  "greenness,"  as  emblematic 
of  strength  and  prosperity.  The  leaves,  too, 
are  not  deciduous.  Those  who  see  olives  for 
the  first  time  are  occasionally  disappointed  by 
the  dusty  color  of  their  foliage;  but  those  who 
are  familiar  with  them  find  an  inexpressible 
charm  in  the  rippling  changes  of  their  slender 
gray-green  leaves. 

Olives,  Mount  of.  The  exact  expression 
"the  Mount  of  Olives"  occurs  in  the  O.  T.  in 
Zech.  xiv.  4  only ;  in  the  other  places  of  the 

0.  T.  in  which  it  is  referred  to,  the  form  em 
ployed  is  the  "ascent  of  the  olives"  (2  Sam. 
XV.  30;  A.  V.  inaccurately    "the   ascent  of 
Mount  Olivet"),  or  simply  "the  Mount"  (Neh 
viii.  15),  "the  mount  facing  Jerusalem"  (i  K 
xi.  7),  or  "the  mountain  which  is  on  the  east 
side  of  the  city"  (Ez.  xi.  23).    In  the  N.  T 
three  forms  of  the  word  occur:  i.  The  usual 
one,  "the  Mount  of  Olives."    2.  By  St.  Luke 
twice  (xix.  29,  xxi.  37),  "the  mount  called  the 
Mount  of  Olives."    3.  Also  by  St.  Luke  (Acts 

1.  12),  the  "mount  called  Olivet."  But  in  the 
Greek  text,  both  in  the  Gospel  and  the  Acts, 
the  same  word  is  used,  translated  by  the  Vul 


gate  "Olivetum,"  that  is,  the  Mount  of  Olives. 

-It  is  the  well-known  eminence  on  the  east 
of  Jerusalem,  intimately  connected  with  some 
of  the  gravest  events  of  the  history  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New  Testament,  the  scene 
of  the  flight  of  David  and  the  triumphal 
progress  of  the  Son  ,of  David,  of  the  idolatry 
of  Solomon,  and  the  agony  and  betrayal  of 
Christ.  At  a  distance  its  outline  is  almost 
horizontal,  gradually  sloping  away  at  its 
southern  end ;  but  when  seen  from  below  the 
eastern  wall  of  Jerusalem,  it  divides  itself  into 
three,  or  rather  perhaps  four,  independent 
summits  or  eminences.  Proceeding  from  north 
to  south,  these  occur  in  the  following  order: 
Galilee,  or  Viri  Galilaei ;  Mount  of  the  Ascen- 
sion ;  Prophets,  subordinate  to  the  last,  and 
almost  a  part  of  it;  Mount  of  Ofifence.  i. 
Of  these  the  central  one,  distinguished  by  the 
minaret  and  domes  of  the  Church  of  the 
Ascension,  is  in  every  way  the  most  important. 


Mount  of  Olives,  from  the  Wall  of  Jerusalem. 


Three  paths  lead  from  the  valley  to  the  sum- 
mit. The  first  passes  under  the  north  wall  of 
the  enclosure  of  Gethsemane,  and  follows  the 
line  of  the  depression  between  the  centre  and 
the  northern  hill.  The  second  parts  from  the 
first  about  50  yards  beyond  Gethsemane,  and 
striking  of¥  to  the  right  up  the  very  breast  of 
the  hill,  surmounts  the  projection  on  which  is 
the  traditional  spot  of  the  Lamentation  over 
Jerusalem,  and  thence  proceeds  directly  up- 
wards to  the  village.  The  third  leaves  the 
other  two  at  the  N.  E.  corner  of  Gethsemane, 
and  making  a  considerable  detour  to  the  south, 
visits  the  so-called  "Tombs  of  the  Prophets," 
and,  following  a  very  slight  depression  which 
occurs  at  that  part  of  the  mount,  arrives  in  its 
turn  at  the  village.  Of  these  three  paths,  the 
first,  from  the  fact  that  it  follows  the  natural 
shape  of  the  ground,  is  unquestionably  older 
280 


r  - 


I 


OLIVES,  MOUNT  OF 

than  the  others,  which  deviate  in  pursuit  of 
certain  artificial  objects.  Every  consideration 
is  in  favor  of  its  being  the  road  taken  by  David 
in  his  flight.  It  is,  with  equal  probability, 
that  usually  taken  by  our  Lord  and  His  dis- 
ciples in  their  morning  and  evening  transit 
between  Jerusalem  and  Bethany,  and  that  also 
by  which  the  Apostles  returned  to  Jerusalem 
after  the  Ascension.  The  central  hill,  which 
we  are  now  considering,  purports  to  contain 
the  sites  of  some  of  the  most  sacred  and  im- 
pressive events  of  Christian  history.  The 
majority  of  these  sacred  spots  now  command 
little  or  no  attention;  but  three  still  remain, 
sufficiently  sacred — if  authentic — to  consecrate 
any  place.  These  are:  (i.)  Gethsemane,  at  the 
foot  of  the  mount.  (2.)  The  spot  from  which 
our  Saviour  ascended  on  the  summit.  (3.) 
The  place  of  the  Lamentation  of  Christ  over 
Jerusalem,  half  way  up.  Of  these,  Gethsemane 
is  the  only  one  which  has  any  claim  to  be 
authentic.  [Gethsemane.]  2.  We  have  spoken 
of  the  central  and  principal  portion  of  the 
mount.  Next  to  it  on  the  southern  side,  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  a  slight  depression,  lip  which 
the  path  mentioned  above  as  the  third  takes 
its  course,  is  a  hill  which  appears  neither  to 
possess,  nor  to  have  possessed,  any  inde- 
pendent name.  It  is  remarkable  only  for  the 
fact  that  it  contains  the  "singular  catacomb" 
known  as  the  "Tombs  of  the  Prophets,"  proba- 
bly in  allusion  to  the  words  of  Christ  (Matt, 
xxiii.  29).  3.  The  piost  southern  portion  of 
the  Mount  of  Olives  is  that  usually  known  as 
the  "Mount  of  Offence."  It  rises  next  to  that 
last  mentioned ;  and  in  the  hollow  between  the 
two,  more  marked  than  the  depressions  be- 
tween the  more  northern  portions,  runs  the 
road  from  Bethany,  which  was  without  doubt 
the  road  of  Christ's  entry  to  Jerusalem.  4. 
The  only  one  of  the  four  summits  remaining 
to  be  considered  is  that  on  the  north  of  the 
"Mount  of  Ascension"  the  Karem  es  Seyad,  or 
Vineyard  of  the  Sportsman.  This  is  a  hill'of 
exactly  the  same  character  as  the  Mount  of 
the  Ascension,  and  so  nearly  its  equal  in 
height  that  feW  travellers  agree  as  to  which  is 
the  more  lofty.  The  summits  of  the  two  are 
about  400  yards  apart.  It  stands  directly 
opposite  the  N.  E.  corner  of  Jerusalem,  and  is 
approached  by  the  path  between  it  and  the 
Mount  of  Ascension.  The  presence  of  the 
crowd  of  churches  and  other  edifices  must 
have  rendered  the  Mount  of  Olives,  during  the 
early  and  middle  ages  of  Christianity,  entirely 
unlike  what  it  was  in  the  time  of  the  Jewish 
kingdom  of  our  Lord.  Except  the  high  places 
on  the  summit,  the  only  buildings  then  to 
be  seen  were  probably  the  walls  of  the  vine- 

28 


OPHIR 

yards  and  gardens,  and  the  towers  and  presses 
which  were  their  invariable  accompaniment. 
But  though  the  churches  are  nearly  all  de- 
molished, there  must  be  a  considerable  differ- 
ence between  the  aspect  of  the  mountain  now 
and  in  those  days  when  it  received  its  name 
from  the  abundance  of  its  olive-groves.  It 
does  not  now  stand  so  pre-eminent  in  this 
respect  among  the  hills  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Jerusalem.  It  is  only  in  the  deeper  and 
more  secluded  slope  leading  up  to  the  north- 
ernmost summit  that  these  venerable  trees 
spread  into  anything  like  a  forest.  The  cedars 
commemorated  by  the  Talmud,  and  the  date- 
palms  implied  in  the  name  Bethany,  have 
fared  still  worse;  there  is  not  one  of  either 
to  be  found  within  many  miles. 

Ome'ga,  the  last  letter  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet, as  Alpha  is  the  first.  It  is  used  meta- 
phorically to  denote  the  end  of  anything:  "I 
am  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  beginning  and  the 
ending,  .  .  .  the  first  and  the  last"  (Rev.  i. 
8,  II). 

O'mer.  [Weights  and  Measures.] 
Onions  occur  only  in  Num.  xi.  5,  as  one  of 
the  good  things  of  Egypt  of  which  the  Israel- 
ites regretted  the  loss.  Onions  have  been 
from  time  immemorial  a  favorite  article  of 
food  amongst  the  Egyptians.  The  onions  of 
Egypt  are  much  milder  in  flavor  and  less 
pungent  than  those  of  this  country. 

Onyx,  the  translation  of  the  Heb,  shoham  ; 
but  there  is  nothing  in  the  contexts  of  the  sev- 
eral passages  (Gen.  ii.  12;  Ex.  xxviii.  9,  20;  i 
Chf.  xxix.  2;  Ez.  xxviii.  13)  where  the  Hebrew 
term  occurs  to  help  us  to  determine  its  sig- 
nification. Some  writers  believe  that  the 
"beryl"  is  intended ;  but  the  balance  of 
authority  is  in  favor  of  some  variety  of  the 
onyx. 

O'phir  (abundance).  A  seaport  or  region 
from  which  the  Hebrews  in  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon obtained  gold,  in  vessels  which  went 
thither  in  conjunction  with  Tyrian  ships  from 
Ezion-geber,  near  Elath,  on  that  branch  of 
the  Red  Sea  which  is  now  called  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah.  The  gold  was  proverbial  for  its  fine- 
ness, so  that  "gold  of  Ophir"  is  several  times 
used  as  an  expression  for  fine  gold  (Ps.  xlv. 
10;  Job  xxviii.  16;  Is.  xiii.  12;  i  Chr.  xxix.  4)  ; 
and  in  one  passage  (Job.  xxii.  24)  the  word 
"Ophir"  by  itself  is  used  for  gold  of  Ophir,  and 
for  gold  generally.  In  addition  to  gold,  the 
vessels  brought  from  Ophir  almug-wood  and 
precious  stones.  The  precise  geographical 
situation  of  Ophir  has  long  been  a  subject  of 
doubt  and  discussion.  The  two  countries 
which  have  divided  the  opinions  of  the  learned 
have  been  Arabia  and  India,  while  some  have 


! 


ORATOR 


ORNAMENTS 


placed  it  in  Africa.  There  are  only  five 
passages  in  the  historical  books  which  men- 
tion Ophir  by  name;  three  in  the  Books  of 
Kings  (i  K.  ix.  26-29,  x.  ii,  xxii.  48),  and  two 
in  the  Books  of  Chronicles  (2  Chr.  viii.  18, 
ix.  10).  If  the  three  passages  of  the  Book  of 
Kings  are  carefully  examined,  it  will  be  seen 
that  all  the  information  given  respecting 
Ophir  is,  that  it  was  a  place  or  region  accessi- 
ble by  sea  from  Ezion-geber  on  the  Red  Sea, 
from  which  imports  of  gold,  almug-trees,  and 
precious  stones  were  brought  back  by  the 
Tyrian  and  Hebrew  sailors.  The  author  of 
the  loth  chapter  of  Genesis  certainly  regarded 
Ophir  as  the  name  of  some  city,  region,  or 
tribe  in  Arabia.  And  it  is  almost  equally  cer- 
tain that  the  Ophir  of  Genesis  is  the  Ophir  of 
the  Book  of  Kings.  There  is  no  mention, 
either  in  the  Bible  or  elsewhere,  of  any  other 
Ophir;  and  the  idea  of  there  having  been  two 
Ophirs  evidently  arose  from  a  perception  of 
the  obvious  meaning  of  the  loth  chapter  of 
Genesis,  on  the  one  hand,  coupled  with  the 
erroneous  opinion,  on  the  other,  that  the  Ophir 
of  the  Book  of  Kings  could  not  have  been  in 
Arabia. 

Orator,  i.  The  A.  V.  rendering  in  Is.  iii.  3, 
for  what  is  literally  "skilful  in  whisper,  or 
incantation."  2.  The  title  applied  to  TerteuUus, 
who  appeared  as  the  advocate  or  patronus  of 
the  Jewish  accusers  of  St.  Paul  before  Felix 
(Acts  xxiv.  i). 

Orchard.  [Garden.] 

Organ  (Gen.  iv.  21;  Job.  xxi.  12,  xxx.  31; 

Ps.  cl.  4).  The  Hebrew  word  iigal  or  'uggab, 
thus  rendered  in  our  version,  probably  denotes 
a  pipe  or  perforated  wind-instrument,  as  the 
root  of  the  word  indicates.  In  Gen.  iv.  21  it 
appears  to  be  a  general  term  for  all  wind-in- 
struments. In  Job.  xxi.  12,  are  enumerated 
the  three  kinds  of  musical  instruments  which 
are  possible,  vmder  the  general  terms  of  the 
timbrel,  harp,  and  organ.  Some  identify  it 
with  the  Pandean  pipes,  or  syrinx,  an  instru- 
ment of  unquestionably  ancient  origin,  and 
common  in  the  East. 

Ori'on,  That  the  constellation  known  to 
the  Hebrews  by  the  name  cesil  is  the  same  as 
that  which  the  Greeks  called  Orion,  and  the 
Arabs  "the  giant,"  there  seems  little  reason  to 
doubt  (Job  ix.  9,  xxxviii.  31  ;  Am.  v.  8).  The 
"giant"  of  Oriental  astronomy  was  Nimrod, 
the  mighty  hunter,  who  was  fabled  to  have 
been  bound  in  the  sky  for  his  impiety.  The 
two  dogs  and  the  hare,  which  are  among  the 
constellations  in  the  neighborhood  of  Orion, 
made  his  train  complete. 

Ornaments,  Personal.  The  number,  variety, 
and  weight  of  the  ornaments  ordinarily  worn 


upon  the  person  form  one  of  the  characteristic 
features  of  Oriental  costume,  both  in  ancient 
and  modern  times.  The  monuments  of  ancient 
Egypt  exhibit  the  hands  of  ladies  loaded  with 
rings,  earrings  of  very  great  size,  anklets,  arm- 
lets, bracelets  of  the  most  varied  character, 
richly  ornamented  necklaces,  and  chains  of 
various  kinds.  There  is  sufficient  evidence  in 
the  Bible  that  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine 
were  equally  devoted  to  finery.  In  the  Old 
Testament,  Isaiah  (iii.  18-23)  supplies  us  with 
a  detailed  description  of  the  articles  with 
which  the  luxurious  women  of  his  day  were 
decorated,  and  the  picture  is  filled  up  by  inci- 
dental notices  in  other  places.  The  notices 
which  occur  in  the  early  books  of  the  Bible 
imply  the  weight  and  abundance  of  the  orna- 
ments worn  at  that  period.  Eliezer  decorated 
Rebekah  with  "a  golden  nose-ring  of  half  a 


Assyrian  and  Egyptian  Ornaments. 


shekel  weight,  and  two  bracelets  for  her  hands 
of  ten  shekels  weight  of  gold"  (Gen.  xxiv.  22). 
Earrings  were  worn  by  Jacob's  wives,  ap- 
parently as  charms,  for  they  are  mentioned  in 
connection  with  idols  (Gen.  xxxv.  4).  The 
ornaments  worn  by  the  patriarch  Judah  were 
a  "signet,"  which  was  suspended  by  a  string 
round  the  neck,  and  a  "staflf"  Gen.  xxxviii. 
18)  ;  the  staff  itself  was  probably  ornamented. 
The  first  notice  of  the  ring  occurs  in  reference 
to  Joseph,  when  he  was  made  ruler  of  Egypt 
(Gen.  xli.  42).  The  number  of  personal  orna- 
ments worn  by  the  Egyptians,  particularly  by 
the  females,  is  incidentally  noticed  in  Ex.  iii. 
22.  The  poetical  portions  of  the  O.  T.  con- 
tain numerous  references  to  the  ornaments 
worn  by  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of  their 
highest  prosperity.  The  appearance  of  the 
bride  is  thus  described  in  the  book  of  the 
Canticles.  "Thy  cheeks  are  comely  with 
beads,  thy  neck  with  perforated  (pearls)  ;  we 
will  make  thee  beads  of  gold  with  studs  of  sil- 
ver" (i.  10,  11).  Her  neck  rising  tall  and 
stately,  "like  the  tower  of  David  builded  for 
an  armory,"  was  decorated  with  various  orna- 
ments hanging  like  the  "thousand  bucklers,  all 


OSTRICH 


OVEN 


shields  of  mighty  men,  on  the  walls  of  the 
armory"  (iv^  4)  ;  her  hair  falling  gracefully 
over  her  neck  is  described  figuratively  as  a 
"chain"  (iv.  9)  ;  and  "the  roundings"  (not  as 
in  the  A.  V.  "the  joints")  of  her  thighs  are 
likened  to  the  pendant  of  an  earring,  which 
tapers  gradually  downwards  (vii.  i).  The 
passage  of  Isaiah  (iii.  18-23)  may  be  rendered 
as  follows:  (18)  "In  that  day  the  Lord  will 
take  away  the  bravery  of  their  anklets,  and 
their  lace  caps,  and  their  necklaces;  (19)  the 
ear-pendants,  and  the  bracelets,  and  the  light 
veils ;  (20)  the  turbans,  and  the  step-chains, 
and  the  girdles,  and  the  scent-bottles,  and  the 
amulets;  (21)  the  rings  and  nose-rings;  (22) 
the  state-dresses,  and  the  cloaks,  and  the 
shawls,  and  the  purses ;  (23)  the  mirrors,  and 
the  fine  linen  shirts,  and  the  turbans,  and  the 
light  dresses." 

Ostrich.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Hebrew  words  bath  haya'anah,  ya'en,  and 
ranan,  denote  this  bird  of  the  desert,  i.  Bath 
haya'anah  occurs  in  Lev.  xi.  16,  Deut.  xiv.  15, 
in  the  list  of  unclean  birds ;  and  in  other 
passages  of  Scripture.    The  A.  V.  erroneously 


The  Ostiith. 


renders  the  Hebrew  expression,  which  sig- 
nifies either  "daughter  of  greediness"  or 
"daughter  of  shouting,"  by  "owl,"  or,  as  in  the 
margin,  by  "daughter  of  owl."  In  Job.  xxx. 
29,  Is.  xxxiv.  13,  and  xliii.  20,  the  margin  of  the 
A.  V.  correctly  reads  "ostriches."  The  loud 
crying  of  the  ostrich  seems  to  be  referred  to  in 
Mic.  i.  8.  2.  Ya'en  occurs  in  Lam.  iv.  3,  where 
the  context  shows  that  the  ostrich  is  intended. 
3.  Ranan  occurs  in  Job  xxxix.  13,  where  it  is 
clear  from  the  whole  passage  (13-18)  that 
ostriches  are  intended  by  the  word.  The  A. 
V.  erroneously  translates  the  word  "pea- 
cocks" but  there  is  a  different  Hebrew  name 
for  peacocks,  and  this  bird  was  probably  not 
known  to  the  people  of  Arabia  or  Syria  before 
the  time  of  Solomon.  The  "ostrich"  of  the 
A.  V.  in  Job  xxxix.  13  is  the  representative  of 
the  Hebrew  notseh,  "feathers."  The  follow- 
ing short  account  of  the  nidification  of  the 


ostrich  will  elucidate  those  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture which  ascribe  cruelty  to  this  bird  in 
neglecting  her  eggs  or  young.  Ostriches  are 
polygamous:  the  hens  lay  their  eggs  promiscu- 
ously in  one  nest,  which  is  merely  a  hole 
scratched  in  the  sand ;  the  eggs  are  then  cov- 
ered over  to  the  depth  of  about  a  foot,  and  are, 
in  the  case  of  those  birds  which  are  found 
within  the  tropics,  generally  left  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  day  to  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
the  parent-birds  taking  their  turns  at  incuba- 
tion during  the  night.  But  in  those  countries 
which  have  not  a  tropical  sun,  ostriches  fre- 
quently incubate  during  the  day,  the  male  tak- 
ing his  turn  at  night,  and  watching  over  the 
eggs  with  great  care  and  affection,  as  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  jackals  and  other  of 
the  smaller  carnivora  are  occasionally  found 
dead  near  the  nest,  having  been  killed  by  the 
ostrich  in  defence  of  the  eggs  or  young.  The 
habit  of  the  ostrich  leaving  its  eggs  to  be 
matured  by  the  sun's  heat  is  usually  appealed 
to  in  order  to  confirm  the  Scriptural  account, 
"she  leaveth  her  eggs  to  the  earth ;"  but  this 
is  probably  the  case  only  with  the  tropical 
birds.  And  even  if  the  Hebrews  were  ac- 
ciuainted  with  the  habits  of  the  tropical 
ostriches,  how  can  it  be  said  that  "she  for- 
getteth  that  the  foot  may  crush"  the  eggs, 
when  they  are  covered  a  foot  deep  or  more  in 
the  sand?  We  believe  the  true  explanation  of 
this  passage  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the 
ostrich  deposits  some  of  her  eggs  not  in  the 
nest,  but  around  it;. these  lie  about  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  sand,  to'  all  appearance  forsaken ; 
they  are,  however,  designed  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  young  birds.  And  this  remark 
will  hold  good  in  the  passage  of  Job  which 
speaks  of  the  ostrich  being  without  under- 
standing. It  is  a  general  belief  amongst  the 
Arabs  that  the  ostrich  is  a  very  stupid  bird ; 
indeed  they  have  a  proverb,  "Stupid  as  an 
ostrich."  But  it  by  no  means  deserves  such  a 
character,  as  travellers  have  frequently  testi- 
fied. "So  wary  is  the  bird,"  says  Mr.  Tris- 
tram, "and  so  open  are  the  vast  plains  over 
which  it  roams,  that  no  ambuscades  or  artifices 
can  be  employed,  and  the  vulgar  resource  of 
dogged  perseverance  is  the  only  mode  of  pur- 
suit." The  ostrich  is  the  largest  of  all  known 
birds,  and  perhaps  the  swiftest  of  all  cursorial 
animals.  The  feathers  so  much  prized  are  the 
long  white  plumes  of  the  wings.  The  best 
come  to  us  from  Barbary  and  the  west  coast 
of  Africa. 

Oven.  The  Eastern  oven  is  of  two  kinds — 
fixed  and  portable.  The  former  is  found  only 
in  towns,  where  regular  bakers  are  employed 
(Hos.  vii.  4).    The  latter  is  -adapted  to  the 


OWL 


OX 


nomad  state.  It  consists  of  a  large  jar  made 
of  clay,  about  three  feet  high,  and  widening 
towards  the  bottom,  with  a  hole  for  the  ex- 
traction of  the  ashes.  Each  household  pos- 
sessed such  an  article  (Ex.  viii.  3)  ;  and  it  was 


An  luastorn  Oven. 

only  in  times  of  extreme  dearth  that  the  same 
oven  sufficed  for  several  families  (Lev.  xxvi. 
26).  It  was  heated  with  dry  twigs  and  grass 
(Matt.  vi.  30)  ;  and  the  loaves  were  placed 
both  inside  and  outside  of  it. 

Owl,  occurs  in  Lev.  xi.  17,  Deut.  xiv.  16,  as 
the  name  of  some  unclean  bird,  and  in  Is. 
xxxiv.  II,  in  the  description  of  desolate  Edom. 


Owl. 


The  A.  V.  translates  yanshuph  by  "owl,"  or 
"great  owl."  The  LXX.  and  Vulg.  read  ibis, 
i.  e.  the  Ibis  religiosa,  the  sacred  bird  of  Egypt. 
Cos,  the  name  of  an  unclean  bird  (Lev.  xi.  17; 
Deut.  xiv.  16)  ;  it  occurs  again  in  Ps.  cii.  6. 


The  passage  in  Ps.  cii.  6  points  decidedly  to 
some  kind  of  owl.  The  owl  we  figure  is  the 
Egyptian  and  Asiatic  representative  of  our 
great  horned  owl.  Kippoz  occurs  only  in  Is. 
xxxiv.  15:  "There  (i.  e.  in  Edom)  the  kippoz 
shall  make  her  nest,  and  lay  and  hatch  and 
gather  under  her  shadow."  It  is  hopeless  to 
attempt  to  identify  the  animal  denoted  by  this 
word ;  but  it  may  denote  some  species  of  owl. 
Lilith.  The  A.  V.  renders  this  word  by 
"screech-owl"  in  the  text  of  Is.  xxxiv.  14,  and 
by  "night-monster"  in  the  margin.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Rabbins  the  lilith  was  a  nocturnal 
spectre  in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  woman  that 
carried  off  children  at  night  and  destroyed 
them.  If,  however,  some  animal  be  denoted 
by  the  Hebrew  term,  the  screech-owl  may 
well  be  supposed  to  represent  it,  for  this  bird 
is  found  in  the  Bible  lands,  and  is,  as  is  well 
known,  a  frequent  inhabiter  of  ruined  places. 
Ox.   There  was  no  animal  in  the  rural  econ- 


Syrian  Cattle. 

omy  of  the  Israelites,  or  indeed  in  that  of  the 
ancient  Orientals  generally,  that  was  held  in 
higher  esteem  than  the  ox;  and  deservedly 
so,  for  the  ox  was  the  animal  upon  whose 
patient  labors  depended  all  the  ordinary  oper- 
ations of  farming.  Oxen  were  used  for  plough- 
ing (Deut.  xxii.  10 ;  i  Sam.  xiv.  14,  &c.)  ;  for 
treading-out  corn  (Deut.  xxv.  4;  Hos.  x.  1 1, 
&c.)  ;  for  draught  purposes,  when  they  were 
generally  yoked  in  pairs  (Num.  vii.  3;  i  Sam. 
vi.  7,  &c.)  ;  as  beasts  of  burden  (i  Chr.  xii. 
40);  their  flesh  was  eaten  (Deut.  xiv.  4;  i 
K.  i.  9,  &c.)  ;  they  were  used  in  the  sacrifices; 
cows  supplied  milk,  butter,  &c.  (Deut.  xxxii. 
14;  Is.  vii.  22;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  Connected 
with  the  importance  of  oxen  in  the  rural  econ- 
omy of  the  Jews  is  the  strict  code  of  laws 
which  was  mercifully  enacted  by  God  for  their 
protection  and  preservation.  The  ox  that 
threshed  the  corn  was  by  no  means  to  be 


284 


PAINT 


PALACE 


muzzled ;  he  was  to  enjoy  rest  on  the  Sabbath 
as  well  as  his  master  (Ex.  xxiii.  12;  Deut.  v. 
14).  The  law  which  prohibited  the  slaughter 
of  any  clean  animal,  excepting  as  "an  offering 
unto  the  Lord  before  the  tabernacle,"  during 
the  time  that  the  Israelites  abode  in  the  wil- 
derness (Lev.  xvii.  1-6),  no  doubt  contributed 
to  the  preservation  of  their  oxen  and  sheep. 
It  seems  clear  from  Prov.  xv.  17,  and  i  K.  iv. 
23,  that  cattle  were  sometimes  stall-fed, 
though  as  a  general  rule  it  is  probable  that 
they  fed  in  the  plains  or  on  the  hills  of  Pales- 
tine. The  cattle  that  grazed  at  large  in  the 
open  country  would  no  doubt  often  become 
fierce  and  wild,  for  it  is  to  be  remembered 
that  in  primitive  times  the  lion  and  other  wild 
beasts  of  prey  roamed  about  Palestine.  Hence 
the  force  of  the  Psalmist's  complaint  of  his 
enemies  (Ps.  xxii.  13). 


Paint  (as  a  cosmetic).  The  use  of  cosmetic 
dyes  has  prevailed  in  all  ages  in  Eastern  coun- 
tries. We  have  abundant  evidence  of  the 
practice  of  painting  the  eyes  both  in  ancient 
Egypt  and  Assyria ;  and  in  modern  times  no 
usage  is  more  general.  It  does  not  appear, 
however,  to  have  been  by  any  means  universal 
among  the  Hebrews.    The  notices  of  it  are 


Painted  Eyes. 

few ;  and  in  each  instance  it  seems  to  have 
been  used  as  a  meretricious  art,  unworthy  of 
a  woman  of  high  character.  Thus  Jezebel 
"put  her  eyes  in  painting"  (2  K.  ix..30,  mar- 
gin); Jeremiah  says  of  the  harlot  city, 
"Though  thou  rentest  thy  eyes  with  painting" 
(Jer.  iv.  30)  ;  and  Ezekiel  again  makes  it  a 
characteristic  of  a  harlot  (Ez.  xxiii.  40).  The 
expressions  used  in  these  passages  are  worthy 
of  observation,  as  referring  to  the  mode  in 
which  the  process  was  efTected.  It  is  thus 
described  by  Chandler  (Travels  ii.  140)  :  "A 
girl,  closing  one  of  her  eyes,  took  the  two 
lashes  between  the  forefinger  and  thumb  of 
the  left  hand,  pulled  them  forward,  and  then 
thrusting  in  at  the  external  corner  a  bodkin 


which  had  been  immersed  in  the  soot,  and 
extracting  it  again,  the  particles  before  adher- 
ing to  it  remained  within,  and  were  presently 
ranged  round  the  organ."  The  eyes  were  thus 
literally  "put  in  paint,"  and  were  "rent"  open 
in  the  process.  A  broad  line  was  also  drawn 
round  the  eye.  The  effect  was  an  apparent 
enlargement  of  the  eye ;  and  the  expression 
in  Jer.  iv.  30  has  been  by  some  understood  in 
this  sense.  The  Bible  gives  no  indication  of 
the  substance  out  of  which  the  dye  was 
formed.  The  old  versions  agree  in  pronounc- 
ing the  dye  to  have  been  produced  from  anti- 
mony. Antimony  is  still  used  for  the  purpose 
in  Arabia  and  in  Persia,  but  in  Egypt  the 
kohl  is  a  soot  produced  by  burning  either  a 
kind  of  frankin-cense  or  the  shells  of  almonds. 
The  dye-stuff  was  moistened  with  oil,  and 
kept  in  a  small  jar,  which  we  may  infer  to 
have  been  made  of  horn,  from  the  proper 
name  Keren-happuch,  "horn  for  paint"  (Job. 
xlii.  14).  Whether  the  custom  of  staining  the 
hands  and  feet,  particularly  the  nails,  now  so 
prevalent  in  the  East,  was  known  to  the  He- 
brews, is  doubtful.  The  plant  henna,  which  is 
used  for  that  purpose,  was  certainly  known 
(Cant.  i.  14;  A.  V.  "camphire"),  and  the  ex- 
pressions in  Cant.  v.  14  may  possibly  refer  to 
the  custom. 

Palace.  There  are  few  tasks  more  difficult 
or  puzzling  than  the  attempt  to  restore  an 
ancient  building  of  which  we  possess  nothing 
but  two  verbal  descriptions ;  and  these  diffi- 
culties are  very  much  enhanced  when  one  ac- 
count is  written  in  a  language  like  Hebrew, 
the  scientific  terms  in  which  are,  from  our 
ignorance,  capable  of  the  widest  latitude  of 
interpretation,  and  the  other,  though  written 
in  a  language  of  which  we  have  a  more 
definite  knowledge,  was  composed  by  a  person 
who  never  could  have  seen  the  buildings  he 
was  describing.  The  site  of  the  Palace  of 
Solomon  was  almost  certainly  in  the  city  it- 
self, on  the  brow  opposite  to  the  Temple,  and 
overlooking  it  and  the  whole  city  of  David. 
It  is  impossible,  of  course,  to  be  at  all  certain 
what  was  either  the  form  or  the  exact  disposi- 
tion of  such  a  palace ;  but,  as  we  have  the 
dimensions  of  the  three  principal  buildings 
given  in  the  Book  of  Kings,  and  confirmed 
by  Josephus,  we  may,  by  taking  these  as  a 
scale,  ascertain  pretty  nearly  that  the  building 
covered  somewhere  about  150,000  or  160,000 
square  feet.  Whether  it  was  a  square  of  400 
feet  each  way,  or  an  oblong  of  about  550  feet 
by  300,  must  always  be  more  or  less  a  matter 
of  conjecture.  The  principal  building  situated 
within  the  palace  was,  as  in  all  Eastern  pal- 
aces, the  great  hall  of  state  and  audience. 


285 


PALESTINA  AND  PALESTINE 


PALESTINA  AND  PALESTINE 


called  "The  House  of  the  Forest  of  Lebanon," 
apparently  from  the  four  rows  of  cedar  pil- 
lars by  which  it  was  supported.  It  was  loo 
cubits  long,  50  wide,  and  30  high.  Next  in 
importance  was  the  Hall  or  "Porch  of  Judg- 
ment," a  quadrangular  building  supported  by 
columns,  as  we  learn  from  Josephus,  which 
apparently  stood  on  the  other  side  of  the  great 
court,  opposite  the  House  of  the  Forest  of 
Lebanon.  The  third  edifice  is  merely  called 
a  "Porch  of  Pillars."  Its  dimensions  were  50 
by  30  cubits.  Its  use  cannot  be  considered 
as  doubtful,  as  it  was  an  indispensable  adjunct 
to  an  Eastern-  palace.  It  was  the  ordinary 
place  of  business  of  the  palace,  and  the  recep- 
tion-room when  the  king  received  ordinary 
visitors,  and  sat,  except  on  great  state  occa- 
sions, to  transact  the  business  of  the  kingdom. 
Behind  this,  we  are  told,  was  the  inner  court, 
adorned  with  gardens  and  fountains,  and  sur- 
rounded by  cloisters  for  shade ;  and  there  were 
other  courts  for  the  residence  of  the  attend- 
ants and  guards,  and  for  the  women  of  his 
harem.  Apart  from  this  palace,  but  attached, 
as  Josephus  tells  us,  to  the  Hall  of  Judgment, 
was  the  palace  of  Pharaoh's  daughter — too 
proud  and  important  a  personage  to  be 
grouped  with  the  ladies  of  the  harem,  and  re- 
quiring a  residence  of  her  own.  The  recent 
discoveries  at  Nineveh  have  enabled  us  to 
understand  many  of  the  architectural  details 
of  this  palace,  which  before  they  were  made 
were  nearly  wholly  inexplicable.  Solomon 
constructed  an  ascent  from  his  own  house  to 
the  Temple,  "the  house  of  Jehovah"  (i  K.  x. 
5),  which  was  a  subterranean  passage  250  feet 
long  by  42  feet  wide,  of  which  the  remains 
may  still  be  traced. 

Palesti'na  and  Parestine  (land  of  strangers). 
These  two  forms  occur  in  the  A.  V.  but  four 
times  in  all,  always  in  poetical  passages ;  the 
first  in  Ex.  xv.  14,  and  Is.  xiv.  29,  31 ;  the 
second,  Joel  iii.  4.  In  each  case  the  Hebrew 
is  Pelesheth,  a  word  found,  besides  the  above, 
only  in  Ps.  Ix.  8,  Ixxxiii.  7,  Ixxxvii.  4,  and  cviii. 
9,  in  all  which  our  translators  have  rendered 
it  by  "Philistia"  or  "Philistines."  Palestine  iu 
the  A.  V.  really  means  nothing  but  Philistia. 
The  original  Hebrew  word  Pelesheth,  to  the 
Hebrews,  signified  merely  the  long  and  broad 
strip  of  maritime  plain  inhabited  by  their  en- 
croaching neighbors ;  nor  does  it  appear  that 
at  first  it  signifies  more  to  the  Greeks.  As 
lying  next  the  sea,  and  as  being  also  the  high 
road  from  Egypt  to  Phoenicia  and  the  richer 
regions  north  of  it,  the  Philistine  plain  became 
sooner  known  to  the  western  world  than  the 
country  farther  inland,  and  was  called  by 
them  Syria  Palaestina — Philistine  Syria.  From 


thence  it  was  gradually  extended  to  the  coun- 
try farther  inland,  till  in  the  Roman  and  later 
Greek  authors,  both  heathen  and  Christian, 
it  becomes  the  usual  appellation  for  the  whole 
country  of  the  Jews,  both  west  and  east  of 
Jordan.  The  word  is'  now  so  commonly  em- 
ployed in  our  more  familiar  language  to 
designate  the  whole  country  of  Israel,  that, 
although  biblically  a  misnomer,  it  has  been 
chosen  here  as  the  most  convenient  heading 
under  which  to  give  a  general  description  of 
The  Holy  Land,  embracing  those  points  which 
have  not  been  treated  under  the  separate  head- 
ings of  cities  or  tribes. 

The  Holy  Land  is  not  in  size  or  physical 
characteristics  proportioned  to  its  moral  and 
historical  position,  as  the  theatre  of  the  most 
momentous  events  in  the  world's  history.  It 
is  but  a  strip  of  country  about  the  size  of  New 
Jersey,  less  than  140  miles  in  length,  and 
barely  40  in  average  breadth,  on  the  very  fron- 
tier of  the  East,  hemmed  in  between  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  enor- 
mous trench  of  the  Jordan  valley  on  the  other, 
by  which  it  is  efifectually  cut  off  from  the 
main  land  of  Asia  behind  it.  On  the  north 
it  is  shut  in  by  the  high  ranges  of  Lebanon 
and  anti-Lebanon,  and  by  the  chasm  of  the 
Litany.  On  the  south  it  is  no  less  enclosed 
by  the  arid  and  inhospitable  deserts  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  i.  Its 
position  on  the  Map  of  the  World — as  the 
world  was  when  the  Holy  Land  first  made 
its  appearance  in  history — is  a  remarkable  one. 
(i.)  It  is  on  the  very  outpost — on  the  extrem- 
est  western  edge  of  the  East.  On  the  shore 
of  the  Mediterranean  it  stands,  as  if  it  had 
advanced  as  far  as  possible  towards  the  West, 
separated  therefrom  by  that  which,  when  the 
time  arrived,  proved  to  be  no  barrier,  but  the 
readiest  medium  of  communication — the  wide 
waters  of  the  "Great  Sea."  Thus  it  was  open 
to  all  the  gradual  influences  of  the  rising  com- 
munities of  the  West,  while  it  was  saved  from 
the  retrogression  and  decrepitude  which  have 
ultimately  been  the  doom  of  all  purely  East- 
ern States  whose  connections  were  limited  to 
the  East  only,  (ii.)  There  was  however  one 
channel,  and  but  one,  by  which  it  could  reach 
and  be  reached  by  the  great  Oriental  empires. 
The  only  road  by  which  the  two  great  rivals 
of  the  ancient  world  could  approach  one  an- 
other— by  which  alone  Egypt  could  get  to 
Assyria,  and  A-ssyria  to  Egypt — lay  along  the 
broad  flat  strip  of  coast  which  formed  the 
maritime  portion  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  thence 
by  the  Plain  of  the  Lebanon  to  the  Euphrates, 
(lii.)  After  this  the  Holy  Land  became  (like 
the  Netherlands  in  Europe)  the  convenient 


286 


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PALESTINA  AND  PALESTINE 


arena  on  which  in  siiccessives  ages  the  hostile 
powers  who  contended  for  the  empire  of  the 
East  fought  their  battles.  2.  It  is  essentially 
a  mountainous  country.  Not  that  it  contains 
independent  mountain  chains,  as  in  Greece, 
for  example,  but  that  every  part  of  the  high- 
land is  in  greater  or  less  undulation.  But  it 
is  not  only  a  mountainous  country.  The  mass 
of  hills  which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  coun- 
try is  bordered  or  framed  on  both  sides,  east 
and  west,  by  a  broad  belt  of  lowland,  sunk 
deep  below  its  own  level.  The  slopes  or  cliffs 
which  form,  as  it  were,  the  retaining  walls 
of  this  depression,  are  furrowed  and  cleft  by 
the  torrent  beds  which  discharge  the  waters 
of  the  hills,  and  form  the  means  of  communi- 
cation between  the  upper  and  lower  level.  On 
the  west  this  lowland  interposes  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea,  and  is  the  Plain  of 
Philistia  and  of  Sharon.  On  the  east  it  is  the 
broad  bottom  of  the  Jordan  Valley,  deep  down 
in  which  rushes  the  one  river  of  Palestine  to 
its  grave  in  the  Dead  Sea.  Such  is  the  first 
general  impression  of  the  physiognomy  of  the 
Holy  Land.  It  is  a  physiognomy  compounded 
of  the  three  main  features  already  named — 
the  plains,  the  highland  hills,  and  the  torrent 
beds :  features  which  are  marked  in  the  words 
of  its  earliest  describers  (Num.  xiii.  29;  Josh, 
xi.  16,  xii.  8),  and  which  must  be  compre- 
hended by  every  one  who  wishes  to  under- 
stand the  country,  and  the  intimate  connection 
existing  between  its  structure  and  its  history. 
3.  About  half  way  up  the  coast  the  maritime 
plain  is  suddenly  interrupted  by  a  long  ridge 
thrown  out  from  thte  central  mass,  rising  con- 
siderably above  the  general  level,  and  termi- 
nating in  a  bold  promontory  on  the  very  edge 
of  the  ^lediterranean.  This  ridge  is  Mount 
Carmel.  On  its  upper  side,  the  plain,  as  if  to 
compensate  for  its  temporary  displacement, 
inva'des  the  centre  of  the  country,  and  forms 
an  undulating  hollow  right  across  it  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Jordan  valley.  This 
central  lowland,  which  divides  with  its  broad 
depression  the  mountains  of  Ephraim  from 
the  mountains-  of  Galilee,  is  the  Plain  of  Es- 
draelon  or  Jezreel,  the  great  battle-field  of 
Palestine.  North  of  Carmel  the  lowland  re- 
sumes its  position  by  the  sea-side  till  it  is 
again  interrupted  and  finally  put  an  end  to  by 
the  northern  mountains,  which  push  their  way 
out  of  the  sea,  ending  in  the  white  promon- 
tory of  the  Ras  Nakhura.  Above  this  is  the 
ancient  Phoenicia.  4.  The  country  thus  rough- 
ly portrayed,  and  which,  as  before  stated,  is 
less  than  140  miles  in  length,  and  not  more 
than  40  in  average  breadth,  is  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  the  whole  land  of  Israel.  The 


northern  portion  is  Galilee ;  the  centre,  Sa- 
maria ;  the  south,  Judea.  This  is  the  land 
of  Canaan  which  was  bestowed  on  Abraham ; 
the  covenanted  home  of  his  descendants.  5. 
The  highland  district,  surrounded  and  inter- 
sected by  its  broad  lowland  plains,  preserves 
from  north  to  south  a  remarkably  even  and 
horizontal  profile.  Its  average  height  may  be 
taken  as  1500  to  1800  feet  above  the  Medi- 
terranean. It  can  hardly  be  denominated  a 
plateau,  yet  so  evenly  is  the  general  level  pre- 
served, and  so  thickly  do  the  hills  stand  be- 
hind and  between  one  another,  that,  when 
seen  from  the  coast  or  the  western  part  of  the 
maritime  plain,  it  has  quite  the  appearance  of 
a  wall.  This  general  monotony  of  profile  is, 
however,  accentuated  at  intervals  by  certain 
centres  of  elevation.  Between  these  elevated 
points  runs  the  watershed  of  the  country, 
sending  off  on  either  hand — to  the  Jordan  val- 
ley on  the  east  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
west — the  long,  tortuous  arms  of  its  many 
torrent  beds.  The  valleys  on  the  two  sides 
of  the  watershed  differ  considerably  in  char- 
acter. Those  on  the  east  are  extremely  steep 
and  rugged.  The  western  valleys  are  more 
gradual  in  their  slope.  When  the  highlands  of 
the  country  are  more  closely  examined,  a  con- 
siderable difference  will  be  found  to  exist  in  the 
natural  condition  and  appearance  of  their  dif- 
ferent portions.  The  south,  as  being  nearer 
the  arid  desert,  and  farther  removed  from  the 
drainage  of  the  mountains,  is  drier  and  less 
productive  than  the  north.  The  tract  below 
Hebron,  which  forms  the  link  between  the 
hills  of  Judah  and  the  desert,  was  known  to  the 
ancient  Hebrews  by  a  term  originally  derived 
from  its  dryness  (Negeb).  This  was  The 
South  country.  As  the  traveller  advances 
north  of  this  tract  there  is  an  improvement ; 
but  perhaps  no  country  equally  cultivated  is 
more  monotonous,  bare,  or  uninviting  in  its 
aspect,  than  a  great  part  of  the  highlands  of 
Judah  and  Benjamin  during  the  largest  por- 
tion of  the  year.  The  spring  covers  even  those 
bald  gray  rocks  with  verdure  and  color,  and 
fills  the  ravines  with  torrents  of  rushing 
water;  but  in  summer  and  autumn  the  look 
of  the  country  from  Hebron  up  to  Bethel  is 
very  dreary  and  desolate.  At  Jerusalem  this 
reaches  its  climax.  To  the  west  and  north- 
west of  the  highlands,  where  the  sea-breezes 
are  felt,  there  is  considerably  more  vegetation. 
6.  Hitherto  we  have  spoken  of  the  central  and 
northern  portions  of  Judea.  Its  eastern  por- 
tion— a  tract  some  nine  or  ten  miles  in  width 
by  about  thirty-five  in  length — which  inter- 
venes between  the  centre  and  the  abrupt  de- 
scent to  the  Dead  Sea,  is  far  more  wild  and 


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PALESTINA  AND  PALESTINE: 


PALESTINA  AND  PALESTINE 


desolate,  and  that  not  for  a  portion  of  the  year 
only,  but  throughout  it.  This  must  have  been 
always  what  it  is  now — an  uninhabited  desert, 
because  uninhabitable.  No  descriptive  sketch 
of  this  part  of  the  country  can  be  com- 
plete which  does  not  allude  to  the  caverns, 
characteristic  of  all  limestone  districts,  but 
here  existing  in  astonishing  numbers.  Every 
hill  and  ravine  is  pierced  with  them,  some 
very  large  and  of  curious  formation — perhaps 

.partly  natural,  partly  artificial — others  mere 
grottos.  Many  of  them  are  connected  with 
most  important  and  interesting  events  of  the 
ancient  history  of  the  country.  Especially  is 
thia  true  of  the  district  now  under  considera- 
tion. The  bareness  and  dryness  which  pre- 
vail more  or  less  in  Judea  are  owing  partly 
to  the  absence  of  wood,  partly  to  its  proxim- 
ity to  the  desert,  and  partly  to  a  scarcity  of 
water,  arising  from  its  distance  from  the  Leb- 
anon. But  to  this  discouraging  aspect  there 
are  some  important  exceptions.  The  valley  of 
Urtas,  south  of  Bethlehem,  contains  springs 
which  in  abundance  and  excellence  rival  even 
those  of  Nabliis ;  the  huge  "Pools  of  Solomon" 
are  enough  to  supply  a  district  for  many  miles 
round  them ;  and  the  cultivation  now  going 
on  in  that  neighborhood  shows  what  might  be 
done  with  a  soil  which  requires  only  irrigation 

.  and  a  moderate  amount  of  labor  to  evoke  a 
boundless  produce.  It  is  obvious  that  in 
the  ancient  days  of  the  nation,  when  Judah 
and  Benjamin  possessed  the  teeming  popula- 
tion indicated  in  the  Bible,  the  condition  and 
aspect  of  the  country  must  have  been  very  dif- 
ferent. Of  this  there  are  not  wanting  sure 
evidences.  There  is  no  country  in  which  the 
ruined  towns  bear  so  large  a  proportion  to 
those  still  existing.  Hardly  a  hill-top  of  the 
many  within  sight  that  is  not  covered  with 
vestiges  of  some  fortress  or  city.  But,  besides 
this,  forests  appear  to  have  stood  in  many 
parts  of  Judea  until  the  repeated  invasions 
and  sieges  caused  their  fall;  and  all  this  vege- 
tation must  have  reacted  on  the  moisture  of 
the  climate,  and,  by  preserving  the  water  in 
many  a  ravine  and  natural  reservoir  where 
now  it  is  rapidly  dried  by  the  fierce  sun  of 
the  early  summer,  must  have  influenced  ma- 
terially the  look  and  the  resources  of  the 
country.  Advancing  northwards  from  Judea, 
the  country  '  (Samaria)  becomes  gradually 
more  open  and  pleasant.  Plains  of  good 
soil  occur  between  the  hills,  at  first  small,  but 
afterwards  comparatively  large.  The  hills 
assume  here  a  more  varied  aspect  than  in  the 
southern  districts,  springs  are  more  abundant 
and  more  permanent,  until  at  last,  the  district 
of  Jebel  Nabliis  is  reached — the  ancient  Mount 


Ephraim.  The  eastern  district  of  the  Jcbel 
Nablus  contain  some  of  the  most  fertile  and 
valuable  spots  in  the  Holy  Land.  Hardly  less 
rich  is  the  extensive  region  which  lies  north- 
west of  the  city  of  Shechem  (Nablus),  be- 
tween it  and  Carmel,  in  which  the  mountains 
gradually  break  down  into  the  Plain  of 
Sharon.  But  with  all  its  richness,  and  all  its 
advance  on  the  southern  part  of  the  country, 
there  is  a  strange  dearth  of  natural  wood 
about  this  central  district.  It  is  this  which 
makes  the  wooded  sides  of  Carmel  and  the 
park-like  scenery  of  the  adjacent  slopes  and 
plains  so  remarkable.  No  sooner,  however, 
is  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon  passed,  than  a 
considerable  improvement  is  perceptible.  The 
low  hills  which  spread  down  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Galilee,  and  form  the  barrier  between 
the  plains  of  Akka  and  Esdraelon,  are  covered 
with  timber,  of  moderate  size,  it  is  true,  but 
of  thick,  vigorous  growth,  and  pleasant  to  the 
eye.  Eastward  of  these  hills  rises  the  round 
mass  of  Tabor,  dark  with  its  copses  of  oak, 
and  set  ofif  by  contrast  with  the  bare  slopes 
of  Jebel  ed-Duhy  (the  so-called  "Little  Her- 
mon")  and  the  white  hills  of  Nazareth.  North 
of  Tabor  and  Nazareth  is  the  plain  of  el-But- 
tauf,  an  upland  tract  hitherto  very  imperfectly 
described,  but  apparently  of  a  similar  nature 
to  Esdraelon,  though  much  more  elevated. 
The  notices  of  this  romantic  district  in  the 
Bible  are  but  Scanty;  in  fact,  till  the  date  of 
the  New  Testament,  when  it  had  acquired  the 
name  of  Galilee,  it  may  be  said,  for  all  pur- 
poses of  history,  to  be  hardly  mentioned.  And 
even  in  the  New  Testament  times  the  interest 
is  confined  to  a  very  small  portion — the  south 
and  southwest  corner,  containing  Nazareth, 
Cana,  and  Nain,  on  the  confines  of  Esdraelon, 
Capernaum,  Tiberias,  and  Gennesareth,  on  the 
margin  of  the  Lake.  Few  things  are  more 
constant  source  of  surprise  to  the  stranger  in 
the  Holy  Land  than  the  manner  in  which  the 
hill-tops  are,  throughout,  selected  for  habita- 
tion. A  town  in  a  valley  is  a  rare  exception. 
On  the  other  hand,  scarce  a  single  eminence 
of  the  multitude  always  in  sight  but  is  crowned 
with  its  city  or  village,  inhabited  or  in  ruins, 
often  so  placed  as  if  not  accessibility,  but  in- 
accessibility, had  been  the  object  of  its  build- 
ers. And  indeed  such  was  their  object.  These 
groups  of  naked,  forlorn  structures,  piled 
irregularly  one  over  the  other  on  the  curve 
of  the  hill-top,  are  the  lineal  descendants,  if 
indeed  they  do  not  sometimes  contain  the 
actual  remains,  of  the  "fenced  cities,  great  arid 
walled  up  to  heaven,"  which  are  so  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  records  of  the  Israelite  con- 
quest.   These  hill-towns  were  not  what  gave 


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PALESTINA  AND  PALESTINE 


the  Israelites  their  main  difficulty  in  the  occu- 
pation of  the  country.  Whatever  strength  of 
arm  and  fleetness  of  foot  availed,  there  those 
hardy  warriors,  fierce  as  lions,  sudden  and 
swift  as  eagles,  sure-footed  and  fleet  as  the 
wild  deer  on  the  hills  (i  Chr.  xii.  8;  2  Sam. 
i.  23,  ii.  18),  easily  conquered.  It  was  in  the 
plams,  where  the  horses  and  chariots  of  the 
Canaanites  and  Philistines  had  space  to  man- 
oeuvre, that  they  failed  in  dislodging  the  abor- 
igines. Thus  in  this  case  the  ordinary  con- 
ditions of  conquest  were  reversed — the  con- 
querors took  the  hills,  the  conquered  kept  the 
plains.  To  a  people  so  exclusive  as  the  Jews 
there  must  have  been  a  constant  satisfaction 
in  the  elevation  and  inaccessibility  of  their 
highland  regions.  This  is  evident  in  every 
page  of  their  literature,  which  is  tinged 
throughout  with  highland  coloring.  A  few 
words  must  be  said  in  general  description  of 
the  maritime  lowland,  which  intervenes  be- 
tween the  sea  and  the  highlands.  This  region, 
only  slightly  elevated  above  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean,  extends  without  interruption 
from  el-Arish,  south  of  Gaza,  to  IVIount  Car- 
mel.  It  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  por- 
tions, each  of  about  half  its  length ;  the  lower 
one  the  wider,  the  upper  one  the  narrower. 
The  lower  half  is  the  Plain  of  the  Philistines 
— Philistia,  or,  as  the  Hebrews  called  it,  the 
Shefelah  or  Lowland.  The  upper  half  is  the 
Sharon  or  Saron  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. The  Philistine  Plain  is  on  an  average 
15  or  16  miles  in  width  from  the  coast  to  the 
first  beginning  of  the  belt  of  hills  which  forms 
the  gradual  approach  to  the  high  land  of  the 
mountains  of  Judah.  Its  fertility  is  marvel- 
ous ;  for  the  prodigious  crops  which  it  raises 
are  produced,  and  probably  have  been  pro- 
duced almost  year  by  year  for  the  last  forty 
centuries,  without  any  of  the  appliances  which 
we  find  necessary  for  success.  The  Plain  of 
Sharon  is  much  narrower  than  Philistia.  It 
is  about  10  miles  wide  from  the  sea  to  the 
foot  of  the  mountains,  which  are  here  of  a 
more  abrupt  character  than  those  of  Philistia, 
and  without  the  intermediate  hilly  region  there 
occurring.  The  one  ancient  port  of  the 
Jews,  the  "beautiful"  city  of  Joppa,  occupied 
a  position  central  between  the  Shefelah  and 
Sharon.  Roads  led  from  these  various  cities 
to  each  other,  to  Jerusalem,  Neapolis,  and 
Sebaste  in  the  interior,  and  to  Ptolemais  and 
Gaza  on  the  north  and  south.  The  commerce 
of  Damascus,  and,  beyond  Damascus,  of 
Persia  and  India,  passed  this  Way  to  Egypt, 
Rome,  and  the  infant  colonies  of  the  west; 
and  that  traffic  and  the  constant  movement 
of  troops  backwards  and  forwards  must  have 


made  this  plain  one  of  the  busiest  and  most 
populous  regions  of  Syria  at  the  time  of 
Christ.  The  characteristics  already  described 
are  hardly  peculiar  to  Palestine.  But  there 
is  one  feature,  as  yet  only  alluded  to,  in 
which  she  stands  alone.  This  feature  is  the 
Jordan — the  one  river  of  the  country.  The 
river  is  elsewhere  described  [Jordan].  Buried 
as  it  is  between  such  lofty  ranges,  and  shield- 
ed from  every  breeze,  the  climate  of  the  Jor- 
dan valley  is  extremely  hot  and  relaxing.  Its 
enervating  influence  is  shown  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Jericho.  All  the  irrigation  necessary 
for  the  cultivation  which  formerly  existed  is 
.obtained  from  the  torrents  of  the  western 
mountains.  For  all  purposes  to  which  a  river 
is  ordinarily  applied  the  Jordan  is  useless.  The 
Dead  Sea,  which  is  the  final  receptacle  of  the 
Jordan,  is  described  elsewhere.  [Sea,  The 
Salt.]  Monotonous  and  uninviting  as  much 
of  the  Holy  Land  will  appear,  from  the 
above  description,  to  readers  accustomed  to 
the  constant  verdure,  the  succession  of 
flowers,  lasting  almost  throughout  the  year, 
the  ample  streams  and  the  varied  surface  of 
the  southern  part  of  our  country — we  must 
reme^mber  that  its  aspect  to  the  Israelites 
after  that  weary  march  of  forty  years  through 
the  desert,  and  even  by  the  side  of  the  bright- 
est recollections  of  Egypt  that  they  could  con- 
jure up,  must  have  been  very  dififercnt.  '  They 
entered  the  country  at  the  time  of  the  Pass- 
over, when  it  was  arrayed  in  the  full  glory 
and  freshness  of  its  brief  springtide,  before  the 
scorching  sun  of  summer  had  had  time  to 
wither  its  flowers  and  embrown  its  verdure. 
Taking  all  these  circumstances  into  account, 
and  allowing  for  the  bold  metaphors  of  Ori- 
ental speech,  it  is  impossible  not  to  feel  that 
those  way-worn  travellers  could  have  chosen 
no  fitter  words  to  express  what  their  new 
country  was  to  them  than  those  which  they 
so  often  employ  in  the  accounts  of  the  con- 
quest— "a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey, 
the  glory  of  all  lands."  In  the  preceding 
description,  allusion  has  been  made  to  many 
of  the  characteristic  featvires  of  the  Holy 
Land.  But  it  is  impossible  to  close  this  ac- 
count without  mentioning  a  defect  which  is 
even  more  characteristic — its  lack  of  monu- 
ments and  personal  relics  of  the  nation  who 
possessed  it  for  so  many  centuries,  and  gave 
it  its  claim  to  our  veneration  and  affection. 
When  compared  with  other  nations  of  equal 
antiquity, — Egypt,  Greece,  Assyria — the  con- 
trast is  truly  remarkable.  In  Egypt  and 
Greece,  and  also  in  Assyria,  as  far  as  our 
knowledge  at  present  extends,  we  find  a  series 
of  buildings,  reaching  down  from  the  most  re- 


289 


i^ALM  TREE 


PARAliEE 


mote  and  mysterious  antiquity,  a  chain,  of 
which  hardly  a  link  is  wanting,  and  which 
records  tlie  progress  of  the  people  in  civiliza- 
tion, art,  and  religion,  as  certainly  as  the 
buildings  of  the  mediaeval  architects  do  that 
of  the  various  nations  of  modern  Europe.  But 
in  Palestine  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
there  does  not  exist  a  single  edifice,  or  part  of 
an  edifice,  of  which  w^  can  be  sure  that  it  is 
of  a  date  anterior  to  the  Christian  era.  And 
as  with  the  buildings,  so  with  other  mem- 
orials. With  one  exception,  the  museums  of 
Europe  do  not  possess  a  smgle  piece  of  pot- 
tery or  metal  work,  a  single  weapon  or  house- 
hold utensil,  an  ornament  or  a  piece  of  armor, 
of  Israelite  make,  which  can  give  us  the  least 
conception  of  the  manners  or  outward  appli- 
ances of  the  nation  before  the  date  of  the  de- 
struction^of  Jerusalem  by  Titus.  The  coins 
form  the  single  exception.  M.  Renan  has 
named  two  circumstances  which  must  have 
had  a  great  effect  in  suppressing  art  or  archi- 
tecture amongst  the  ancient  Israelites,  while 
their  very  existence  proves  that  the  people  had 
no  genius  in  that  direction.  These  are  (i)  the 
prohibition  of  sculptured  representations  of 
living  creatures,  and  (2)  the  command  not  to 
build  a  temple  anywhere  but  at  Jerusalem. 

Palm-tree.  Under  this  generic  term  many 
species  are  botanically  included ;  but  we  have 


Palm  Tree,  showing  fruit. 


here  only  to  do  with  the  Date-palm.  While 
this  tree  was  abundant  generally  in  the  Lev- 
ant, it  was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  pecu- 
liarly characteristic  of  Palestine  and  the 
neighboring  regions.  With  a  tree  so  abundant 
in  Judaea,  and  so  marked  in  its  growth  and 


appearance,  as  the  palm,  it  seems  rather  re- 
markable that  it  does  not  appear  more  fre- 
quently in  the  imagery  of  the  (3.  T.  There  is, 
however,  in  the  Psalms  (xcii.  12),  the  familiar 
comparison,  "The  righteous  shall  flourish  like 
the  palm-tree,"  which  suggests  a  world  of 
illustration,  whether  respect  be  had  to  the 
orderly  and  regular  aspect  of  the  tree,  its 
fruitfulness,  the  perpetual  greenness  of  its 
foliage,  or  the  height  at  which  the  foliage 
grows,  as  far  as  possible  from  earth  and  as 
near  as  possible  to  heaven. 

Palsy.  The  palsy  meets  us  in  the  N.  T. 
only,  and  in  features  too  familiar  to  need  spe- 
cial remark.  The  words  "grievously  torment- 
ed" (Matt.  viii.  6)  may  refer  to  paralysis 
agitans,  or  even  to  St.  Vitus'  dance,  in  both 
of  which  the  patient,  being  never  still  for  a, 
moment  save  when  asleep,  might  well  be  so 
described.  The  woman's  case  who  was 
"bowed  together"  by  "a  sipirit  of  infirmity," 
may  probably  have  been  that  of  a  paralytic 
(Luke  xiii.  11). 

Pan.  Of  the  six  words  so  rendered  in  A.  V., 
two,  machabath  and  masreth,  seem  to  imply 
a  shallow  pan  or  plate,  such  as  is  used  by 
Bedouins  and  Syrians  for  baking  or  dressing 
rapidly  their  cakes  of  meal,  such  as  were  used 
in  legal  oblations;  the  others,  especially  sir, 
a  deeper  vessel  or  caldron  for  boiling  meat, 
placed  during  the  process  on  three  stones. 

Paper.  [Writing.] 

Papyrus.  [Reed.] 

Parable.  By  the  Jewish  Rabbis  the  parable 
was  made  the  instrument  for  teaching  the 
young  disciple  to  discern  the  treasure  of  wis- 
dom, of  which  the  "accvirsed"  multitude  were 
ignorant.  The  teaching  of  our  Lord  at  the 
commencement  of  His  ministry  was,  in  every 
way,  the  opposite  of  this.  The  Sermon  on 
the  Mount  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the 
"words  of  grace"  which  he  spoke,  "not  as  the 
scribes."  So  for  some  months  He  taught  in 
the  synagogues  and  on  the  sea-shore  of  Gali- 
lee, as  He  had  before  taught  in  Jerusalem, 
and  as  yet  without  a  parable.  But  then  there 
comes  a  change.  The  direct  teaching  was 
met  with  scorn,  tmbelief,  hardness,  and  He 
seems  for  a  time  to  abandon  it  for  that  which 
took  the  form  of  parables.  The  question  of 
the  disciples  (Matt.  xiii.  10)  implies  that  they 
were  astonished.  Their  Master  was  speaking 
to  the  multitude  in  the  parables  and  dark  say- 
ings which  the  Rabbis  reserved  for  their 
chosen  disciples.  Here,  for  them,  were  two 
grounds  of  wonder.  Here,  for  us,  is  the  key 
to  the  explanation  which  He  gave,  that  He 
had  chosen  this  form  of  teaching  because  the 
people  were  spiritually  blind  and  deaf  (Matt. 


290 


PARABLE 


PASSAGE. 


xiii.  13),  and  in  order  that  they  might  remain 
so  (Mark  iv.  12).  The  worth  of  parables,  as 
instruments  of  teaching,  lies  in  their  being  at 
once  a  test  of  character,  and  in  their  present- 
ing each  form  of  character  with  that  which, 
as  a  penalty  or  blessing,  is  adapted  to  it.  They 
withdraw  the  light  from  those  who  love  dark- 
ness. They  protect  the  truth  which  they  en- 
shrine from  the  mockery  of  the  scoffer.  They 
leave  something  even  with  the  careless  which 
may  be  interpreted  and  understood  afterwards. 
The\^  reveal,  on  the  other  hand,  the  seekers 
after  trvith.  These  ask  the  meaning  of  the 
parable,  and  will  not  rest  till  the  teacher  has 
explained  it.  In  this  way  the  parable  did  its 
work,  found  out  the  fit  hearers,  and  led  them 
on.  In  the  parables  which  remain  it  is  pos- 
sible to  trace  something  like  an  order.  (A.) 
There  is  the  group  which  have  for  their  sub- 
ject the  laws  of  the  Divine  Kingdom.  Under 
this  head  we  have — I.  The  Sower  (Matt,  xiii.; 
Mark  iv. ;  Luke  viii.).  2.  The  Wheat  and  the 
Tares  (Matt.  xiii.).  3.  The  Mustard-Seed 
(Matt,  xiii.;  Mark  iv.).  4.  The  Seed  cast  into 
the  Ground  (Mark  iv.).  5.  The  Leaven  (Matt, 
xiii.).  6.  The  Hid  Treasure  (Matt.  xiii.).  7. 
The  Pearl  of  Great  Price  (^latt.  xiii.).  8.  The 
Net  cast  into  the  Sea  (Alatt.  xiii.).  (B.) 
When  the  next  parables  meet  us  they  are  of 
a  different  type  and  occupy  a  different  posi- 
tion. They  are  drawn  from  the  life  of  men 
rather  than  from  the  world  of  nature.  The)' 
are  such  as  these — 9.  The  Two  Debtors  (Luke 
vii.).  10.  The  [Merciless  Servant  (Matt,  xviii.). 
II.  The  Good  Samaritan  (Luke  x.).  12.  The 
Friend  at  Midnight  (Luke  xi.).  13.  The  Rich 
Fool  (Luke  xii.).  14.  The  Wedding  Feast 
(Luke  xii.).  15.  The  Fig-Tree  (Luke  xiii.). 
16.  The  Great  Supper  (Luke  xiv.).  17.  The 
Lost  Sheep  (Matt,  xviii.;  Luke  xv.).  18.  The. 
Lost  Piece  of  Money  (Luke  xv.).  19.  The 
Prodigal  Son  (Luke  xv.).  20.  The  Unjust 
Steward  (Luke  xvi.).  21,  The  Rich  Man  and 
Lazarus  (Luke  xvi.).  22.  The  Unjust  Judge 
(Luke  xviii.).  23.  The  Pharisee  and  the  Pub- 
lican (Luke  xviii.).  24.  The  Laborers  in  the 
Vineyard  (Matt.  xx.).  (C.)  Towards  the  close 
of  our  Lord's  ministry,  the  parables  are  again 
theocratic,  but  the  phase  of  the  Divine  King- 
dom, on  which  they  chiefly  dwell,  is  that  of 
its  final  consummation.  To  this  class  we  may 
refer : 

25.  The  Pounds  (Luke  xix.).  26.  The  Two 
Sons  (Matt.  xxi.).  27.  The  Vineyard  let  out 
to  Husbandmen  (Matt,  xxi.;  Mark  xii.;  Luke 
XX.).  28.  The  Marriage-Feast  (Matt.  xxii.). 
29.  The  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins  (Matt. 
XXV.).  30.  The  Talents  (Matt.  xxv.).  31. 
The  Sheep  and  the  Goats  (Matt,  xxv.).    It  is 


characteristic  of  the  several  Gospels  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  parables  of  the  first  and 
third  groups  belong  to  St.  Matthew,  em- 
phatically the  Evangelist  of  the  kingdom. 
Those  of  the  second  are  found  for  the  most 
part  in  St.  Luke. 

Paradise  is  a  word  of  Persian  origin,  and 
is  used  in  the  Septuagint  as  the  translation  of 
Eden.  In  the  common  belief  Paradise  was  a 
far-off  land,  a  region  where  there  was  no 
scorching  heat,  no  consuming  cold ;  and  the 
common  prayer  for  the  dying  or  the  dead  was 
that  their  souls  might  rest  in  Paradise,  in  the 
garden  of  Eden.  The  eager  curiosity  which 
prompts  men  to  press  on  into  the  things  behind 
the  veil,  has  led  them  to  construct  hypotheses 
more  or  less  definite  as  to  the  intermediate 
state,  and  these  have  affected  the  thoughts 
which  Christian  writers  have  connected  with 
the  word  Paradise.  The  word  enters  largely, 
as  might  be  expected,  into  the  apocryphal  lit- 
erature of  the  early  Church.  Where  the  true 
Gospels  are  most  reticent,  the  mythical  are 
most  exuberant. 

Parchment.  [Writing.] 

Parlor.  A  word  in  English  usage  meaning 
the  common  room  of  the  family,  and  hence 
probably  in  A.  V.  denoting  the  king's  audi- 
ence-chamber, so  used  in  reference  to  Eglon 
(Judg.  iii.  20-25). 

Partridge  occurs  only  i  Sam.  xxvi.  20,  and 
Jer.  xvii.  11.  The  "hunting  this  bird  upon  the 
mountains"  (i  Sam.  xxvi.  20)  entirely  agrees 
with  the  habits  of  two  well-known  species  of 


The  Greek  Partridge. 


partridge,  viz.  Caccabis  saxatilis  (the  Greek 
partridge)  and  Ammoperdix  Heyii.  The  ex- 
pression in  Ecclus.  xi.  30,  "like  as  a  partridge 
taken  (and  kept)  in  a  cage,"  clearly  refers  to 
"a  decoy  partridge."  Our  common  partridge 
(Perdix  cinerea)  does  not  occur  in  Palestine. 

Passage.  Used  in  plur.  (Jer.  xxii.  20),  prob- 
ably to  denote  the  mountain  region  of  Abarim, 


PASSOVER 


PASSOVER 


on  the  east  side  of  Jordan.  It  also  denotes 
a  river-ford  or  a  mountain  gorge  or  pass. 

Passover,  the  first  of  the  three  great  annual 
Festivals  of  the  Israelites,  celebrated  in  the 
month  of  Nisan,  from  the  14th  to  the  21st. 
The  following  are  the  principal  passages  in 
the  Pentateuch  relating  to  the  Passover:  Ex, 
xii.  1-51,  xiii.  3-10,  xxiii.  14-19,  xxxiv.  18-26; 
Lev.  xxiii.  4-14;  Num.  ix.  1-14,  xxviii.  16-25; 
Deut.  xvi.  1-6.  I.  Institution  and  First  Cele- 
bration of  the  Passover. — When  the  chosen 
people  were  about  to  be  brought  out  of  Egypt, 
the  word  of  the  Lord  came  to  Moses  and 
Aaron,  commanding  them  to  instruct  all  the 
congregation  of  Israel  to  prepare  for  their 
departure  by  a  solemn  religious  ordinance. 
On  the  tenth  day  of  the  month  of  Abib,  the 
head  of  each  family  was  to  select  from  the 
flock  either  a  lamb  or  a  kid,  a  male  of  the 
first  year,  without  blemish.  On  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  month  he  was  to  kill  his  lamb, 
while  the  sun  was  setting.  He  was  then  to 
take  blood  in  a  basin,  and  with  a  sprig  of 
hyssop  to  sprinkle  it  on  the  two  side-posts  and 
the  lintel  of  the  door  of  the  house.  The  lamb 
was  then  thoroughly  roasted,  whole.  It  was 
expressly  forbidden  that  it  should  be  boiled, 
or  that  a  bone  of  it  should  be  broken.  Un- 
leavened bread  and  bitter  herbs  were  to  be 
eaten  with  the  flesh.  No  male  who  was  un- 
circumcised  was  to  join  the  company.  Each 
one  was  to  have  his  loins  girt,  to  hold  a  staff 
in  his  hand,  and  to  have  shoes  on  his  feet. 
He  was  to  eat  in  haste,  and  it  would  seem 
that  he  was  to  stand  during  the  meal.  The 
number  of  the  party  was  to  be  calculated  as 
nearly  as  possible,  so  that  all  the  flesh  of  the 
lamb  might  be  eaten ;  but  if  any  portion  of  it 
happened  to  remain,  it  was  to  be  burned  in 
the  morning.  No  morsel  of  it  was  to  be  car- 
ried out  of  the  house.  The  lambs  were  select- 
ed, on  the  fourteenth  they  were  slain,  and  the 
blood  sprinkled,  and  in  the  following  evening, 
after  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  month  had  com- 
menced, the  first  paschal  meal  was  eaten.  At 
midnight  the  first-born  of  the  Egyptians  were 
smitten.  The  king  and  his  people  were  now 
urgent  that  the  Israelites  should  start  imme- 
diately, and  readily  bestowed  on  them  sup- 
plies for  the  journey.  In  such  haste  did  the 
Israelites  depart,  on  that  very  day  (Num. 
xxxiii.  3),  that  they  packed  up  their  kneading- 
troughs  containing  the  dough  prepared  "for  the 
morrow's  provisions,  which  was  not  yet  leav- 
ened. II.  Observance  of  the  Passover  in  Later 
Times. — In  the  later  notices  of  the  festival 
in  the  books  of  the  law  there  are  particulars 
added  which  appear  as  modifications  of  the 
original  institution  (Lev.  xxiii.  10,  14;  Num. 


xxviii.  16-25;  Deut.  xvi.  1-6).  Hence  it  is  not 
without  reason  that  the  Jewish  writers  have 
laid  great  stress  on  the  distinction  between 
"the  Egyptian  Passover"  and  "the  perpetual 
Passover."  The  following  was  the  general 
order  of  the  observances  of  the  Passover  in 
later  times :  On  the  14th  of  Nisan  every  trace 
of  leaven  was  put  away  from  the  houses,  and 
on  the  same  day  every  male  Israelite  not 
laboring  under  any  bodily  infirmity  or  cere- 
monial impurity,  was  commanded  to  appear 
before  the  Lord  at  the  national  sanctuary  with 
an  offering  of  money  in  proportion  to  his 
means  (Ex.  xxiii.  15;  Deut.  xvi.  16,  17).  De- 
vout women  sometimes  attended,  as  is  proved 
by  the  instances  of  Hannah  and  Mary  (i  Sam. 
i.  7;  Luke  ii.  41,  42).  As  the  sun  was  setting, 
the  lambs  were  slain,  and  the  fat  and  blood 
given  to  the  priests  (2  Chr.  xxxv.  5,  6).  The 
lamb  was  then  roasted  whole,  and  eaten  with 
unleavened  bread  and  bitter  herbs ;  no  portion 
of  it  was  to  be  left  until  the  morning.  The 
same  night,  after  the  15th  of  Nisan  had  com- 
menced, the  fat  was  burned  by  the  priest  and 
the  blood  sprinkled  on  the  altar  (2  Chr.  xxx. 
16,  xxxv.  11).  On  the  15th  the  night  being 
passed,  there  was  a  holy  convocation,  and 
during  that  day  no  work  might  be  done,  ex- 
cept the  preparation  of  necessary  food  (Ex. 
xii.  16).  On  this  and  the  six  following  days 
an  offering  in  addition  to  the  daily  sacrifice 
was  made  of  two  young  bullocks,  a  ram,  and 
seven  lambs  of  the  first  year,  with  meat-offer- 
ings, for  a  burnt-offering,  and  a  goat  for  a 
sin-offering  (Num.  xxviii.  19-23).  On  the  i6th 
of  the  month,  "the  morrow  after  the  sabbath" 
(i.  e.  after  the  day  of  holy  convocation),  the 
first  sheaf  of  harvest  was  offered  and  waved 
by  the  priest  before  the  Lord,  and  a  male 
lamb  was  offered  as  a  burnt  sacrifice  with  a 
meat  and  drink  offering.  Nothing  necessarily 
distinguished  the  four  following  days  of  the 
festival,  except  the  additional  burnt  and  sin- 
offerings,  and  the  restraint  from  some  kinds 
of  labor.  On  the  seventh  day,  the  21st  of 
Nisan,  there  was  a  holy  convocation,  and  the 
day  appears  to  have  been  one  of  peculiar  so- 
lemnity. As  at  all  the  festivals,  cheerfulness 
was  to  prevail  during  the  whole  week,  and  all 
care  was  to  be  laid  aside  (Deut.  xxvii.  7).  3. 
The  Paschal  Lamb — Mode  and  Order  of 
the  Paschal  Meal. — Adopting  as  much  from 
Jewish  tradition  as  is  not  inconsistent 
or  improbable,  the  following  appears  to  have 
been  the  usual  custom :  All  work  ex- 
cept that  belonging  to  a  few  trades  connected 
with  daily  life,  was  suspended  for  some  hours 
before  the  evening  of  the  14th  Nisan.  It  was 
not  lawful  to  eat  any  ordinary  food  after  mid- 


292 


THE  WIDOW'S  MITE.    MARTIN  DE  VOS.    AFTER  THE 
PAINTING  IN  THE  ANTWEUP  MUSEUM. 


J 


PASSOVER 


PASSOVER 


day.  No  male  was  admitted  to  the  table  un- 
less he  was  circumcised,  even  if  he  was  of  the 
seed  of  Israel  (Ex.  xii.  48).  It  was  customary 
for  the  number  of  a  party  to  be  not  less  than 
ten.  When  the  meal  was  prepared,  the  family 
was  placed  round  the  table,  the  paterfamilias 
taking  a  place  of  honor,  probably  somewhat 
raised  above  the  rest.  When  the  party  was 
arranged  the  first  cup  of  wine  was  filled,  and 
a  blessing  was  asked  by  the  head  of  the  fam- 
ily on  the  feast,  as  well  as  a  special  one  on 
the  cup.  The  bitter  herbs  were  then  placed 
on  the  table,  and  a  portion  of  them  eaten, 
either  with  or  without  the  sauce.  The  un- 
leavened bread  was  handed  round  next,  and 
afterwards  the  lamb  was  placed  on  the  table 
in  front  of  the  head  of  the  family.  Before  the 
lamb  was  eaten  the  second  cup  of  wine  was 
filled,  and  the  son,  in  accordance  with  Ex.  xii. 
26,  asked  his  father  the  meaning  of  the  feast. 
In  reply,  an  account  was  given  of  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt,  and  of  their 
deliverance,  with  a  particular  explanation  of 
Deut.  xxvi.  5,  and  the  first  part  of  the  Hallel 
(Ps.  cxiii.,  cxiv.)  was  sung.  This  being  gone 
through,  the  lamb  was  carved  and  eaten.  The 
third  cup  of  wine  was  poured  out  and  drunk, 
and  soon  afterwards  the  fourth.  The  second 
part  of  the  Hallel  (Ps.  cxv.  to  cxviii.)  was 
then  sung.  A  fifth  wine-cup  appears  to  have 
been  occasionally  produced,  but  perhaps  only 
in  later  times.  \\'hat  was  termed  the  greater 
Hallel  (Ps.  cxx.  to  cxxxviii.)  was  sung  on 
such  occasions.  The  Israelites  who  lived  in 
the  country  appear  to  have  been  accommo- 
dated at  the  feast  by  the  inhabitants  of  Jeru- 
salem in  their  houses,  so  far  as  there  was 
room  for  them  (Luke  xxii.  10-12;  Matt.  xxvi. 
18).  Those  who  could  not  be  received  into 
the  city  encamped  without  the  walls  in  tents, 
as  the  pilgrims  now  do  at  Mecca,  (g.)  The 
First  Sheaf  of  Harvest. — The  offering  of  the 
Omer,  or  sheaf,  is  mentioned  nowhere  in  the 
Law  except  Lev.  xxiii.  10-14.  It  is  there  com- 
manded that  when  the  Israelites  reached  the 
land  of  promise,  they  should  bring,  on  the  i6th 
of  the  month,  "the  morrow  after  the  sabbath" 
(i.  e.  the  day  of  holy  convocation),  the  first 
sheaf  of  the  harvest  to  the  priest,  to  be  waved 
by  him  before  the  Lord.  The  sheaf  was  of 
barley,  as  being  the  grain  which  was  first  ripe 
(2  K.  iv.  42).  (h.)  The  Chagigah. — The  daily 
sacrifices  are  enumerated  in  the  Pentateuch 
only  in  Num.  xxviii.  19-23,  but  reference  is 
made  to  them  Lev.  xxiii.  S.  Besides  these 
public  offerings,  there  was  another  sort  of 
sacrifice  connected  with  the  Passover,  as  well 
as  with  the  other  great  festivals,  called  in  the 
Talmud  Chagigah,  i.  e.  "festivity."    It  was  a 


voluntary  peace-offering  made  by  private  indi- 
\iduals.  The  victim  might  be  taken  either 
from  the  flock  or  the  herd.  It  might  be  either 
male  or  female,  but  it  must  be  without  blem- 
ish. The  offerer  laid  his  hand  upon  its  head, 
and  slew  it  at  the  door  of  the  sanctuary.  The 
blood  was  sprinkled  on  the  altar,  and  the  fat 
of  the  inside,  with  the  kidneys,  was  burned 
by  the  priest.  The  breast  was  given  to  the 
priest  as  a  wave-offering,  and  the  right  shoul- 
der as  a  heave-offering  (Lev.  iii.  1-5,  vii.  29- 
34).  What  remained  of  the  victim  might  be 
eaten  by  the  offerer  and  his  guests  on  the  day 
on  which  it  was  slain,  and  on  the  day  follow- 
ing ;  but  if  any  portion  was  left  till  the  third 
day  it  was  burned  (Lev.  vii.  i6-i8j.  The  eat- 
ing of  the  Chagigah  was  an  occasion  of  social 
festivity  connected  with  the  festivals,  and 
especially  with  the  Passover,  (i.)  Release  of 
Prisoners. — It  is  a  question  whether  the  re- 
lease of  a  prisoner  at  the  Passover  (Matt, 
xxvii.  15;  Mark  xv.  6;  Luke  xxiii.  17;  John 
xviii.  39)  was  a  custom  of  Roman  origin  re- 
sembling what  took  place  at  the  lectisternium 
(Liv.  V.  13),  and,  in  later  times,  on  the  birth- 
day of  an  emperor,  or  whether  it  was  an  old 
Hebrew  usage  belonging  to  the  festival,  which 
Pilate  allowed  the  Jev^s  to  retain.  The  deliv- 
erance from  Egypt  was  regarded  as  the  start- 
ing-point of  the  Hebrew  nation.  The  Israel- 
ites were  then  raised  from  the  condition  of 
bondmen  under  a  foreign  tyrant  to  that  of  a 
free  people  owing  allegiance  to  no  one  but 
Jehovah.  The  prophet  in  a  later  age  spoke  of 
the  event  as  a  creation  and  a  redemption  of 
the  nation.  God  declares  Himself  to  be  "the 
Creator  of  Israel."  The  Exodus  was  thus 
looked  upon  as  the  birth  of  the  nation ;  the 
Passover  was  its  annual  birthday  feast.  It 
was  the  yearly  memorial  of  the  dedication  of 
the  people  to  Him  who  had  saved  their  first- 
born from  the  destroyer,  in  order  that  they 
might  be  made  holy  to  Himself,  (a.)  The 
paschal  lamb  must  of  course  be  regarded  as 
the  leading  feature  in  the  ceremonial  of  the 
festival.  Some  Protestant  divines  during  the 
last  two  centuries  (Calov,  Carpzov)  have  de- 
nied that  it  was  a  sacrifice  in  the  proper  sense 
of  the  word.  But  most  of  their  contemporaries 
(Cudworth,  Bochart,  Vitringa),  and  nearly  all 
modern  critics,  have  held  that  it  was  in  the 
strictest  sense  a  sacrifice.  The  chief  charac- 
teristics of  a  sacrifice  are  all  distinctly  ascribed 
to  it.  It  was  offered  in  the  holy  place  (Deut. 
xvi.  5,  6)  ;  the  blood  was  sprinkled  on  the 
altar,  and  the  fat  was  burned  (2  Chr.  xxx.  16, 
XXXV.  11).  The  language  of  Ex.  xii.  27,  xxiii. 
18,  Num.  ix.  7,  Deut.  xvi.  2,  5,  together  with  i 
Cor.  v.  7,  would  seem  to  decide  the  question 


293 


PASSOVER 


PAUL 


beyond  the  reach  of  doubt.  As  the  original 
institution  of  the  Passover  in  Egypt  preceded 
the  establishment  of  the  priesthood  and  the 
regulation  of  the  service  of  the  tabernacle,  it 
necessarily  fell  short  in  several  particulars  of 
the  observance  of  the  festival  according  to  the 
fully  developed  ceremonial  law.  The  head  of 
the  family  slew  the  lamb  in  his  own  house,  not 
in  the  holy  place;  the  blood  was  sprinkled 
on  the  doorway,  not  on  the  altar.  But  when 
the  law  was  perfected,  certain  particulars  were 
altered  in  order  to  assimilate  the  Passover  to 
the  accustomed  order  of  religious  service.  It 
can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  paschal  lamb 
was  regarded  as  the  great  annual  peace-offer- 
ing of  the  family,  a  thank-offering  for  the  ex- 
istence and  preservation  of  the  nation  (Ex. 
xiii.  14-16),  the  typical  sacrifice  of  the  elected 
and  reconciled  children  of  the  promise.  No 
satisfactory  reason  has  been  assigned  for  the 
command  to  choose  the  lamb  four  days  before 
the  paschal  supper.  That  the  lamb  was  to  be 
roasted,  and  not  boiled,  has  been  supposed  to 
commemorate  the  haste  of  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites.  It  is  hot  difficult  to  determine  the 
reason  of  the  command,  "Not  a  bone  of  him 
shall  be  broken."  The  lamb  was  to  be  a 
symbol  of  unity;  the  unity  of  the  family,  the 
unity  of  the  nation,  the  unity  of  God  with  His 
people  whom  He  had  taken  into  covenant 
with  Himself,  (b.)  the  unleavened  bread  ranks 
next  in  importance  to  the  paschal  lamb.  We 
are  warranted  in  concluding  that  unleavened 
bread  had  a  peculiar  sacrificial  character,  ac- 
cording to  the  Law.  It  seems  more  reasonable 
to  accept  St.  Paul's  reference  to  the  subject 
(i  Cor.  V.  6-8)  as  furnishing  the  true  meaning 
of  the  symbol.  Fermentation  is  decomposi- 
tion, a  dissolution  of  unity.  The  pure  dry  bis- 
cuit would  be  an  apt  emblem  of  unchanged 
duration,  and,  in  its  freedom  from  foreign 
mixture,  of  purity  also,  (c.)  The  bitter  herbs 
are  generally  understood  by  the  Jewish  writers 
to  signify  the  bitter  sufferings  which  the 
Israelites  had  endured  (Ex.  i.  14).  But  it  has 
been  remarked  by  Abenezra  that  these  herbs 
are  a  good  and  wholesome  accompaniment  for 
meat,  and  are  now,  and  appear  to  have  been 
in  ancient  times,  commonly  so  eaten,  (d.)  The 
offering  of  the  Omer,  though  it  is  obviously 
that  part  of  the  festival  which  is  immediately 
connected  with  the  course  of  the  seasons,  bore 
a  distinct  analogy  to  its  historical  significance. 
It  may  have  denoted  a  deliverance  from  win- 
ter, as  the  lamb  signified  deliverance  from  the 
bondage  of  Egypt,  which  might  well  be  con- 
sidered as  a  winter  in  the  history  of  the 
nation.  Again,  the  consecration  of  the  first- 
fruits,  the  first-born  of  the  soil,   is  an  easy 


type  of  the  consecration  of  the  first-born  of  the 
Israelites.  No  other  shadow  of  good  things 
to  come  contained  in  the  Law  can  vie  with  the 
festival  of  the  Passover  in  expressiveness  and 
completeness.  Hence  we  are  so  often  re- 
minded of  it,  more  or  less  distinctly,  in  the 
ritual  and  language  of  the  Church.  Its  out- 
line, considered  in  reference  to  the  great  de- 
liverance of  the  Israelites  which  it  commemo- 
rated, and  many  of  its  minute  details,  have 
been  appropriated  as  current  expressions  of 
the  truths  which  God  has  revealed  to  us  in 
the  fulness  of  time  in  sending  His  Son  upon 
earth. 

Pat'mos  (Rev.  i.  9),  a  rugged  and  bare 
island  in  the  Aegean  Sea.  Such  a  scene  of 
banishment  for  St.  -  John  in  the  reign  of 
Domitian  is  quite  in  harmony  with  what 
we  read  of  the  custom  of  the  period. 
Patmos  is  divided  in  two  nearly  equal  parts, 
a  northern  and  a  southern,  by  a  very  narrow 
isthmus,  where,  on  the  east  isde,  are  the  har- 
bor and  the  town.    On  the  hill  to  the  south. 


Isle  of  I'atmos. 

crowning  a  commanding  height,  is  the  cele- 
brated monastery,  which  bears  the  name  of 
"John  the  Divine."  Half  way  up  the  ascent 
is  the  cave  or  grotto  where  tradition  says  that 
St.  John  received  the  Revelation. 

Patriarch  (father  of  a  tribe).  The  name 
Patriarch  is  applied  in  the  N.  T.  to  Abraham 
(Heb.  vii.  4),  to  the  sons  of  Jacob  (Acts  vii. 
8,  9),  and  to  David  (xA-cts  ii.  29)  ;  and  is  appar- 
ently intended  to  be  equivalent  to  the  phrase, 
the  "head"  or  "prince  of  a  tribe,"  so  often 
found  in  the  O.  T.  It  is  used  in  this  sense  by 
the  LXX.  in  i  Chr.  xxiv.  31,  xxvii.  22;  2  Chr. 
xxiii.  20,  xxvi.  12.  In  common  usage  the  title 
of  patriarch  is  assigned  especially  to  those 
whose  lives  are  recorded  in  Scripture  previous 
to  the  time  of  Moses. 

Paul  (small,  little),  the  Apostle  of  Jesus 
Christ  to  the  Gentiles.  Nearly  all  the  original 
materials  for  the  Life  of  St.  Paul  are  contained 


294 


PAUL 

in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  in  the  Pauline 
Epistles.  Paul  was  born  at  Tarsus,  a  city  of 
•Cilicia,  between  A.  D.  o  and  A.  D.  5.  Up  to 
the  time  of  his  going  forth  as  an  avowed 
preacher  of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles,  the  Apostle 
was  known  by  the  name  of  Saul.  This  was 
the  Jewish  name  which  he  received  from  his 
Jewish  parents.  But  though  a  Hebrew  of  the 
Hebrews,  he  was  born  in  a  Gentile  city.  Of 
his  parents  we  know  nothing,  except  that  his 
father  was  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Phil.  iii. 
5),  and  a  Pharisee"  (Acts  xxiii.  6),  that  he  had 
acquired  by  some  means  the  Roman  franchise 
('T  was  free  born,"  Acts  xxii.  28),  and  that  he 
was  settled  in  Tarsus.  At  Tarsus  he  must  have 
learnt  to  use  the  Greek  language  with  free- 
dom and  mastery  in  both  speaking  and  writ- 
ing. At  Tarsus  also  he  learnt  that  trade  of 
"tent-maker"  (Acts  xviii.  3),  at  which  he  after- 
wards occasionally  wrought  with  his  own 
hands.  When  St.  Paul  uTakes  his  defence  be- 
fore his  countrymen  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxii.), 
he  tells  them  that  though  born  in  Tarsus,  he 
had  been  '"brought  up"  in  Jerusalem.  He 
learnt,  he  says,  ''at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel."  He 
who  was  to  resist  so  stoutly  the  usurpations 
of  the  law,  had  .for  his  teacher  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  all  the  doctors  of  the  law.  Saul 
was  yet  "a  young  man"  (Acts  vii.  58),  when 
the  Church  experienced  that  sudden  expansion 
which  was  connected  with  the  ordaining  of 
the  Seven  appointed  to  serve  tables,  and  with 
the  special  power  and  inspiration  of  Stephen. 
Amongst  those  who  disputed  with  Stephen 
were  some  "of  them  of  Cilicia."  We  naturally 
think  of  Saul  as  having  be«n  one  of  these,  when 
we  find  him  afterwards  keeping  the  clothes  of 
those  suborned  witnesses  who,  according  to 
the  law  (Deut.  xvii.  7),  were  the  first  to  cast 
stones  at  Stephen.  "Saul,"  says  the  sacred 
writer,  significantly,  "was  consenting  unto  his 
death."  The  persecutor  was  to  be  converted. 
Having  undertaken  to  follow  ilp  the  believers 
"unto  strange  cities,"  Saul  naturally  turned  his 
thoughts  to  Damascus.  What  befell  him  as  he 
journeyed  thither,  is  related  in  detail  three 
times  in  the  Acts,  first  by  the  historian  in  his 
own  person,  then  in  the  two  addresses  made 
by  St.  Paul  at  Jerusalem  and  before  Agrippa. 
St.  Luke's  statement  is  to  be  read  in  Acts  ix. 
3-19,  where,  however,  the  words  "it  is  hard  for 
thee  to  kick  against  the  pricks,"  included  in 
the  English  version,  ought  to  be  omitted.  The 
sudden  light  from  heaven;  the  voice  of,  Jesus 
speaking  with  authority  to  PTis  persecutor ; 
Saul  struck  to  the  ground,  blinded,  overcome; 
the  three  days'  suspense;  the  coming  of 
Ananias  as  a  messenger  of  the  Lord ;  and 
Saul's    baptism ; — these    were    the  leading 


PAUL 

features  of  the  great  event,  and  in  these  we 
must  look  for  the  chief  significance  of  the  con- 
version. It  was  in  Damascus  that  he  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Church  by  Ananias,  and  here, 
to  the  astonishment  of  all  his  hearers,  he  pro 
claimed  Jesus  in  the  synagogues,  declaring 
him  to  be  the  Son  of  God.  The  narrative  in 
the  Acts  tells  us  simply  that  he  was  occupied 
in  this  work,  with  increasing  vigor,  for  "many 
days,"  up  to  the  time  when  imminent  danger 
drove  him  from  Damascus.  From  the  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians  (i.  17,  18)  we  learn  that  the 
many  days  were  at  least  a  good  part  of  "three 
years,"  and  that  Saul,  not  thinking  it  neces- 
sary to  procure  authority  to  preach  from  the 


Traditional  portrait  of  Peter  and  Paul  copied  from  the  bot- 
tom of  a  glass  cup  found  in  the  catacombs  at  Rome. 

Apostles  that  were  before  him,  went  after  his 
conversion  into  Arabia,  and  returned  from 
thence  to  Damascus.  We  know  nothing  what- 
ever of  this  visit  to  Arabia ;  but  upon  his  de- 
parture from  Damascus,  we  are  again  upon 
historical  ground,  and  have  the  double  evi- 
dence of  St.  Luke  in  the  Acts,  and  of  the 
Apostle  in  his  2d  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 
According  to  the  former,  the  Jews  lay  in  wait 
for  Saul,  intending  to  kill  him,  and  watched 
the  gates  of  the  city  that  he  might  not  escape 
from  them.  Knowing  this,  the  disciples  took 
him  by  night  and  let  him  down  in  a  basket 
from  the  wall.  According  to  St.  Paul  (2  Cor. 
xi.  32)  it  was  the  ethnarch  under  Aretas  the 
king  who  watched  for  him,  desiring  to  ap- 
prehend him.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  recon- 
ciling- the  two  statements.  Having  escaped 
from  Damascus,  Saul  betook  himself  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  there  "assayed  to  join  himself  to 


?>oc 


PAUL 


PAUL 


the  disciples ;  but  they  were  all  afraid  of  him, 
and  believed  not  that  he  was  a  disciple."  Bar- 
nabas became  his  sponsor  to  the  Apostles  and 
Church  at  Jerusalem,  assuring  them — from 
some  personal  knowledge,  we  must  presume — • 
of  the  facts  of  Saul's  conversion  and  subse- 
quent behavior  at  Damascus.  Barnabas's  in- 
troduction removed  the  fears  of  the  Apostles, 
and  Saul  "was  with  them  coming  in  and  going 
out  at  Jerusalem."  His  Hellenistical  educa- 
tion made  him,  like  Stephen,  a  successful  dis- 
putant against  the  "Grecians and  it  is  not 
strange  that  the  former  persecutor  was  singled 
out  from  the  other  believers  as  the  object  of  a 
murderous  hostility.  He  was,  therefore,  again 
urged  to  flee ;  and  by  way  of  Caesarea  betook 
himself  to  his  native  city  Tarsus.  Barna- 
bas was  sent  on  a  special  mission  to  Anti- 
och.  As  the  work  grew  under  his  hands, 
he  felt  the  need  of  help,  went  himself  to 
Tarsus  to  seek  Saul,  and  succeeded  in  bring- 
ing him  to  Antioch.  There  they  labored  to- 
gether unremittingly  for  "a  whole  year."  All 
this  time  Saul  was  subordinate  to  Barnabas. 
Antioch  was  in  constant  communication  with 
Cilicia,  with  Cyprus,  with  all  the  neighboring 
countries.  The  Church  was  pregnant  with  a 
great  movement,  and  the  time  of  her  delivery 
was  at  hand.  Something  of  direct  expectation 
seems  to  be  implied  in  what  is  said  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Church  at  Antioch,  that  they 
were  "ministering  to  the  Lord,  and  fasting," 
when  the  Holy  Ghost  spoke  to  them.  "Sepa- 
rate me  Barnabas  and  Saul  for  the  work 
whereunto  I  have  called  them."  Everything 
was  done  with  orderly  gravity  in  the  sending 
forth  of  the  two  missionaries.  Their  brethren 
after  fasting  and  prayer,  laid  their  hands  on 
them,  and  so  they  departed.  As  soon  as  Bar- 
nabas and  Saul  reached  Cyprus,  they  began  to 
"announce  the  word  of  God,"  but  at  first  they 
delivered  their  message  in  the  synagogues  of 
the  Jews  only.  When  they  had  gone  through 
the  island,  from  Salamis  to  Paphos,  they  were 
called  upon  to  explain  their  doctrine  to  an 
eminent  Gentile,  Sergius  Paulus,  the  pro- 
consul. Saul  now  becomes  Paul,  and  begins 
to  take  precedence  of  Barnabas.  From  Paphos 
"Paul  and  his  company"  set  sail  for  the  main- 
land, and  arrived  at  Perga  in  Pamphylia.  Here 
the  heart  of  their  companion  John  failed  him, 
and  he  returned  to  Jerusalem.  From  Perga 
they  travelled  on  to  a  place,  obscure  in  secular 
history,  but  most  memorable  in  the  history 
of  the  kingdom  of  Christ, — Antioch  in  Pisidia. 
Rejected  hy  the  Jews,  they  became  bold  and 
outspoken,  and  turned  from  them  to  the  Gen- 
tiles. At  Antioch  now,  as  in  every  city  after- 
wards, the  unbelieving  Jews  used  their  in- 


fluence with  their  own  adherents  amongst  the 
Gentiles,  to  persuade  the  authorities  or  the 
populace  to  persecute  the  Apostles  and  to 
drive  them  from  the  place.  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas now  travelled  on  to  Iconium,  where  the 
occurrences  at  Antioch  were  repeated,  and 
from  thence  to  the  Lycaonian  country  which 
contained  the  cities  Lystra  and  Derbe.  Here 
they  had  to  deal  with  uncivilized  heathens.  At 
Lystra  the  healing  of  a  cripple  took  place. 
Thereupon  these  pagans  took  the  Apostles  for 
gods,  calling  Barnabas,  who  was  of  the  more 
imposing  presence,  Jupiter,  and  Paul,  who  was 
the  chief  speaker,  Mercurius.  Although  the 
people  of  Lystra  had  been  so  ready  to  worship 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  the  repulse  of  their  idola- 
trous instincts  appears  to  have  provoked  them, 
and  they  allowed  themselves  to  be  persuaded 
into  hostility  by  Jews  who  came  from  Antioch 
and  Iconium,  so  that  they  attacked  Paul  with 
stones,  and  thought  they  had  killed  him.  He 
recovered,  howeveir,  as  the  disciples  were 
standing  round  him,  and  went  again  into  the 
city.  The  next  day  he  left  it  with  Barnabas, 
and  went  to  Derbe,  and  thence  they  returned 
once  more  to  Lystra,  and  so  to  Iconium  and 
Antioch.  In  order  to  establish  the  Churches 
after  their  departure  they  solemnly  appointed 
"elders"  in  every  city.  Then  they  came  down 
to  the  coast,  and  from  Attalia  they  sailed  home 
to  Antioch  in  Syria,  where  they  related  the 
successes  which  had  been  granted  to  them,  and 
especially  the  "opening  of  the  door  of  faith  to 
the  Gentiles."  And  so  the  First  Missionary 
Journey  ended.  Upon  that  missionary  journey 
follows  most  naturally  the  next  important 
scene  which  the  historian  sets  before  us — the 
council  held  at  Jerusalem  to  determine  the  re- 
lations of  Gentile  believers  to  the  Law  cf 
Moses.  The  most  resolute  courage,  indeed, 
was  required  for  the  wo.  k  to  which  St.  Paul 
was  now  publicly  pledged.  He  would  not 
associate  with  himself  in  that  Avork  one  who 
had  already  shown  a  want  of  constancy.  This 
was  the  occasion  of  what  must  have  been  a 
most  painful  dif¥erence  between  him  and  his 
comrade  in  the  faith  and  in  past  perils,  Bar- 
nabas (Acts  XV.  35-40).  St.  Luke  now  steps 
rapidly  over  a  considerable  space  of  the 
Apostle's  life  and  labors.  At  this  time  St. 
Paul  was  founding  "the  churches  of  Galatia" 
(Gal.  i.  2)  and  had  not  indulged  the  ambition 
of  preaching  his  Gospel  in  Europe.  His  views 
were  limited  to  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor. 
Having  gone  through  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  he 
intended  to  visit  the  western  coast;  but  "they 
were  forbidden  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  preach 
the  word"  there.  Then,  being  on  the  borders 
of  Mysia.  they  thought  of  going  back  to  the 


2q6 


MOSES  AND  PHARAOH'S  DAUGHTER.    PAOLO  CALIAUI   (PAOLO  VERONESE). 

THE  PICTURE  IN  THE  PRADO.  MADRID. 


I 


THE  llfl'iRY 


PAUL 


PAUL 


north-east  into  Bithynia ;  but  again  the  Spirit 
of  Jesus  "suffered  them  not."  So  they  passed 
by  ]\Iysia,  and  came  down  to  Troas.  St.  Paul 
saw  in  a  vision  a  man  of  ^lacedonia,  who  be- 
sought him,  saying,  "Come  over  into  Mace- 
donia and  help  us."  The  vision  was  at  onc-e 
accepted  as  a  heavenly  intimation ;  the  help 
wanted  by  the  IMacedonians  was  believed  to  be 
the  preaching  of  the  Gospel.  It  is  at  this  point 
that  the  historian,  speaking  of  St.  Paul's  com- 
pany, substitutes  "we"  for  "they."  He  says 
nothing  of  himself;  we  can  only  infer  that  St. 
Luke,  to  w'hatever  country  he  belonged,  be- 
came a  companion  of  St.  Paul  at  Troas.  The 
party,  thus  re-enforced,  immediately  set  sail 
from  Troas,  touched  at  Samothrace,  then 
landed  on  the  continent  at  Neapolis,  and  from 
thence  journeyed  to  Philippi.  A  female  slave, 
who  brought  gain  to  her  masters  by  her  pow- 
ers of  prediction  when  she  was  in  the  possessed 
state,  beset  Paul  and  his  company.   Paul  was 


Antioch  in  I'isidia. 

vexed  by  her  cries,  and  addressing  the  spirit 
in  the  girl,  he  said,  "I  command  thee  in  the 
name  of  Jesus  Christ  to  come  out  of  her."  The 
girl's  masters  saw  that  now  the  hope  of  their 
gains  was  gone.  Paul  and  Silas  were  dragged 
before  the  magistrates,  the  multitude  clamor- 
ing loudly  against  them,  upon  the  vague 
charge  of  "troubling  the  city,"  and  introducing 
observances  which  were  unlawful  for  Romans. 
This  cruel  wrong  was  to  be  the  occasion  of  a 
signal  appearance  of  the  God  of  righteousness 
and  deliverance.  The  narrative  tells  of  the 
earthquake,  the  jailor's  terror,  his  conver.soin, 
and  baptism  (xvi.  26-34).  In  the  morning  the 
magistrates  sent  word  to  the  prison  that  the 
men  might  be  let  go.  But  St.  Paul  denounced 
plainly  their  unlawful  acts,  informing  them 
moreover  that  those  whom  they  had  beaten 
and  imprisoned  without  trial  were  Roman 
citizens.  The  magistrates,  in  great  alarm,  saw 
the  necessity  of  humbling  themselves.  They 
came  and  begged  them  to  leave  the  city.  Paul 


and  Silas  consented  to  do  so,  and,  after  pay- 
ing a  visit  to  "the  brethren"  in  the  house  of 
Lydia,  they  departed.  Leaving  St.  Luke  and 
perhaps  Timothy  for  a  short  time,  at  Philippi, 
Paul  and  Silas  travelled  through  Amphipolis 
and  Apollonia,  and  stopped  again  at  Thessa- 
lonica.  Again,  as  in  Pisidian  Antioch,  the  envy 
of  the  Jews  was  excited.  The  mob  assaulted 
the  house  of  Jason,  with  whom  Paul  and  Silas 
were  staying  as  guests,  and,  not  finding  them, 
dragged  Jason  himself  and  some  other  breth- 
ren before  the  magistrates.  But  the  magis- 
trates, after  taking  security  of  Jason  and  the 
rest,  let  them  go.  After  these  signs  of  danger 
the  brethren  immediately  sent  away  Paul  and 
Silas  by  night.  They  next  came  to  Beroea. 
Here  tliey  found  the  Jews  more  noble  than 
those  at  Thessalonica  had  been.  Accordingly 
they  gained  many  converts,  both  Jews  and 
Greeks ;  but  the  Jews  of  Thessalonica,  hearing 
of  it,  sent  emissaries  to  stir  up  the  people,  and 
it  was  thought  best  that  St.  Paul  should  him- 
self leave  the  city,  whilst  Silas  and  Timothy 
remained  behind.  Some  of  "the  brethren"  went 
with  St.  Paul  as  far  as  Athens,  where  they 
left  him,  carrying  back  a  request  to  Silas  and 
Timothy  that  they  would  speedily  join  him. 
Here  the  Apostle  delivered  that  wonderful  dis- 
course, reported  in  Acts  xvii.  22-31.  He  gained 
but  few  converts  at  Athens,  and  he  soon  took 
his  departure  and  came  to  Corinth.  He  was 
testifying  with  unusual  effort  and  anxiety, 
when  Silas  and  Timothy  came  from  Macedonia 
and  joined  him.  Their  arrival  was  the  occa- 
sion of  the  writing  of  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Thessalonians.  The  two  Epistles  to  the  Thes- 
salonians  belong — and  these  alone — to  the 
present  Missionary  Journey.  When  Silas  and 
Timotheus  came  to  Corinth,  St.  Paul  was  tes- 
tifying to  the  Jews  with  great  earnestness,  but 
with  little  success.  Corinth  was  the  chief  city 
of  the  province  of  Achaia,  and  the  residence  of 
the  proconsul.  During  Sr.  Paul's  stay,  we 
find  the  proconsular  office  held  by  Gallio,  a 
brother  of  the  philosopher  Seneca.  Before  him 
the  Apostle  was  summoned  by  his  Jewish  ene- 
mies, who  hoped  to  bring  the  Roman  authority 
to  bear  upon  him  as  an  innovator  in  religion. 
But  Gallio  perceived  at  once,  before  Paul 
could  open  his  mouth  to  defend  himself,  that 
the  movement  was  due  to  Jewish  prejudice, 
and  refused  to  go  into  the  question.  Then  a 
singular  scene  occurred.  The  Corinthian  spec- 
tators, either  favoring  St.  Paul,  or  actuated 
only  by  anger  against  the  Jews,  seized  on  the 
principal  person  of  those  who  had  brought  the 
charge,  and  beat  him  before  the  judgment- 
seat.  Gallio  left  these  religious  quarrels  to  set- 
tle themselves.    The  Apostle,  therefore,  was 


297 


PAUL 


PAUL 


not  allowed  to  be  "hurt,"  and  remained  some 
time  longer  at  Corinth  unmolested.  Having 
been  the  instrument  of  accomplishing  this 
work,  St.  Paul  took  his  departure  for  Jeru- 
salem, wishing  to  attend  a  festival  there.  Be- 
fore leaving  Greece,  he  cut  off  his  hair  at 
Cenchreae,  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  (Acts  xviii. 
i8).  Paul  paid  a  visit  to  the  synagogue  at 
Ephesus,  but  would  not  stay.  Leaving 
Ephesus,  he  sailed  to  Caesarea,  and  from 
thence  went  up  to  Jerusalem  and  "saluted"  the 
Church."  It  is  argued,  from  considerations 
founded  on  the  suspension  of  navigation  dur- 
ing the  winter  months,  that  the  festival  was 
probably  the  Pentecost.  From  Jerusalem, 
almost  immediately,  the  Apostle  went  down  to 
Antioch,  thus  returning  to  the  same  place 
from  which  he  had  started  with  Silas.  Third 
Missionary  Journey,  including  the  stay  at 
Ephesus  (Acts  xviii.  23-xxi.  17). — The  great 
Epistles  which  belong  to  this  period,  those  to 
the  Galatians,  Corinthians,  and  Romans,  show 
how  the  "Judaizing"  question  exercised  at  this 
time. the  Apostle's  mind.  St.  Paul  "spent  some 
time"  at  Antioch,  and,  during  this  stay,  a5  we 
are  inclined  to  believe,  his  collision  with  St. 
Peter  (Gal.  ii.  11-14)  took  place.  When  he  left 
Antioch,  he  "went  over  all  the  country  of 
Galatia  and  Phrygia  in  order,  strengthening 
all  the  disciples,"  and  giving  orders  concerning 
the  oollection  for  the  saints  (i  Cor.  xvi.  i).  It 
is  probable  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
was  written  soon  after  this  visit.  This  Letter 
was,  in  all  probability,  sent  from  Ephesus. 
This  was  the  goal  of  the  Apostle's  journeyings 
through  Asia  Minor.  He  came  down  to 
Ephesus,  from  the  upper  districts  of  Phrygia. 
Here  he  entered  upon  his  usual  work.  During 
this  time  many  things  occurred,  of  which  the 
historian  of  the  Acts  chooses  two  examples, 
the  triumph  over  magical  arts,  and  the  great 
disturbance  raised  by  the  silversmiths  who 
made  shrines  for  Diana;  amongst  which  we 
are  to  note  further  the  writing  of  the  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  Before  leaving 
Ephesus  he  went  into  Macedonia,  where  he 
met  Titus,  who  brought  him  news  of  the  state 
of  the  Corinthian  church.  Thereupon  he  wrote 
the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  and 
sent  it  by  the  hands  of  Titus  and  two  other 
brethren  to  Corinth.  After  writing  this  Epistle, 
St.  Paul  travelled  through  Macedonia,  perhaps 
to  the  borders  of  lUyricum  (Rom.  xv.  19),  and 
then  came  to  Corinth.  The  narrative  in  the 
Acts  tells  us  that  "when  he  had  gone  over 
those  parts  (Macedonia),  and  had  given  them 
much  exhortation,  he  came  into  Greece,  and 
there  abode  three  months"  (xx.  2,  3).  There 
is  only  one  incident  which  we  can  connect 

2< 


with  this  visit  to  Greece,  but  that  is  a  very 
important  one — the  writing  of  his  Epistle  to 
the  Romans.  That  this  was  written  at  this 
time  from  Corinth  appears  from  passages  in 
the  Epistle  itself,  and  has  never  been  doubted. 
The  ktter  is  a  substitute  for  the  personal  visit 
whiclitre- had  longed  "for  many  years"  to  pay. 
Before  his  departure  from  Corinth,  St.  Paul 
was  joined  again  by  St.  Lnke,  as  we  infer  from 
the  change  in  the  narrative  from  the  third  to 
the  first  person.  He  was  bent  on  making  a 
journey  to  Jerusalem,  for  a  special  purpose 
and  within  a  limited  time.  With  this  view  he 
was  intending  to  go  by  sea  to  Syria,  But  he 
was  made  aware  of  some  plot  of  the  Jews  for 
his  destruction,  to  be  carried  out  through  this 
voyage ;  and  he  determined  to  evade  their 
malice  by  changing  his  route.  Several  breth- 
ren were  associated  with  him  in  this  expedi- 
tion, the  bearers,  no  doubt,  of  the  collections 
made  in  all  the  Churches  for  the  poor  at  Jeru- 
salem. These  were  sent  on  by  sea,  and  proba- 
bly the  money  with  them,  to  Troas,  where 
they  were  to  await  St.  Paul.  He,  accompanied 
by  St.  Luke,  went  northwards  through  Mace- 
donia. Whilst  the  vessel  which  conveyed  the 
rest  of  the  party  sailed  from  Troas  to  Assos, 
Paul  gained  some  time  by  making  the  journey 
by  land.  At  Assos  he  went  on  board  again. 
Coasting  along  by  Mitylene,  Chios,  Samos,  and 
Trogyllium,  they  arrived  at  Miletus.  At  Mile- 
tus, however,  there  was  time  to  send  to  Ephe- 
sus, and  the  elders  of  the  Church  were  invited 
to  come  down  to  him  there;  This  meeting  is 
made  the  occasion  for  recording  another  char- 
acteristic and  representative  address  of  St. 
Paul  (Acts  XX.  18-35).  The  course  of  the  voy- 
age from  Miletus  was  by  Coos  and  Rhodes  to 
Patara,  and  from  Patara  in  another  vessel  past 
Cyprus  to  Tyre.  From  Tyre  they  sailed  to 
Ptolemais,  and  from  Ptolemais  proceeded,  ap- 
parently by  land,  to  Caesarea.  In  this  place 
was  settled  Philip  the  Evangelist,  one  of  the 
seven,  and  he  became  the  host  of  Paul  and  his 
friends.  During  this  interval  the  prophet 
Agabus  (Acts  xi.  28)  came  down  from  Jeru- 
salem, and  crowned  the  previous  intimations 
of  danger  with  a  prediction  expressively  de- 
livered. At  this  stage  a  final  effort  was  made 
to  dissuade  Paul  from  going  up  to  Jerusalem, 
by  the  Christians  of  Caesarea,  and  by  his  trav- 
elling companions.  After  a  while,  they  went 
up  to  Jerusalem,  and  were  gladly  received  by 
the  brethren.  This  is  St.  Paul's  fifth  and  last 
visit  to  Jerusalem.  He  who  was  thus  con- 
ducted into  Jerusalem  by  a  company  of 
anxious  friends  had  become  by  this  time  a 
man  of  considerable  fame  amongst  his  coun- 
trymen. He  was  widely  known  as  one  who 
98 


I 


PAUL 

had  taught  with  pre-eminent  boldness  that  a 
way  into  God's  favor  was  opened  to  the  Gen- 
tiles, and  that  this  way  did  not  lie  through  the 
door  of  the  Jewish  Law.  He  had  thus  roused 
against  himself  the  bitter  enmity  of  that  un- 
fathomable Jewish  pride  which  was  almost  as 
strong  in  some  of  those  who  had  professed  the 
faith  of  Jesus,  as  in  their  unconverted  breth- 
ren. He  was  now  approaching  a  crisis  in  the 
long  struggle,  and  the  shadow  of  it  has  been 
made  to  rest  upon  his  mind  throughout  his 
journey  to  Jerusalem.  He  came  "ready  to  die 
for  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus,"  but  he  came 
expressly  to  prove  himself  a  faithful  Jew,  and 
this  purpose  emerges  at  every  point  of  the 
histor3^  Certain  Jews  from  "Asia,"  who  had 
come  up  for  the  Pentecostal  feast,  and  who 
had  a  personal  knowledge  both  of  Paul  him- 
self and  of  his  companion  Trophimus,  a  Gen- 
tile from  Ephesus,  saw  Paul  in  the  Temple. 
They  immediately  set  upon  him,  and  stirred 
up  the  people  against  him.  They  raised  a 
great  commotion  ;  Paul  was  dragged  out  of  the 
Temple,  of  which  the  doors  were  immediately 
shut,  and  the  people,  having  him  in  their 
hands,  were  proposing  to  kill  him.  Paul  was 
resetted  from  the  violence  of  the  multitude  by 
the  Roman  officer,  who  made  him  his  own  pris- 
oner, causing  him  to  be  chained  to  two 
soldiers,  and  then  proceeded  to  inquire  who  he 
was  and  what  he  had  done.  The  inquiry  only 
elicited  confused  outcries,  and  the  "chief  cap- 
tain" seems  to  have  imagined  that  the  Apostle 
might  perhaps  be  a  certain  Egyptian  pre- 
tender who  had  recently  stirred  up  a  considera- 
ble rising  of  the  people.  The  account  in  the 
Acts  (xxi.  34-40)  tells  us  with  graphic  touches 
how  St.  Paul  obtained  leave  and  opportunity  to 
address  the  people  in  a  discourse  which  is  re- 
lated at  length.  Until  the  hated  word  of  a 
mission  to  the  Gentiles  had  been  spoken,  the 
Jews  had  listened  to  the  speaker.  "Away  with 
such  a  fellow  from  the  earth,"  the  multitude 
now  shouted;  "it  is  not  fit  that  he  should  live." 
The  Roman  commander,  seeing  the  tumult 
that  arose,  might  well  conclude  that  St.  Paul 
had  committed  some  heinous  offence ;  and  car- 
rying him  off,  he  gave  orders  that  he  should 
be  forced  by  scourging  to  confess  his  crime. 
Again  the  Apostle  took  advantage  of  his 
Roman  citizenship  to  protect  himself  from 
such  an  outrage.  The  chief  captain  set  him 
free  from  bonds,  but  on  the  next  day  called 
together  the  chief  priests  and  the  Sanhedrim, 
and  brought  Paul  as  a  prisoner  before  them. 
On  the  next  day  a  conspiracy  was  formed, 
which  the  historian  relates  with  a  singular  ful- 
ness of  details.  More  than  forty  of  the  Jews 
bound  themselves  under  a  curse  neither  to  eat 


PAUL 

nor  to  drink  until  they  had  killed  Paul.  The 
plot  was  discovered,  and  St.  Paul  was  hurried 
away  from  Jerusalem.  The  chief  captain, 
Claudius  Lysias,  determined  to  send  him  to 
Caesarea,  to  Felix  the  governor,  or  procurator, 
of  Judaea.  He  therefore  put  him  in  charge 
of  a  strong  guard  of  soldiers,  who  took  him 
by  night  as  far  as  Antipatris.  From  thence  a 
smaller  detachment  conveyed  him  to  Caesarea, 
where  they  delivered  up  their  prisoner  into 
the  hands  of  the  governor.  St.  Paul  was 
henceforth,  to  the  end -of  the  period  eml)raced 
in  the  Acts,  if  not  to  the  end  of  his  life,  in 
Roman  custody.  This  custody  was  in  fact  a 
protection  to  him,  without  which  he  would 
have  fallen  a  victim  to  the  animosity  of  the 
Jews.  He  seems  to  have  been  treated  througli- 
out  with  humanity  and  consideration.  The 
governor  before  whom  he  was  now  to  be  tried, 
according  to  Tacitus  and  Joseph  us,  was  a 
mean  and  dissolute  tyrant.  After  hearing  St. 
Paul's  accusers,  and  the  Apostle's  defence, 
Felix  made  an  excuse  for  putting  off  the  mat- 
ter, and  gave  orders  that  the  prisoner  should 
be  treated  with  indulgence,  and  that  his 
friends  should  be  allowed  free  access  to  him. 
After  a  while,  he  heard  him  again.  St.  Paul 
remained  in  custody  imtil  Felix  left  the 
province.  The  unprincipled  governor  had  good 
reason  to  seek  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the 
Jews ;  and  to  please  them,  he  handed  over 
Paul,  as  an  untried  prisoner,  to  his  successor 
Festus.  "They  had  certain  questions  against 
him,"  Festus  says  to  Agrippa,  "of  their  own 
superstition  (or  religion),  and  of  one  Jesus, 
who  was  dead,  whom  Paul  affirmed  to  be  alive. 
And  being  puzzled  for  my  part  as  to  such  in- 
quiries, I  asked  him  whether  he  would  go  to 
Jerusalem  to  be  tried  there."  This  proposal, 
not  a  very  likely  one  to  be  accepted,  was  the 
occasion  of  St.  Paul's  appeal  to  Caesar.  The 
appeal  having  been  allowed,  Festus  reflected 
that  he  must  send  with  the  prisoner  a  report 
of  "the  crimes  laid  against  him."  He  there- 
fore took  advantage  of  an  opportunity  which 
offered  itself  in  a  few  days  to  seek  some  help 
in  the  matter.  The  Jewish  prince  Agrippa  ar- 
rived with  his'  sister  Berenice  on  a  visit  to  the 
new  governor.  To  him  Festus  communicated 
his  perplexity.  Agrippa  expressed  a  desire  to 
hear  Paul  himself.  Accordingly  Paul  con- 
ducted his  defence  before  the  king;  and  when 
it  was  concluded  Festus  and  Agrippa,  and  their 
companions,  consulted  together,  and  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  accused  was  guilty  of 
nothing  that  deserved  death  or  imprisonment. 
And  Agrippa's  final  answer  to  the  inquiry  of 
Festus  was,  "This  man  might  have  been  set  at 
liberty,  if  he  had  not  appealed  unto  Caesar." 


299 


i 


PAUL 

No  formal  trial  of  St.  Paul  had  yet  taken  place. 
After  a  while  arrangements  were  made  to 
carry  "Paul  and  certain  other  prisoners,"  in 
the  custody  of  a  centurion  named  Julius,  into 
Italy;  and  amongst  the  company,  whether  by 
favor  or  from  any  other  reason,  we  find  the 
historian  of  the  Acts.  The  narrative  of  this 
voyage  is  accordingly  minute  and  circumstan- 
tial. The  land  on  which  the  wreck  took  place 
was  found  to  be  long  to  Malta.  The  in- 
habitants of  the  island  received  the  wet  and 
exhausted  voyagers  with  no  ordinary  kind- 
ness, and  immediately  lighted  a  fire  to  warm 
them.  After  a  three  months'  stay  in  Malta  the 
soldiers  and  their  prisoners  left  in  an  Alex- 
andrian ship  for  Italy.  They  touched  at  Syra- 
cuse, where  they  stayed  three  days,  and  at 
Rhegium,  from  which  place  they  were  carried 
with  a  fair  wind  to  Puteoli,  where  they  left 
their  ship  and  the  sea.  At  Puteoli  they  found 
"brethren,"  for  it  was  an  important  place,  and 
especially  a  chief  port  for  the  traffic  between 
Alexandria  and  Rome ;  and  by  these  brethren 
they  were  exhorted  to  stay  a  while  with  them. 
Permission  seems  to  have  been  granted  by  the 
centurion;  and  whilst  they  were  spending 
seven  days  at  Puteoli  news  of  the  Apostle's 
arrival  was  sent  on  to  Rome.  On  their  arrival 
at  Rome  the  centtirion  delivered  up  his  prison- 
ers into  the  proper  custody,  that  of  the  prae- 
torian prefect.  Paul  was  at  once  treated  with 
special  consideration,  and  was  allowed  to  dwell 
by  himself  with  the  soldier  who  guarded  him. 
He  was  now  therefore  free  "to  preach  the 
Gospel  to  them  that  were  at  Rome  also;"  and 
proceeded  without  delay  to  act  upon  his  rule — 
"to  the  Jew  first."  But,  as  of  old,  the  recep- 
tion of  his  message  by  the  Jews  was  not 
favorable.  He  turned,  therefore,  again  to  the 
Gentiles,  and  for  two  years  he  dwelt  in  his 
own  hired  house.  These  are  the  last  words 
of  the  Acts.  But  St.  Paul's  career  is  not 
abruptly  closed.  Before  he  himself  fades  out 
of  our  sight  in  the  twilight  of  ecclesiastical 
tradition,  we  have  letters  written  by  himself, 
which  contribute  some  particulars  to  his 
biography.  To  that  imprisonment  to  which 
St.  Luke  has  introduced  us — the  imprisonment 
which  lasted  for  such  a  tedious  time,  though 
tempered  by  much  indulgence — belongs  the 
noble  group  of  Letters  to  Philemon,  to  the 
Colossians,  to  the  Ephesians,  and  to  the 
Philippians.  The  three  former  of  these  were 
written  at  one  time,  and  sent  by  the  same  mes- 
sengers. Whether  that  to  the  Philippians  was 
written  before  or  after  these,-  we  cannot  deter- 
mine; but  the  tone  of  it  seems  to  imply  that  a 
crisis  was  approaching,  and  therefore  it  is 
commonly  regarded  as  the  latest  of  the  four. 


PELICAN 

— In  this  Epistle  St.  Paul  twice  expresses  a 
confident  hope  that  ijcfore  long  he  may  be  able 
to  visit  the  Philippians  in  person  (i.  25,  ii.  24). 
V\  hether  this  hope  was  fulfilled  or  not,  has 
been  the  occasion  of  much  controversy.  Ac- 
cording to  the  general  opinion,  the  Apostle 
was  liberated  from  his  imjjrisonment,  and  left 
Rome,  soon  after  the  writing  of  the  letter  to 
the  Philippians,  spent  some  time  in  visits  to 
Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Spain,  and  during  the 
latter  part  of  this  time  wrote  the  letters  (first- 
epistles)  to  Timothy  and  Titus  from  Mace- 
donia. After  these  were  written,  he  was  ap- 
prehended again  and  sent  to  Rome.  The 
Apostle  appears  now  to  have  been  treated, 
not  as  an  honorable  state  prisoner,  but  as  a 
felon  (2  Tim.  ii.  9).  But  he  was  at  least  al- 
lowed to  write  this  Second  Letter  to  his 
"dearly  beloved  son"  Timothy.  For  what  re- 
mains, we  have  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
ecclesiastical  antiquity,  that  he  was  beheaded 
at  Rome,  about  the  same  time  that  St.  Peter 
was  crucified  there. 


The  Peacock. 


Peacocks.  Amongst  the  natural  products 
of  the  land  of  Tarshish  which  Solomon's  fleet 
brought  home  to  Jerusalem,  mention  is  made 
of  "peacocks"  (i  K.  x.  22 ;  2  Chr.  ix.  21),  which 
is  probably  the  correct  translation.  The 
Hebrew  word  may  be  traced  to  the  Tamul  or 
-]\Ialabaric  togei,  "peacock." 

Peari.  The  Heb.  word  in  Job  xxviii.  18, 
probably  means  "crystal."  Pearls,  however, 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  (Matt, 
xiii.  45;  I  Tim.  ii.  9;  Rev.  xvii.  4,  xxi.  21). 
"The  pearl  of  great  price"  is  doubtless  a  fine 
specimen  yielded  b}'  the  pearl  oyster,  still 
found  in  abundance  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  which 
has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  pearl  fisheries. 

Pelican.  Amongst  the  unclean  birds  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  kaath  (Lev.  xi.  18;  Deut. 


300 


THE  LIBRARY 


PEN 


PENTATEUCH 


xiv.  17).  The  suppliant  psalmist  compares  his 
condition  to  "a  kaath  in  the  Avilderness"  (Ps. 
cii.  6).  As  a  mark  of  the  desolation  that  was 
to  come  upon  Edom,  it  is  said  that  "the  kaath 
and  the  bittern  should  possess  it"  (Is.  xxxiv. 
11).  The  same  words  are  spoken  of  Nineveh 
(Zeph.  ii.  14).    In  these  two  last  places  the 


I'carl  Oyster. 

A.  V.  has  "cormorant"  in  the  text  and  "peli- 
can" in  the  margin.  The  best  authorities  are 
in  favor  of  the  pelican  being  the  bird  denoted 
by  kaath.  The  psalmist,  in  comparing  his 
pitiable  condition  to  the  pelican,  probably  has 
reference  to  its  general  aspect  as  it  sits  in 
apparent  melancholy  mood,  with  its  bill  resting 
on  its  breast. 

Pen.    [Waiting  ] 

Penny,  Pennyworth.    In  the  A.  V.  of  the 

N.  T.  "penny,"  either  alone  or  in  the  com- 
pound "pennyworth,"  occurs  as  the  rendering 
of  the  Roman  denarius  (^Nlatt.  xx.  2,  xxii.  19; 


The  Pelican. 

Mark  vi.  37,  xii.  15;  Luke  xx.  24;  John  vi.  7; 
Rev.  vi.  6).  The  denarius  was  the  chief  Roman 
silver  coin,  and  was  worth  about  sixteen  cents. 
"  Pentateuch,  The,  is  the  Greek  name  given  to 
the  five  books  commonly  called  the  "Five 
Books  of  Moses."  In  the  time  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  it  was  called  "the  Law  of  Moses" 
(Ezr.  vii.  6)  ;  or  "the  book  of  the   Law  of 


Moses"  (Neh.  viii.  i)  ;  or  simply  "the  book 
of  Moses"  (Ezr.  vi.  18;  Neh.  xiii.  i;  2  Chron. 
XXV.  4,  xxxv.  12).  This  was  beyond  all  reason- 
able doubt  our  existing  Pentateuch.  The  book 
wliich  was  discovered  in  the  temple  in  the 
reign  of  Josiah,  and  which  is  entitled  (2  Chr. 
xxxiv.  14)  "the  book  of  the  Law  of  Jehovah 
by  the  hand  of  Moses,"  was  substantially,  it 
would  seem,  the  same  volume,  though  it  may 
afterwards  have  undergone  some  revision  by 
Ezra.  The  present  Jews  usually  called  the 
whole  by  the  name  of  Torah,  i.  e.  "the  Law," 
or  Torah  Mosheh,  "the  Law  of  Moses."  The 
division  of  the  whole  work  into  five  parts  was 
probably  made  by  the  Greek  translators ;  for 
the  titles  of  the  several  books  are  not  of 
Hebrew  but  of  Greek  origin.  The  Five  Books 
of  the  Pentateuch  form  a  consecutive  whole. 
The  work,  beginning  with  the  record  of  crea- 
tion, and  the  history  of  the  primitive  world, 
passes  on  to  deal  more  especially  with  the 
early  history  of  the  Jewish  family,  and 
finally  concludes  with  Moses'  last  discourses 
and  his  death.  The  unity  of  the  work  in 
its  existing  form  is  now  generally  recognized. 
It  is  not  a  mere  collection  of  loose  frag- 
ments carelessly  put  together  at  different 
times,  but  bears  evident  traces  of  design  and 
purpose  in  its  comjrosition.  Till  the  middle  of 
last  century  it^vas  the  general  opinion  of  both 
Jews  and  Christians  that  the  whole  of  the 
Pentateuch  was  written  by  Moses,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  manifestly  later  additions — 
such  as  the  34th  chapter  of  Deuteronomy, 
which  gives  the  account  of  Moses'  death.  The 
first  attempt  to  call  in  question  the  popular 
belief  was  made  by  Astruc,  Doctor  and  Pro- 
fessor of  Medicine  in  the  Royal  College  at 
Paris,  and  Court  Physician  to  Louis  XIV.  He 
had  observed  that  throughout  the  book  of 
Genesis,  and  as  far  as  the  6th  chapter  of 
Exodus,  traces  were  to  be  found  of  two 
original  documents,  each  characterized  by  a 
distinct  use  of  the  names  of  God ;  the  one  by 
the  name  Elohim,  and  the  other  by  the  name 
Jehovah  [God].  Besides  these  two  principal 
documents,  he  supposed  Moses  to  have  made 
use  of  ten  others  in  the  composition  of  the 
earlier  part  of  his  work.  The  patli  traced  by 
Astruc  has  been  followed  by  numerous  Ger- 
man writers  ;  but  the  various  hypotheses  which 
have  been  formed  upon  the  subject  cannot  be 
presented  in  this  volume.  It  is  sufficient 
here  to  state  that  there  is  sufficient  evidence 
for  believing  that  the  main  bulk  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, at  any  rate,  was  written  by  Moses, 
though  he  probably  availed  himself  of  existing 
documents  in  the  composition  of  the  earlier 
part  of  the  work.    Some  detached  portions 


301 


PENTATEUCH 


PENTECOST 


would  appear  to  be  of  later  origin ;  and  when 
we  remember  how  entirely,  during  some 
periods  of  Jewish  history,  the  Law  seems  to 
have  been  forgotten,  and  again  how  necessary 
it  would  be  after  the  seventy  years  of  exile  to 
explain  some  of  its  archaisms,  and  to  add  here 
and  there  short  notes  to  make  it  more  intel- 
ligible to  the  people,  nothing  can  be  more 
natural  than  to  suppose  that  such  latter  addi- 
tions were  made  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  The 
evidence  seems  to  show :  The  Book  of  Genesis 
rests  chiefly  on  documents  much  earlier  than 
the  time  of  Moses,  though  it  was  probably 
brought  to  very  nearly  its  present  shape  either 


Pentateuch  at  Shecketn. 


by  Moses  himself,  or  by  one  of  the  elders  who 
acted  under  him.  The  Books  of  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  and  Numbers,  are  to  a  great  extent 
Mosaic.  Besides  those  portions  which  are 
expressly  declared  to  have  been  written  by 
him,  other  portions,  and  especially  the  legal 
sections,  were,  if  not  actually  written,  in  all 
probability  dictated  by  him.  Deuteronomy, 
excepting  the  concluding  part,  is  entirely  the 
work  of  Moses,  as  it  professes  to  be.  It  is  not 
probable  that  this  was  written  before  the  three 
preceding  books,  because  the  legislation  in 
Exodus  and  Leviticus,  as  being  the  more 
formal,  is  manifestly  the  earlier,  whilst  Deu- 
teronomy is  the  spiritual  interpretation  and 


application  of  the  Law.  But  the  letter  is 
always  before  the  spirit ;  the  thing  before  its 
interpretation.  The  first  composition  of  the 
Pentateuch  as  a  whole  could  not  have  taken 
place  till  after  the  Israelites  entered  Canaan. 
It  is  probable  that  Joshua,  and  the  elders  who 
were  associated  with  him,  would  provide  for 
its  formal  arrangement,  custody  and  transmis- 
sion. The  whole  work  did  not  finally  assume 
its  present  shape  till  its  revision  was  under- 
taken by  Ezra  after  the  return  from  the  Baby- 
lonish Captivity. 

Pentecost,  that  is,  the  fiftieth  day,  or  Har- 
vest Feast,  or  Feast  of  Weeks,  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  supplement  to  the  Passover.  It 
lasted  only  for  one  day ;  but  the  modern  Jews 
extend  it  over  two.  The  people,  having  at  the 
Passover  presented  before  God  the  first  sheaf 
of  the  harvest,  departed  to  .their  homes  to 
gather  it  in,  and  then  returned  to  keep  the  har- 
vest-feast before  Jehovah.  From  the  sixteenth 
of  Nisan  seveu  weeks  were  reckoned  inclu- 
sively, and  the  next  or  fiftieth  day  was  the 
Day  of  Pentecost,  which  fell  on  the  sixth  of 
Sivan  (about  the  end  of  May)  (Ex.  xxiii.  16, 
xxxiv.  22;  Lev.  xxiii.  15-22;  Num.  xxviii. 
26-31 ;  Deut.  xvi.  9-12;  2  Mace.  xii.  32;  Acts  ii. 
I,  XX.  16;  I  Cor.  xvi.  8).  The  intervening 
period  included  the  whole  of  the  grain  harvest, 
of  which  the  wheat  was  the  latest  crop.  Its 
commencement  is  also  marked  as  from  the 
time  when  "thou  beginnest  to  put  the  sickle 
to  the  corn."  The  Pentecost  was  the  Jewish 
harvest-home,  and  the  people  were  especially 
exhorted  to  rejoice  before  Jehovah  with  their 
families,  their  servants,  the  Levite  within  their 
gates,  the  stranger,  the  fatherless,  and  the 
widow,  in  the  place  chosen  by  God  for  His 
name,  as  they  brought  a  freewill-offering  of 
their  hand  to  Jehovah  their  God  (Deut.  xvi. 
10,  11).  The  great  feature  of  the  celebration 
was  the  presentation  of  the  two  loaves,  made 
from  the  first-fruits  of  the  wheat-harvest. 
With  the  loaves  two  lambs  were  offered  as  a 
peace-offering;  and  all  were  waved  before 
Jehovah,  and  given  to  the  priests ;  the  loaves, 
being  leavened,  could  not  be  offered  on  the 
altar.  The  other  sacrifices  were,  a  burnt-offer- 
ing of  a  young  bullock,  two  rams,  and  seven 
lambs,  with  a  ineat  and  drink-offering,  and  a 
kid  for  a  sin-offering  (Lev.  xxiii.  18,  19).  Till 
the  Pentecostal  loaves  -  were  offered,  the 
produce  of  the  harvest  might  not  be  eaten,  nor 
could  any  other  first-fruits  be  offered.  The 
whole  ceremony  was  the  completion  of  that 
dedication  of  the  harvest  to  God,  as  its  giver, 
and  to  whom  both  the  land  and  the  people 
were  holy,  which  was  begun  by  the  offering 
of  the  wave-sheaf  at  the  Passover.    The  in- 


302 


PERFUMES. 


PERSIA 


terval  is  still  regarded  as  a  religious  season. 
The  Pentecost  is  the  only  one  of  the  three 
great  feasts  which  is  not  mentioned  as  the 
memorial  of  events  in  the  history  of  the  Jews. 
But  such  a  significance  has  been  found  in  the 
fact,  that  the  Law  was  given  from  Sinai  on  the 
fiftieth  day  after  the  deliverance  from  Egypt 
(comp.  Ex.  xii.  and  xix.).  In  the  Exodus,  the 
people  were  offered  to  God,  as  living  first- 
fruits  ;  at  Sinai  their  consecration  to  Him  as  a 
nation  was  completed.  The  typical  signifi- 
cance of  the  Pentecost  is  made  clear  from  the 
events  of  the  day  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  (Acts  ii.).  Just  as  the  appearance  of 
God  on  Sinai  was  the  birthday  of  the  Jewish 
nation,  so  was  that  Pentecost  the  birthday  of 
the  Christian  Church. 

Perfumes.  The  free  use  of  perfumes  was 
peculiarly  grateful  to  the  Orientals  (Prov. 
xxvii.  9),  whose  olfactory  nerves  are  more 
than  usually  sensitive  to  the  offensive  smells 
engendered  by  the  heat  of  their  climate.  The 
Hebrews  manufactured  their  perfumes  chiefly 
from  spices  imported  from  Arabia,  though  to 
a  certain  extent  also  from  aromatic  plants 
growing  in  their  own  country.  Perfumes  en- 
tered largely  into  the  Temple  service,  in  the 
two  forms  of  incense  and  ointment  (Ex.  xxx. 
22-38).  Nor  were  they  less  used  in  private 
life;  not  only  were  they  applied  to  the  per- 
son, but  to  garments  (Ps.  xlv.  8;  Cant.  iv.  11), 
and  to  articles  of  furniture,  such  as  beds 
(Prov.  vii.  17).  On  the  arrival  of  a  guest  the 
same  compliments  were  probably  paid  in 
ancient  as  in  modern  times  (Dan.  ii.  46). 
When  a  royal  personage  went  abroad  in  his 
litter,  attendants  threw  up  "pillars  of  smoke" 
about  his  path  (Cant.  iii.  6).  The  use  of  per- 
fumes was  omitted  in  times  of  mourning, 
whence  the  allusioin  in  Is.  iii.  24. 

Persep'olis,  mentioned  only  in  2  Mace.  ix. 
2,  was  the  capital  of  Persia  Proper,  and  the  oc- 
casional residence  of  the  Persian  court  from 
the  time  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  who  seems  to 
have  been  its  founder,  to  the  invasion  of  Alex- 
ander. Its  wanton  destruction  by  that  con- 
queror is  well  known.  Its  site  is  now  called 
the  Chehl-IMinar,  or  Forty  Pillars.  Here,  on  a 
platform  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  the  sides 
of  which  face  the  four  cardinal  points,  are  the 
remains  of  two  great  palaces,  built  respectively 
by  Darius  Hystaspis  and  his  son  Xerxes,  be- 
sides a  nurhber  of  other  edifices,  chiefly  tem- 
ples. They  are  of  great  extent  and  magnifi- 
cence, covering  an  area  of  many  acres. 

Per'sia,  Persians.  Persia  Proper  was  a  tract 
of  no  very  large  dimensions  on  the  Persian 
Gulf.  This  tract  was  bounded,  on  the  west, 
by  Susiana  or  Elam,  on  the  north  by  Media, 


on  the  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  on  the 
cast  by  Carmania.  But  the  name  is  more  com- 
monly applied,  both  in  Scripture  and  by  pro- 
fane authors,  to  the  entire  tract  which  came 
by  degrees  to  be  included  within  the  limits  of 
the  Persian  Empire.   This  empire  extended  at 


Ruins  of  Persepolis. — Burial-place  of  the  Persian  kings. 

one  time  from  India  on  the  east  to  Egypt  and 
Thrace  upon  the  west,  and  included,  besides 
portions  of  Europe  and  Africa,  the  whole  of 
Western  Asia  between  the  Black  Sea,  the 
Caucasus,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Jaxartes  upon 
the  north,  the  Arabian  desert,  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  upon  the  south. 
The  Persians  were  of  the  same  race  as  the 
Medes,  both  being  branches  of  the  great 
Aryan  stock.    They  were  a  people  of  lively 


Persian  Lady. 

and  impressible  minds,  brave  and  impetuous 
in  war,  witty,. passionate,  for  Orientals  truth- 
ful, not  without  some  spirit  of  generosity,  and 
of  more  intellectual  capacity  than  the  gener- 
ality of  Asiatics.  In  the  times  anterior  to 
Cyrus  they  were  noted  for  the  simplicity  of 
tlieir  habits,  which  offered  a  strong  contrast  to 
the  luxuriousness  of  the  Medes;  but  from  the 


303 


PERSIA 


PETER 


date  of  the  Median  overthrow,  this  simplicity 
began  to  decline.  Polygamy  was  commonly 
practised  among  them.  They  were  fond  of 
the  pleasures  of  the  table.  In  war  they  fought 
bravely,  but  without  discipline.  The  religion 
which  the  Persians  brought  with  them  into 
Persia  Proper  seems  to  have  been  of  a  very 
simple  character,  differing  from  natural  re- 
ligion in  little,  except  that  it  was  deeply 
tainted  with  Dualism.  Like  the  other  Aryans, 
the  Persians  worshipped  one  Supreme  God, 
whom  they  called  Aura-mazda  (Oromasdes) 
— a  term  signifying  (as  is  believed)  "the  Great 
Giver  of  Life."  The  royal  inscriptions  rarely 
mentioned  any  other  god.  The  character  of 
the  original  Persian  worship  was  simple.  They 
were  not  destitute  of  temples,  as  Herodotus 
asserts ;  but  they  had  probably  no  altars,  and 
certainly  no  images.  Neither  do  they  appear 
to  have  had  any  priests.  Their  language  was 
closely  akin  to  the  Sanscrit,  or  ancient  lan- 
gauge  of  India.  Modern  Pers-ian  is  its  degen- 
erate representative,  being,  as  it  is,  a  motley 
idiom,  largely  impregnated  with  Arabic. 
Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  Persians  were  di- 
vided into  ten  tribes,  of  which  three  were 
noble,  three  agricultural,  and  four  nomadic. 
The  history  of  Persia  begins  with  their  revolt 
from  the  Medes  and  accession  of  Cyrus  the 
Great,  B.  C.  558.  Its  success,  by  transferring 
to  Persia  the  dominion  previously  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Medes,  placed  her  at  the  head 
of  an  empire.  Cyrus  defeated  Croesus,  and 
added  the  Lydian  empire  to  his  dominions. 
This  conquest  was  followed  closely  by  the 
submission  of  the  Greek  settlements  on  the 
Asiatic  coast,  and  by  the  reduction  of  Caria 
and  Lycia.  The  empire  was  soon  afterwards 
extended  greatly  towards  the  north-east  and 
east.  In  B.  C.  539  or  538,  Babylon  was  at- 
tacked, and  after  a  stout  defence  fell  before 
his  irresistible  bands.  This  victory  first 
brought  the  Persians  into  contact  with  the 
Jews.  The  conquerors  found  in  Babylon  an 
oppressed  race — like  themselves,  abhorrers  of 
idols — and  professors  of  a  religion  in  which  to 
a  great  extent  they  could  sympathize.  This 
race  Cyrus  determined  to  restore  to  their  own 
country  ;  which  he  did  by  the  remarkable  edict 
recorded  in  the  first  chapter  of  Ezra  (Ezr.  i. 
2-4).  He  was  slain  in  an  expedition  against 
the  Massagetae  or  the  Derbices,  after  a  reign 
of  twenty-nine  years.  Under  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Cambyses,  the  conquest  of  Egypt  took 
place  (B.  C.  525).  This  prince  appears  to  be 
the  Ahasuerus  of  Ezra  (iv.  6).  In  the  absence 
of  Cambyses  with  the  army,  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  him  at  court,  and  a  Magian 
priest,  Gomates  by  name,  professing   to  be 


Smerdis,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  whom  his  brother, v 
Cambyses,  had  put  to  death  secretly,  obtained 
quiet  possession  of  the  throne.  Cambyses, 
despairing  of  the  recovery  of  his  crown,  ended 
his  life  by  suicide.  His  reign  had  lasted  seven 
years  and  five  months.  Gomates  the  Magian 
found  himself  thus,  without  a  struggle,  master 
of  Persia  (B.  C.  522).  His  situation,  however, 
was  one  of  great  danger  and  difficulty.  There 
is  reason  to  f)elieve  that  he  owed  his  elevation 
to  his  fellow  religionists,  whose  object  in  plac- 
ing him  upon  the  throne  was  to  secure  the 
triumph  of  i\Iagianism  over  the  Dualism  of  the 
Persians.  He  reversed  the  policy  of  Cyrus 
with  respect  to  the  Jews,  and  forbade  by  an 
edict  the  further  building  of  the  Temple  (Ez. 
iv.  17-22).  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspis, 
headed  a  revolt  against  him,  which  in  a  short 
time  was  crowned  with  complete  success.  Ap- 
pealed to,  in  his  second  year,  by  the  Jews,  who 
wished  to  resume  the  construction  of  their 
Temple,  Darius  not  only  allowed  them,  con- 
firming the  decree  of  Cyrus,  but  assisted  the 
work  by  grants  from  his  own  revenues,  where- 
by the  Jews  were  able  to  complete  the  Temple 
as  early  as  his  sixth  year  (Ezr.  vi.  1-15). 
Darius  was  succeeded  by  Xerxes,  probably  the 
Ahasuerus  of  Esther.  A  conspiracy  in  the  ser- 
aglio having  carried  off  Xerxes  (B.  C.  465), 
Artaxerxes  his  son,  called  by  the  Greeks 
"Long-Handed,"  succeeded  him,  after  an  in- 
terval of  seven  months,  during  which  the  con- 
spirator Artabanus  occupied  the  throne.  This 
Artaxerxes,  who  reigned  forty  years,  is  beyond 
a  doubt  the  king  of  that  name  who  stood  in 
such  a  friendly  relation  towards  Ezra  (Ezr.  vii. 
11-28)  and  Nehemiah  (Neh.  ii.  1-9,  &c.).  He 
is  the  last  of  the  Persian  kings  who  had  any 
special  connection  with  the  Jews,  and  the  last 
but  one  mentioned  in  Scripture.  His  suc- 
cessors were  Xerxes  II.,  Sogdianus,  Darius 
Nothus,  Artaxerxes  JMnemon,  Artaxerxes 
Ochus,  and  Darius  Codomannus,  who  is  proba- 
bly the  "Darius  the  Persian"  of  Nehemiah 
(xii.  22).  These  monarchs  reigned  from  B.  C. 
424  to  B.  C.  330.  The  collapse  of  the  empire 
under  the  attack  of  Alexander  is  well  known. 
Pestilence.  [Plague.] 

Pe'ter  (a  rock  or  stone).  His  original  name 
was  Simon,  i.  e.  "hearer."  He  was  the  son  of 
a  man  named  Jonas  (Matt.  xvi.  17;  John  i.  43, 
xxi.  16),  and  was  brought  up  in  his  father's 
occupation,  a  fisherman  on  the  sea  of  Tiberias. 
He  and  his  brother  Andrew  were  partners  of 
John  and  James,  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  who  had 
hired  servants.  The  Apostle  did  not  live,  as  a 
mere  laboring  man,  in  a  hut  by  the  sea-side, 
but  first  at  Bethsaida,  and  afterwards  in  a 
house  at  Capernaum,  belonging  to  himself  or 


304 


I 


PETER 

his  mothcr-in-law,  which  must  have  been 
rather  a  large  one,  since  he  received  in  it  not 
only  our  Lord  and  his  fellow-disciples,  but 
multitudes  who  were  attracted  by  the  miracles 
and  preaching  of  Jesus.  It  is  not  probable 
that  he  and  his  brother  were  wholly  unedu- 
cated. He  was  probably  between  thirty  and 
forty  years  of  age  at  the  date  of  his  call.  Peter 
and'  his  brother  Andrew,  together  with  their 
partners  James  and  John,  the  sons  of  Zebedee, 
were  disciples  of  John  the  Baptist,  when  he 
was  first  called  by  our  Lord.  The  particulars 
of  this  call  are  related  with  graphic  minuteness 
by  St.  John.  It  was  upon  this  occasion  that 
Jesus  gave  Peter  the  name  Cephas,  a  Syriac 
word  answering  to  the  Greek  Peter,  and  sig- 
nifying a  stone  or  rock  (John  i.  35-42).  This 
first  call  led  to  no  immediate  change  in  Peter's 
external  position.  The  second  call  is  recorded 
by  the  other  three  Evangelists ;  the  narrative 
of  Luke  being  apparently  supplementary  to 
the  brief,  and,  so  to  speak,  official  accounts 
given  by  Matthew  and  ]\Iark.  It  took  place  on 
the  sea  of  Galilee  near  Capernaum — where  the 
four  disciples,  Peter  and  Andrew,  James  and 
John,  were  fishing.  Peter  and  Andrew  were 
first  called.  Our  Lord  then  entered  Simon 
Peter's  boat  and  addressed  the  multitude  on 
the  .shore.  Immediately  after  that  call  our 
Lord  w^ent  to  the  house  of  Peter,  where  He 
wrought  the  miracle  of  healing  on  Peter's 
wife's  mother.  Some  time  was  passed  after- 
wards in  attendance  upon  our  Lord's  public 
,  ministrations  in  Galilee,  Decapolis,  Peraea,  and 
Judaea.  The  special  designation  of  Peter  and 
his  eleven  fellow-disciples  took^  place  some 
time  afterwards,  when  they  were  set  apart  as 
our  Lord's  immediate  attendants  (see  JMatt. 
X.  2-4;  Mark  iii.  13-19, — the  most  detailed  ac- 
count,— Luke  vi.  13).  They  appear  then  first 
to  have  received  formally  the  name  of  Apos- 
tles, and  from  that  time  Simon  bore  publicly, 
and  as  it  would  seem  all  but  exclusively,  the 
name  Peter,  which  had  hitherto  been  used 
rather  as  a  characteristic  appellation  than  as 
a  proper  name.  From  this  time  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  Peter  held  the  first  place  among 
the  Apostles,  to  whatever  cause  his  precedence 
is  to  be  attributed.  He  is  named  first  in  every 
list  of  the  Apostles ;  he  is  generally  addressed 
by  our  Lord  as  their  representative ;  and  on 
the  most  solemn  occasions  he  speaks  in  their 
name.  The  distinction  which  he  received,  and 
it  may  be  his  consciousness  of  ability,  energy, 
zeal,  and  absolute  devotion  to  Christ's  person, 
seem  to  have  developed  a  natural  tendency  to 
rashness  and  forwardness  bordering  upon  pre- 
sumption. On  this  occasion  the  exhibition  of 
such  feelings  brought  upon  him  the  strong- 


PETER 

est  reproof  ever  addressed  to  a  disciple  by  our 
Lord.  In  his  afi;ection  and  self-confidence 
Peter  ventured  to  reject  as  impossible  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  sufferings  and  humiliation 
which  Jesus  predicted,  and  heard  the  sharp 
words — "Get  thee  behind  me,  Satan;  thou  art 
an  olYence  unto  me ;  for  thou  savorest  not  the 
things  that  be  of  God,  but  those  that  be  of 
men."  It  is  remarkable  that  on  other  occa- 
sions when  St.  Peter  signalized  his  faith  and 
devotion,  he  displayed  at  the  time,  or  imme- 
diately afterwards,  a  more  than  usual  de- 
ficiency in  spiritual  discernment  and  consist- 
ency. Towards  the  close  of  our  Lord's  min- 
istry Peter's  characteristics  became  prom- 
inent. At  the  last  supper  Peter  seems 
to  have  been  particularly  earnest  in  the  re- 
quest that  the  traitor  might  be  pointed  out. 
After  the  supper  his  words  drew  out 
the  meaning  of  the  significant  act  of  our 
Lord  in  washing  His  disciples'  feet.  Then 
too  it  was  that  he  made  those  repeated 
protestations  of  unalterable  fidelity,  so  soon 
to  be  falsified  by  his  miserable  fall.  On  the 
morning  of  the  resurrection  we  have  proof 
that  Peter,  though  humbled,  was  not  crushed 
by  his  fall.  He  and  John  were  the  first  to 
visit  the  sepulchre ;  he  was  the  first  who  en- 
tered it.  We  are  told  by  Luke  and  by  Paul 
that  Christ  appeared  to  him  first  among  the 
Apostles.  It  is  observable,  however,  that  on 
that  occasion  he  is  called  by  his  original  name, 
Simon,  not  Peter ;  the  higher  designation  was 
not  restored  until  he  had  been  publicly  re- 
instituted,  so  to  speak,  by  his  Master.  That 
reinstitution  took  place  at  the  sea  of  Galilee 
(John  xxi.),  an  event  of  the  very  highest 
import.  The  first  part  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  is  occupied  by  the  record  of  transac- 
tions, in  nearly  all  of  which  Peter  stands  forth 
as  the  recognized  leader  of  the  Apostles.  He 
is  the  most  prominent  person  ^in  the  greatest 
event  after  the  resurrection,  when  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost  the  Church  was  first  invested 
with  the  plenitude  of  gifts  and  powers.  The 
first  miracle  after  Pentecost  was  wrought  by 
him  (Acts  iii.).  This  first  miracle  of  healing 
was  soon  followed  by  the  first  miracle  of  judg- 
ment. Peter  was  the  minister  in  that  transac- 
tion. [Ananias.]  When  the  Gospel  was  first 
preached  beyond  the  precincts  of  Judaea,  he 
and  John  were  at  once  sent  by  the  Apostles 
to  confirm  the  converts  at  Samaria.  Hence- 
forth he  remains  prominent,  but  not  exclusive- 
ly prominent,  among  the  propagators  of  the 
Gospel.  At  Samaria  he  was  confronted  with 
Simon  Magus,  the  first  teacher  of  heresy. 
About  three  years  later  (compare  Acts  ix.  26, 
and  Gal.  i.  17,  18)  we  have  two  accounts  of 


305 


1 


PETER,  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF 


PETER,  SECOND  EPISTLE  OF 


the  first  meeting  of  Peter  and  Paul.  This 
interview  was  followed  by  other  events  mark- 
ing Peter's  position — a  general  apostolical 
tour  of  visitation  to  the  Churches  hitherto 
established  (Acts  ix.  32),  in  the  course  of 
which  two  great  miracles  were  wrought  on 
Aeneas  and  Tabitha,  and  in  connection  with 
which  the  most  signal  transaction  after  the 
day  of  Pentecost  is  recorded,  the  baptism  of 
Cornelius.  That  was  the  crown  and  consum- 
mation of  Peter's  ministry.  The  establish- 
ment of  a  Church  in  great  part  of  Gentile 
origin  at  Antioch,  and  the  mission  of  Barna- 
bas, between  whose  family  and  Peter  there 
were  the  bonds  of  near  intimacy,  set  the  seal 
upon  the  work  thus  inaugurated  by  Peter. 
This  transaction  was  soon  followed  by  the  im- 
prisonment of  our  Apostle.  His  miraculous 
deliverance  marks  the  close  of  this  second 
great  period  of  his  ministry.  The  special  work 
assigned  to  him  was  compJeted.  From  that 
time  we  have  no  continuous  history  of  him. 
Peter  was  probably  employed  for  the  most 
part  in  building  up,  and  completing  the 
organization  of  Christian  communities  in 
Palestine  and  the  adjoining  districts.  There 
is,  however,  strong  reason  to  believe  that  he 
visited  Corinth  at  an  early  period.  The  name 
of  Peter  as  founder,  or  joint  foimder,  is  not 
associated  with  any  local  Church  save  those 
of  Corinth,  Antioch,  or  Rome,  by  early  ec- 
clesiastical tradition.  It  may  be  considered 
as  a  settled  point  that  he  did  not  visit  Rome 
before  the  last  year  of  his  life ;  but  there  is 
satisfactory  evidence  that  he  and  Paul  were 
the  founders  of  that  Church,  and  suffered 
death  in  that  city.  The  time  and  manner  of 
the  Apostle's  martyrdom  are  less  certain. 
According  to  the  early  writers,  he  suffered 
at  or  about  the  same  time  with  Paul,  and  in 
the  Neronian  persecution.  All  agree  that  he 
was  crucified. — The  Apostle  is  said  to  have 
employed  interpreters.  Of  far  more  impor- 
tance is  the  statement  that  Mark  wrote  his 
Gospel  under  the  teaching  of  Peter,  or  that 
he  embodied  in  that  Gospel  the  substance  of 
our  Apostle's  oral  instructions.  [Mark.]  The 
only  written  documents  which  Peter  has  left, 
are  the  First  Epistle,  about  which  no  doubt 
has  ever  been  entertained  in  the  Church ;  and 
the  Second,  which  has  been  a  subject  of 
earnest  controversy. 

Peter,  First  Epistle  of.  The  external  evi- 
dence of  authenticity  is  of  the  strongest  kind ; 
and  the  internal  is  equally  strong.  It  was 
addressed  to  the  Churches  of  Asia  Minor, 
which  had  for  the  most  part  been  founded  by 
Paul  and  his  companions.  Supposing  it  to 
have  been  written  at  Babylon,  it  is  a  probable 


conjecture  that  Silvanus,  by  whom  it  was 
transmitted  to  those  Churches,  had  "joined 
Peter  after  a  tour  of  visitation,  and  that  his 
account  of  the  condition  of  the  Christians  in 
those  districts  determined  the  Apostle  to  write 
the  Epistle.  The  objects  of  the  Epistle  were 
— I.  To  comfort  and  strengthen  the  Chris- 
tians in  a  season  of  severe  trial.  2.  To  en- 
force the  practical  and  spiritual  duties  in- 
volved in  their  calling.  3.  To  warn  them 
against  special  temptations  attached  to  their 
position.  4.  To  remove  all  doubt  as  to  the 
soundness  and  completeness  of  the  religious 
system  which  they  had  already  received.  Such 
an  attestation  was  especially  needed  by  the 
Hebrew  Christialis,  who  were  wont  to  appeal 
from  Paul's  authority  to  that  of  the  elder 
Apostles,  and  above  all  to  that  of  Peter.  The 
last,  which  is  perhaps  the  very  principal  ob- 
ject, is  kept  in  view  throughout  the  Epistle, 
and  is  distinctly  stated,  ch.  v.  vcr.  12. 

Peter,  Second  Epistle  of.  The  following  is 
a  brief  outline  of  its  contents :  The  customary 
opening  salutation  is  followed  by  an  enumera- 
tion of  Christian  blessings  and  exhortation  to 
Christian  duties  (i.  1-13).  Referring  then  to 
his  approaching  death,  the  Apostle  assigns  as 
grounds  for  assurance  for  believers  his  own 
personal  testimony  as  eye-witness  of  the 
transfiguration,  and  the  sure  word  of  prophecy 
— that  is,  the  testimony  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
(14-21).  The  danger  of  being  misled  b}'  false 
prophets  is  dwelt  upon  with  great  earnestness 
throughout  the  second  chapter,  which  is  al- 
most identical  in  language  and  subject  with 
the  Epistle  of  Jude.  The  overthrow  of  all 
opponents  of  Christian  truth  is  predicted  in 
connection  with  prophecies  touching  the  sec- 
ond advent  of  Christ,  the  destruction  of  the 
world  by  fire,  and  the  promise  of  new  heavens 
and  a  new  earth  wherein  dwelleth  righteous- 
ness (iii.). — This  Epistle  of  Peter  presents 
cjuestions  of  difficulty.  We  have  few  refer- 
ences to  it  in  the  writings  of  the  early  Fath- 
ers; the  style  differs  materially  from  that  of 
the  First  Epistle,  and  the  resemblance, 
amounting  to  a  studied  imitation,  between 
this  Epistle  and  that  of  Jude,  seems  scarcely 
reconcilable  with  the  position  of  Peter. 
Doubts  as  to  jts  genuineness  were  entertained 
by  the  early  Church;  in  the  time  of  Eusebius 
it  was  reckoned  among  the  disputed  books, 
and  was  not  formally  admitted  into  the  Canon 
until  the  year  393,  at  the  Council  of  Hippo. 
The  opinions  of  modern  commentators  may 
be  summed  up  under  three  heads.  Many  re- 
ject the  Epistle  altogether  as  spurious.  A 
few  consider  that  the  first  and  last  chapters 
were  written  by  Peter  or  under  his  dictation, 


306 


PHARAOH 


PHARAOH 


but  that  the  second  chapter  was  interpolated. 
But  a  majority  of  names  may  be  quoted  in 
support  of  the  genuineness  and  authenticity 
of  this  Epistle. 

Pha'raoh,  the  common  title  of  the  native 
kings  of  Egypt  in  the  Bible,  corresponding  to 
P-ra  or  Ph-ra,  "the  Sun,"  of  the  hieroglyphics. 
As  several  kings  are  only  mentioned  by  the 
title  ''Pharaoh"  in  the  Bible,  it  is  important 
to  endeavor  to  discriminate  them:  i.  The 
Pharaoh  of  Abraham. — At  the  time  at  which 
the  patriarch  went  into  Egypt,  it  is  generally 
held  that  the  country,  or  at  least  Lower 
Egypt,  was  ruled  by  the  Shepherd  kings,  of 
whom  the  first  and  most  powerful  line  was 
the  xvth  dynasty,  the  undoubted  territories  of 
which  would  be  first  entered  by  one  coming 
from  the  east.  The  date  at  which  Abraham 
visited  Egypt  was  about  B.  C.  2081,  which 
would  accord  with  the  time  of  Salatis,  the 


rortrait  oi  the  I'haraoh  of  the  Exodus. 

head  of  the  xvth  dynasty,  according  to  our 
reckoning.  2.  The  Pharaoh  of  Joseph. — The 
chief  points  for  the  identification  of  the  line 
to  which  this  Pharaoh  belonged,  are  that  he 
was  a  despotic  monarch,  ruling  all  Egypt,  who 
followed  Egyptian  customs,  but  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  set  them  aside  when  he  thought  fit. 
It  is  stated  by  Eusebius  that  the  Pharaoh  to 
whom  Jacob  came  was  one  of  the  Shepherd 
kings,  perhaps  Apophis,  who  belonged  to  the 
xvth  dynasty.  He  appears  to  have  reigned 
from  Joseph's  appointment  (or,  perhaps, 
somewhat  earlier)  until  Jacob's  death,  a  per- 
iod of  at  least  twenty-six  years,  from  about 
B.  C.  cir.  1876  to  1850,  and  to  have  been  the 
fifth  or  sixth  king  of  the  xvth  dynasty.  3. 
The  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression.^The  first 
persecutor  of  the  Israelites  may  be  distin- 
guished as  the  Pharaoli  of  the  Oppression, 
from  the  second,  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus, 


especially  as  he  commenced,  and  probably 
long  carried  on,  the  persecution.  The  reign 
of  this  king  probably  commenced  a  little  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Moses,  which  we  place  B.  C. 
1732,  and  seems  to  have  lasted  upwards  of 
forty  years,  perhaps  much  more.  4.  The 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus. — What  is  known  of 
the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  is  rather 
biographical  than  historical.  He  was  reign- 
ing for  about  a  year  or  more  -  before 
the  Exodus,  which-  we  place  B.  C.  1652. 
5.  Pharaoh,  father-in-law  of  Mered. — In 
"the  genealogies  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  daughter  of  a  Pharaoh, 
married  to  an  Israelite;  "Bithiah  the  daughter 
of  Pharaoh,  which  Mered  took"  (i  Chr.  iv. 
18).  This  marriage  may  tend  to  aid  us  in 
determining  the  age  of  the  sojouxn  in  Egypt. 
It  is  perhaps  less  probable  that  an  Egyptian 
Pharaoh  would  have  given  his  daughter  in 
marriage  to  an  Israelite,  than  that  a  Shepherd 
king  would  have  done  so,  before  the  oppres- 
sion. 6.  Pharaoh,  brother-in-law  of  Hadad 
the  Edomite. — This  king  gave  Hadad  as  his 
wife  the  sister  of  his  own  wife  Tahpenes  (i 
K.  xi.  18-20).  He  was  probably  a  Tanite  of 
the  xxist  dynasty.  7.  Pharaoh,  father-in-law 
of  Solomon. — The  mention  that  the  queen  was 
brought  into  the  city  of  David,  while  Solo- 
mon's house,  and  the  Temple,  and  the  city- 
wall  were  building,  shows  that  the  marriage 
took  place  not  later  than  the  eleventh  year  of 
the  king,  when  the  Temple  was  finished,  hav- 
ing been  commenced  in  the  fourth  year  (i  K. 
vi.  I,  37,  38).  He  was  probably  also  a  Tanite 
of  the  xxist  dynasty,  but  it  seems  certain  not 
the  Pharaoh  who  was  reigning  when  Hadad 
left  Egypt.  This  Pharaoh  led  an  expedition 
into  Palestine  (i  K.  ix.  16).  8.  Pharaoh,  the 
opponent  of  Sennacherib. — This  Pharaoh  (Is. 
xxxvi.  6)  can  only  be  the  Sethos  whom  He- 
rodotus mentions  as  the  opponent  of  Senna- 
cherib, and  who  may  reasonabl}'  be  supposed 
to  be  the  Zet  of  Manetho,  the  last  king  of 
his  xxiiid  dynasty.  Tirhakah,  as  an  Ethi- 
opian, whether  then  ruling  in  Egypt  or  not, 
is,  like  So,  apparently  not  called  Pharaoh.  9. 
Pharaoh  Necho. — The  first  mention  in  the 
Bible  of  a  proper  name  with  the  title  Pharaoh 
is  the  case  of  Pharaoh  Necho,  who  is  also 
called  Necho,  simply.  This  king  was  of  the 
Saite  xxvith  dynasty,  of  which  Manetho 
makes  him  either  the  fifth  ruler  or  the  sixth. 
Herodotus  calls  him  Nekos,  and  assigns  to 
him  a  reign  of  16  years,  which  is  confirmed 
by  the  monuments.  At  the  commencement 
of  his  reign  (B.  C.  610)  he  made  war  against 
th«  king  of  Assyria,  and,  being  encountered 
on  his  way  by  Josiah,  defeated  and  slew  the 


PHARAOH 


PHARISEES 


king  of-Judah  at  Megiddo  (2  K.  xxiii.  29,  30; 
2  dir.  XXXV.  2024).  Necho  seems  to  have 
soon  returned  to  Egypt.  Perhaps  he  was  on 
his  way  thither  when  he  deposed  Jehoahaz. 
The  army  was  probably  posted  at  Carchemish, 
andr  was  there  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in 
the  fourth  year  of  Necho  (B.  C.  607),  that 
king  not  being,  as  it  seems,  then  at  its  head 
(Jer.  xlvi.  i,  2,  6,  10).  This  battle  led  to  the 
loss  of  ,all  the  Asiatic  dominions  of  Egypt 
(2  K.  xxiv.  7).  ID.  Pharaoh  Hophra. — The 
next  king  of  Egypt  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
is  Pharaoh  Hophra,  the  second  successor  of 
Necho,  from  whom  he  was  separated  by  the 
six  years'  reign  of  Psammetichus  H.  He  came 
to  the  throne  about  B.  C.  589,  and  ruled  19 
years,    Herodotus,,  who    calls    him  Apries, 


I'hai'aoli's  Daughter. 

makes  him  son  of  Psammetichus  H.,  whom 
he  calls  Psammis,  and  great-grandson  of 
Psammetichus  I.  In  the  Bible  it  is  related 
that  Zedekiah,  the  last  king  of  Judah,  was 
aided  by  a  Pharaoh  against  Nebuchadnezzar, 
in  fulfilment  of  a  treaty,  and  that  an  army 
came  out  of  Egypt,  so  that  the  Chaldeans 
were  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  of  Jerusalem. 
The  city  was  first  besieged  in  the  ninth 
year  of  Zedekiah,  B.  C.  590,  and  was  captured 
in  his  eleventh  year,  B.  C.  588.  It  was  evi- 
dently continuously  invested  for  a  length  of 
time  before  it  was  taken,  so  that  it  is  most 
probable  that  Pharaoh's  expedition  took  place 
during  590  or  589.  There  may,  therefore,  be 
some  doubt  whether  Psammetichus  II.  be  not 
the  king  here  spoken  of ;  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  siege  may  be  supposed  to 
have  lasted  some  time  before  the  Egj^ptians 
could  have  heard  of  it  and  marched  to  relieve 
the  city,  and  also  that  Hophra  may  have  come 
to  the  throne  as  early  as  B.  C.  590.  The  Egyp- 
tian army  returned  without  effecting  its  pur- 
])ose  (Jer.  xxvii.  5-8;  Ez.  xvii.  11-18;  comp.  2 
K.  XXV.  1-4).   No  subsequent  Pharaoh  is  men- 


tioned in  Scripture,  but  there  are  predictions 
doubtless  referring  to  the  misfortunes  of  later 
princes  until  the  second  Persian  conquest, 
when  the  prophecy,  "There  shall  be  no  more 
a  prince  of  the  land  of  Egypt"  (Ex.  xxx.  13), 
was  fulfilled. 

Pharaoh's  Daughter.  Three  Egyptian 
princesses,  daughters  of  Pharaohs,  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible,  i.  The  preserver  of 
Moses,  daughter  of  the  Pharaoh  who  first  op- 
pressed the  Israelites  (Ex.  ii.  5-10).  2.  Bith- 
iah,  wife  of  Mered,  an  Israelite,  daughter  of 
a  Pharaoh  of  an  uncertain  age,  probably  of 
about  the  time  of  the  Exodus  (i  Chr.  iv.  18). 
[Pharaoh,  No.  5.]  3.  A  wife  of  Solomon, 
most  probably  daughter  of  a  king  of  the  xxist 
dynasty  (i  K.  iii.  I,  vii.  8,  ix.  24).  [Pha- 
raoh, 7.] 

Pharaoh,  The  Wife  of.  The  wife  of  one 
Pharaoh,  the  king  who  received  Hadad  the 
Edomite,  is  mentioned  in  Scripture.  She  is 
called  "queen"  and  her  name  Tahpenes,  is 
given.  Her  husband  was  most  probably  of 
the  xxist  dynasty.    [Pharaoh,  6.] 

Pharisees,  a  religious  party  or  school 
amongst  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ,  so 
called  from  Perishin,  the  Aramaic  form  of  the 
Hebrew  word  Pertishim,  ,  "separated."  The 
name  does  not  occur  either  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment or  in  the  Apocrypha ;  but  it  is  usually 
considered  that  the  Pharisees  were  essentially 
the  same  with  the  Assideans  (i.  e.  chasidim  = 
godly  men,  saints)  mentioned  in  the  ist  Book 
of  Maccabees  ii.  42,  vii.  13-17,  and  in  the  2d 
Book  xiv.  6).  A  knowledge  of  the  opinions 
and  practices  of  this  party  at  the  time  of 
Christ  is  of  great  importance  for  entering 
deeply  into  the  genius  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion. A  cursory  perusal  of  the  Gospels  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  Christ's  teaching  was 
in  some  respects  thoroughly  antagonistic  to 
theirs.  He  denounced  them  in  the  bitterest 
language.  (See  Matt.  xv.  7,  8,  xxiii.  5,  13,  14, 
15,  23;  Mark  vii.  6;  Luke  xi.  42-44,  and  com- 
pare Matt.  vii.  1-5,  xi.  29,  xii.  19,  20;  Luke  vi. 
28,  37-42.)  The  fundamental  principle  of 
the  Pharisees  common  to  them  with  all  ortho- 
dox modern  Jews  is,  that  by  the  side  of  the 
written  law  regarded  as  a  summary  of  the 
I^rinciples  and  general  laws  of  the  Hebrew 
people,  there  was  an  oral  law  to  complete  and 
to  explain  the  written  law.  It  was  an  article 
of  faith  that  in  the  Pentateuch  there  was  no 
precept,  and  no  regulation,  ceremonial,  doc- 
trinal, or  legal,  of  which  God  had  not  given 
to  Moses  all  explanations  necessary  for  their 
application,  with  the  order  to  transmit  them 
by  word  of  mouth.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed 
that  all  the  traditions  which  bound  the  Phar- 


308 


m  [mm 

OF  THE 


PHARISEES 


PHILIP  THE  APOSTLE 


isees  were  believed  to  be  direct  revelations  to 
Moses  on  Mount  Sinai.  Josephus  compared 
the  Pharisees  to  the  sect  of  the  Stoics. 
He  says  that  they  lived  frugally,  in  no 
respect  giving  in  to  luxury,  but  that 
they  followed  the  leadership  of  reason  in 
what  it  had  selected  and  transmitted  as  a 
good.  Although  there  would  be  hypocrites 
among  them,  it  would  be  unreasonable  to 
charge  all  the  Pharisees  as  a  body  with  hy- 
pocrisy, in  the  sense  wherein  we  at  the  pres- 
ent day  use  the  word.  They  must  be  regarded 
as  having  been  some  of  the  most  intense 
formalists  whom  the  world  has  ever  seen.  It 
was  alleged  against  them,  on  the  highest  spir- 
itual authority,  that  they  "made  the  word  of 
God  of  no  effect  by  their  traditions."  This 
would  be  true  in  the  largest  sense,  from  the 
purest  form  of  religion  in  the  Old  Testament 
being  almost  incompatible  with  such  endless 
forms  (Mic.  vi.  8)  ;  but  it  was  true  in  another 
sense,  from  some  of  the  traditions  being  de- 
cidedly at  variance  with  genuine  religion. 
One  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the 
Pharisees  was  a  belief  in  a  future  state.  They 
appear  to  have  believed  in  a  resurrection  of 
the  dead,  very  much  in  the  same  sense  as  the 
early  Christians.  This  is  in  accordance  with 
St.  Paul's  statement  to  the  chief  priests  and 
council  (Acts  xxiii.  6),  that  he  was  a  Phar- 
isee, the  son  of  a  Pharisee,  and  that  he  was 
called  in  question  for  the  hope  and  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead ;  and  it  is  likewise  almost  im- 
plied in  Christ's  teaching,  which  does  not  in- 
sist on  the  doctrine  of  a  future  life  as  anything 
new,  but  assumes  it  as  already  adopted  by  his 
hearers,  except  by  the  Sadducees,  although  he 
condemns  some  unspiritual  conceptions  of  its 
nature  as  erroneous  (Matt.,  xxii.  30;  Mark  xii. 
25;  Luke  XX.  34-36).  In  reference  to  the  opin- 
ions of  the  Pharisees  concerning  the  freedom 
of  the  will,  a  difficulty  arises  from  the  very 
prominent  position  which  they  occupy  in  the 
accounts  of  Josephus,  whereas  nothing  vitally 
essential  to  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the  Phar- 
isees seems  to  depend  on  those  opinions,  and 
some  of  his  expressions  are  Greek,  rather  than 
Hebrew.  "There  were  three  sects  of  the 
Jews,"  he  says,  "which  had  different  concep- 
tions respecting  human  affairs,  of  which  one 
was  called  Pharisees,  the  second  Sadducees, 
and  the  third  Essenes.  The  Pharisees  say 
that  some  things,  and  not  all  things,  are  the 
work  of  Fate ;  but  that  some  things  are  in 
our  own  power  to  be  and  not  to  be.  But  the 
Essenes  declare  that  Fate  rules  all  things,  and 
that  nothing  happens  to  man  except  by  its 
decree.  The  Sadducees,  on  the  other  hand, 
take  away  Fate,  holding  that  it  is  a  thing  of 


nought,  and  that  human  affairs  do  not  depend 
upon  it;  but  in  their  estimate  all  things  arc  in 
the  power  of  ourselves,  as  being  ourselves  the 
causes  of  our  good  things,  and  meeting  with 
evils  through  our  own  inconsiderateness." 
The  spirit  of  proselytism  among  the  Pharisees 
prevailed  to  a  very  great  extent  at  the  time 
of  Christ  (Matt,  xxiii.  15)  ;  and  paved  the  way 
for  the  early  diffusion  of  Christianity. 

Philaderphia,  a  town  on  the  confines  of 
Lydia  and  Phrygia  Catacecaunicnc,  built  by 


I'hilacielphia. 


Attalus  IL,  king  of  Pergamus.  It  was  situ- 
ated on  the  lower  slopes  of  Tmolus,  and  is 
still  represented  by  a  town  called  Allah-shehr 
(city  of  God).  Its  elevation  is  952  feet  above 
the  sea. 

Philemon,  The  Epistle  of  Paul  to,  is  one  of 

the  letters  which  the  Apostle  wrote  during  his 
first  captivity  at  Rome.  Nothing  is  wanted 
to  confirm  the  genuineness  of  the  epistle.  The 
external  testimony  is  unimpeachable.  The 
Canon  of  Muratori  enumerates  this  as  one  of 
Paul's  epistles.  Origen  and  Eusebius  include 
it  among  the  universally  acknowledged  writ- 
ings of  the  early  Christian  times.  Nor  does 
the  epistle  itself  offer  anything  to  conflict  with 
this  decision.  The  Epistle  to  Philemon  has 
one  peculiar  feature — its  aestlietical  character 
it  may  be  termed — which  distinguishes  it  from 
all  the  other  epistles.  The  writer  had  pecu- 
liar difficulties  to  overcome,  but  Paul,  it  is 
confessed,  has  shown  a  degree  of  self-denial 
and  a  tact  in  dealing  with  them,  which  in 
being  equal  to  the  occasion  could  hardly  be 
greater. 

Philip  the  Apostle  was  of  Bethsaida,  the  city 
of  Andrew  and  Peter  (John  i.  44),  and  ap- 
parently was  among  the  Galilaean  peasants 
of  that  district  who  flocked  to  hear  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Baptist.  The  manner  in  which  St. 
John  speaks  of  him,  the  repetition  by  him  of 


PHILIP  THE  EVANGELIST 


PHILIPPI 


the  selfsame  words  with  which  Andrew  had 
brought  to  Peter  the  good  news  that  the 
Christ  had  at  last  appeared,  all  indicate  a 
previous  friendship  with  the  sons  of  Jona  and 
of  Zebedee,  and  a  consequent  participation  in 
their  Messianic  hopes.  The  close  union  of 
the  two  in  John  vi.  and  xii.  suggests  that  he 
may  have  owed  to  Andrew  the  first  tidings 
that  the  hope  had  been  fulfilled.  The  state- 
ment that  Jesus  found  him  (John  i.  43)  implies 
a  previous  seeking.  To  him  first  in  the  whole 
circle  of  the  disciples  were  spoken  the  words 
so  full  of  meaning,  "Follow  me"  (Ibid.).  As 
soon  as  he  has  learnt  to  know  his  Master,  he 
is  eager  to  communicate  his  discovery  to  an- 
other who  had  also  shared  the  same  expecta- 
tions. He  speaks  to  Nathanael,  probably  on 
his  arrival  in  Cana  (comp.  John  xxi.  2),  as 
though  they  had  not  seldom  communed  to- 
gether, of  the  intimations  of  a  better  time,  of 
a  divine  kingdom,  which  they  found  in  their 
sacred  books.  Philip  apparently  was  among 
the  first  company  of  disciples  who  were  with 
the  Lord  at  the  commencement  of  His  min- 
istry, at  the  marriage  of  Cana,  on  His  first 
appearance  as  a  prophet  in  Jerusalem  (John 
ii.).  When  John  was  cast  into  prison,  and  the 
work  of  declaring  the  glad  tidings  of  the  king- 
dom required  a  new  company  of  preachers, 
we  may  believe  that  he,  like  his  companions 
and  friends,  received  a  new  call  to  a  more 
constant  discipleship  (Matt.  iv.  18-22).  When 
the  Twelve  were  specially  set  apart  for  their 
office,  he  was  numbered  among  them.  The 
first  three  Gospels  tell  us  nothing  more  of  him 
individually.  St.  John,  with  his  characteristic 
fulness  of  personal  reminiscences,  records  a 
few  significant  utterances  (John  vi.  5-9,  xii. 
20-22,  xiv.  8).  No  other  fact  connected  with 
the  name  of  Philip  is  recorded  in  the  Gospels. 
He  is  among  the  company  of  disciples  at 
Jerusalem  after  the  Ascension  (Acts  i.  13), 
and  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  After  this  all 
is  uncertain  and  apocryphal. 

Philip  the  Evangelist  is  first  mentioned  in 
the  account  of  the  dispute  between  the  He- 
brew and  Hellenistic  disciples  in  Acts  vi.  The 
persecution  of  which  Saul  was  the  leader  must 
have  stopped  the  "daily  ministrations"  of  the 
Church.  The  teachers  who  had  been  most 
prominent  were  compelled  to  take  to  flight, 
and  Philip  was  among  them.  It  is  noticeable 
that  the  city  of  Samaria  is  the  first  scene  of 
his  activity  (Acts  viii.).  He  is  the  precursor 
of  St.  Paul  in  his  work,  as  Stephen  had  been 
in  his  teaching..  It  falls  to  his  lot,  rather  than 
to  that  of  an  Apostle,  to  take  that  first  step  in 
the  victory  over  Jewish  prejudice  and  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  Church,  according  to  its  Lord's 

3 


command.  The  scene  which  brings  Philip  and 
Simon  the  Sorcerer  into  contact  with  each 
other,  in  which  the  magician  has  to  acknowl- 
edge a  power  over  nature  greater  than  his 
own,  is  interesting,  rather  as  belonging  to  the 
life  of  the  heresiarch  than  to  that  of  the  Evan- 
gelist. This  step  is  followed  by  another.  He 
is  directed  by  an  angel  of  the  Lord  to  take 
the  road  that  led  down  from  Jerusalem  to 
Gaza  on  the  way  to  Egypt.  Here  he  met  the 
Ethiopian  eunuch  (Acts  vi.  26,  foil.).  The 
history  that  follows  is  interesting  as  one  of 
the  few  records  in  the  N.  T.  of  the  process  of 
individual  conversion.  A  brief  sentence  tells 
us  that  Philip  continued  his  work  as  a  preach- 
er at  Azotus  (Ashdod),  and  among  the  other 
cities  that  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  Phi- 
listines, and,  following  the  coast-line,- came  to 
Caesarea.  The  last  glimpse  of  him  in  the  N. 
T.  is  in  the  account  of  St.  Paul's  journey  to 
Jerusalem.  It  is  to  his  house,  as  to  one  well 
known  to  them,  that  St.  Paul  and  his  com- 
panions turn  for  shelter.  One  tradition  places 
the  scene  of  his  death  at  Hierapolis  in  Phryg- 
ia.  According  to  another,  he  died  Bishop 
of  Tralles.  The  house  in  which  he  and  his 
daughters  had  lived  was  pointed  out  to  travel- 
lers in  the  time  of  Jerome. 

Philip  Herod  I.,  II.  [Herod.] 

Philip'pi,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  about  nine 
miles  from  the  sea,  to  the  N.  W.  of  the  island 
of  Thasos,  which  is  twelve  miles  distant  from 


Ruins  in  the  Mai'ket-place  of  Philippi. 

its  port  Neapolis,  the  modern  Kavalla.  The 
Philippi  which  St.  Paul  visited  was  a  Roman 
colony  founded  by  Augustus,  and  the  remains 
which  strew  the  ground  near  the  modern 
Turkish  village  Bereketli  are  no  doubt  derived 
from  that  city.  The  proximity  of  the  gold- 
mines was  of  course  the  origin  of  so  large  a 


PHILIPPIANS 


PHILISTINES 


city  as  Philippi,  but  the  plain  in  which  it  lies 
is  of  extraordinary  fertility.  The  position,  too, 
was  on  the  main  road  from  Rome  to  Asia,  the 
Via  Egnatia,  which  from  Thessalonica  to  Con- 
stantinople followed  the  same  course  as  the 
existing  post-road.  On  St.  Paul's  visits  to 
Philippi,  see  the  following  article. 

Philippians,  Epistle  to  the,  was  written  by 
St.  Paul  from  Rome  in  A.  D.  62  or  63. 
Strangely  full  of  joy  and  thanksgiving  amidst 
adversity,  like  the  Apostle"s  midnight  hymn 
from  the  depth  of  his  Philippian  dungeon, 
this  Epistle  went  forth  from  his  prison  at 
Rome.  In  most  other  epistles  he  writes  with 
a  sustained  effort  to  instruct,  or  with  sorrow, 
or  with  indignation ;  he  is  striving  to  supply 
imperfect,  or  to  correct  erroneous  teaching,  to 
put  down  scandalous  impurity,  or  to  heal 
schism  in  the  Church  which  he  addresses.  But 
in  this  Epistle,  though  he  knew  the  Philip- 


View  at  Philippi. 


pians  intimately,  and  was  not  blind  to  the 
faults  and  tendencies  to  fault  of  some  of  them, 
yet  he  mentions  no  evil  so  characteristic  of 
the  whole  Church  as  to  call  for  general  cen- 
sure on  his  part,  or  amendment  on  theirs.  Of 
all  his  Epistles  to  Churches,  none  has  so  little 
of  an  official  character  as  this. 

Philis'tines,  The  origin  of  the  Philistines 
is  nowhere  expressly  stated  in  the  Bible ;  but 
as  the  prophets  describe  them  as  "the  Philis- 
tines from  Caphtor"  (Am.  ix.  7),  and  "the 
remnant  of  the  maritime  district  of  Caphtor" 
(Jer.  xlvii.  4),  it  is  prima  facie  probable  that 
they  were  the  "Caphtorims  which  came  out  of 
Caphtor"  who  expelled  the  Avim  from  their 
territory  and  occupied  it  in  their  place  (Deut. 
ii.  23),  and  that  these  again  were  the  Caph- 
torim  mentioned  in  the  Mosaic  genealogical 
table  among  the  descendants  of  Mizraim 
(Gen.  x.  14).  It  has  been  generally  assumed 
that  Caphtor  represents  Crete,  and  that  the 
Philistine's  migrated  from  that  island,  either 
directly  or  through  Egypt,  into  Palestine.  But 

3 


the  name  Caphtor  is  more  probably  identified 
with  the  Egyptian  Coptos.  [Caphtor.]  The 
Cretan  origin  of  the  Philistines  has  been  de- 
duced, not  so  much  from  the  name  Caphtor, 
as  from  that  of  the  Cherethites.  This  name 
in  its  Hebrew  form  bears  a  close  resemblance 
to  Crete,  and  is  rendered  Cretans  in  the  LXX. 
The  Philistines  must  have  settled  in  the  land 
of  Canaan  before  the  time  of  Abraham ;  for 
they  are  noticed  in  his  day  as  a  pastoral  tribe 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Gerar  (Gen.  xxi.  32, 
34,  xxvi.  I,  8).  Between  the  times  of  Abra- 
ham and  Joshua,  the  Philistines  had  changed 
their  quarters,  and  had  advanced  northwards 
into  the  plain  of  Philistia.  This  plain  has  been 
in  all  ages  remarkable  for  the  extreme  rich- 
ness of  its  soil.  They  had  at  an  early  period  at- 
tained proficiency  in  the  arts  of  peace.  Their 
wealth  was  abundant  (Judg.  xvi.  5,  18),  and 
they  appear  in  all  respects  to  have  been  a 
prosperous  people.  Possessed  of  such  ele- 
ments of  power,  the  Philistines  had  attained 
in  the  time  of  the  Judges  an  important  posi- 
tion among  Eastern  nations.  About  B.  C. 
1209  we  find  them  engaged  in  successful  war 
with  the  Sidonians  (Justin,  xviii.  3).  The 
territory  of  the  Philistines,  having  been  once 
occupied  by  the  Canaanites,  formed  a  portion 
of  the  promised  land,  and  was  assigned  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  2,  12,  45-47).  No 
portion,  however,  of  it  was  conquered  in  the 
lifetime  of  Joshua  (Josh.  xiii.  2),  and  even 
after  his  death  no  permanent  conquest  was 
effected  (Judg.  iii.  3),  though  we  are  informed 
that  the  three  cities  of  Gaza,  Ashkelon,  and 
Ekron  were  taken  (Judg.  i.  18).  The  Philis- 
tines soon  recovered  these,  and  commenced 
an  aggressive  policy  against  the  Israelites,  by 
which  they  gained  a  complete  ascendency 
ove-r  them.  Individual  heroes  were  raised  up 
from  time  to  time,  such  as  Shamgar  the  son 
of  Anath  (Judg.  iii.  31),  and  still  more,  Sam- 
son (Judg.  xiii.-xvr.)  ;  but  neither  of  these 
men  succeeded  in  permanently  throwing  off 
the  yoke.  The  Israelites  attributed  their 
past  weakness  to  their  want  of  unity,  and 
they  desired  a  king,  with  the  special  object 
of  leading  them  against  the  foe  (i  Sam.  viii. 
20).  Saul  threw  off  the  yoke;  and  the  Philis- 
tines were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  at 
Geba  (i  Sam.  xiii.,  xiv.).  They  made  no  at- 
tempt to  regain  their  supremacy  for  about  25 
years,  and  the  scene  of  the  next  contest  shows 
the  altered  strength  of  the  two  parties :  it  was 
no  longer  in  the  central  country,  but  in  a 
ravine  leading  down  to  the  Philistine  plain, 
the  valley  of  Elah,  the  position  of  which  is 
about  14  miles  S.  W.  of  Jerusalem  :  on  this 
occasion  the 'prowess  of  young  David  secured 
II 


PHILISTINES 


PHOENICE 


success  to  Israel,  and  the  foe  was  pursued  to 
the  gates  of  Gath  and  Ekron  (i  Sam.  xvif.). 
The  power  of  the  PhiUstines  was,  however, 
still  intact  on  their  own  territory.  The  border 
warfare  was  continued:  The  scene  of  the 
next  conflict  was  far  to  the  north,  in  the  val- 
le^^  of  Esdraelon.  The  battle  on  this  occasion 
proved  disastrous  to  the  Israelites ;  Saul  him- 
self perished,  and  the  Philistines  penetrated 
across  the  Jordan,  and  occupied  the  forsaken 
cities  (i  Sam.  xxxi.  1-7).  On  the  appointment 
of  David  to  be  king,  he  twice  attacked  them, 
and  on  each  occasion  with  signal  success,  in 
the  first  case  capturing  their  images,  in  the 
second  pursuing  them  "from  Geba  until  thou 
come  to  Gazer"  (2  Sam.  v.  17-25;  i  Chr.  xiv. 
8-16).  Henceforth  the  Israelites  appear  as 
the  aggressors:  about  seven  years  after  the 
defeat  at  Rephaim,  David,  who  had  now  con- 
solidated his  power,  attacked  them  on  their 
own  soil,  and  took  Gath  with  its  dependencies 
(i  Chr.  xviii.  i),  and  thus  (according  to  one 
interpretation  of  the  obscure  expression 
"Metheg-ammah"  in  2  Sam.  viii.  i)  "he  took 
the  arm-bridle  out  of  the  hand  of  the  Philis- 
tines," meaning  that  their  ascendency  was 
utterly  broken.  The  whole  of  Philistia  was 
included  in  Solomon's-  empire.  Later,  the 
Philistines,  in  conjunction  with  the  Syrians 
and  Assyrians,  and  perhaps  as  the  sub- 
ject-allies of  the  latter,  carried  on  a  series 
of  attacks  on  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
(Is.  ix.  II,  12).  Hezekiah  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Egyptians,  as  a  counterpoise  to  the 
Assyrians,  and  .  the  possession  of  Philistia  be- 
came henceforth  the  turning-point  of  the 
struggle  between  the  two  great  empires  of  the 
East.  The  Assyrians  under  Tartan,  the  gen- 
eral of  Sargon,  made  an  expedition  against 
Egypt,  and  took  Ashdod,  as  the  key  of  that 
country  (Is.  xx.  i,  4,  5).  Under  Sennacherib 
Philistia  was  again  the-  scene  of  important 
operations.  The  Assyrian  supremacy  was  re- 
stored by  Esarliaddon,  and  its  seems  probable 
that  the  Assyrians  retained  their  hold  on  Ash- 
dod until  its  capture,  after  a  long  siege,  by 
Psammetichus.  It  was  about  this  time  that 
Philistia  was  traversed  by  a  vast  Scythian 
horde  on  their  way  to  Egypt.  The  Egyptian 
ascendency  was  not  as  yet  re-established,  for 
we  find  the  next  king,  Neco,.  compelled  to  be- 
siege Gaza  on  his  return  from  the  battle  of 
Megiddo.  After  the  death  of  Neco,  the  con- 
test was  renewed  between  the  Egyptians  and 
the  Chaldeans  under  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the 
result  was  especially  disastrous  to  the  Philis- 
tines. The  "old  hatred"  that  the  Philistines 
bore  to  the  Jews  was  exhibited  in  acts  of 
liostility  at  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captiv- 


ity (Ez.  XXV.  15-17)  ;  but  on  the  return  this 
was  somewhat  abated,  for  some  of  the  Jews 
married  Philistian  women,  to  the  great  scan- 
dal of  their  rulers  (Neh.  xiii.  23,  24).  From 
this  time  the  history  of  Philistia  is  absorbed 
in  the  struggles  of  the  neighboring  kingdoms. 
The  latest  notices  of  the  Philistines  as  a  na- 
tion occur  in  i  Mace,  iii.-v.  With  regard  to 
the  institutions  of  the  Philistines  our  infor- 
mation is  very  scanty.  The  five  chief  cities 
had,  as  early  as  the  days  of  Joshua,  constituted 
themselves  into  a  confederacy,  restricted,  how- 
ever, in  all  probability,  to  matter's  of  offence 
and  defence.  Each  was  under  the  government 
of  a  prince  (Josh.  xiii.  3 ;  Judg.  iii.  3,  &c. ;  i 
Sam.  xviii.  30,  xxix.  6),  and  each  possessed 
its  own  territory.  The  Philistines  appear  to 
have  been  deeply  imbued  with  superstition ; 
they  carried  their  idols  with  them  on  their 
campaigns  (2  Sam.  v.  21),  and  proclaimed  their 
victories  in  their  presence  (i  Sam.  xxxi.  9). 
The  gods  whom  they  chiefly  worshipped  were 
Dagon  (Judg.  xvi.  23 ;  i  Sam.  v.  3-5 ;  i  Chr. 
X.  10;  I  Mace.  X.  83)  ;  Ashtaroth  (i  Sam.  xxxi. 
10;  Herod,  i.  105);  and  Baalzebub  (2  K.  i. 
2-6). 

Phoe'be,  the  first,  and  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant, of  the  Christian  persons  the  detailed 
mention  of  whom  fills  nearly  all  the  last  chap- 
ter of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  What  is 
said'  of  her  (Rom.  xvi.  i,  2)  is  worthy  of  es- 
pecial notice,  because  of  its  bearing  on  the 
question  of  the  deaconesses  of  the  Apostolic 
Church. 

Phoeni'ce,  Phoenic'ia,  a  tract  of  country,  of 
which  Tyre  and  Sidon  were  the  principal  cities, 
to  the  north  of  Palestine,  along  the  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea ;  bounded  by  that  sea 
on  the  west,  and  by  the  mountain  range  of 
Lebanon  on  the  east.  The  name  was  not  the 
one  by  which  its  native  inhabitants  called  it, 
but  was  given  to  it  by  the  Greeks,  from  the 
Greek  word  for  the  palm-tree.  The  native 
name  of  Phoenicia  was  Kenaan  (Canaan)  or 
Kna,  signifying  lowland,  so  named  in  contrast 
to  the  adjoining  Aram,  i.  e.  highland,  the  He- 
brew name  of  Syria.  Phoenicia  is  estimated 
to  have  been  about  120  miles  in  length ;  while 
its  breadth,  between  Lebanon  and  the  sea, 
never  exceeded  20  miles,  and  was  generally 
much  less.  Scarcely  16  geographical  miles  far- 
ther north  than  Sidon  was  Berytus,  with  a 
roadstead  well  suited  for  the  purposes  of  mod- 
ern navigation,  that,  under  the  modern  name 
of  Beirout,  it  has  eclipsed  both  Sidon  and 
Tyre  as  an  emporium  for  Syria.  The  Phoeni- 
cians spoke  a  branch  of  the  Semitic  language 
so  closely  allied  to  Hebrew,  that  Phoenician 
and  Hebrew,  though  dififerent  dialects,  may 


3 


12 


THE  LIBRARY 


PHOEXICE 


PIECE  OF  GOLD 


practically  be  regarded  as  the  same  language. 
Concerning  the  original  race  to  which  the 
Pfeoenicians  belonged,  nothing  can  be  known 
with  certainty,  because  they  are  found  already 
established  along  the  Mediterranean  Sea  at  the 
earliest  dawn  of  authentic  history,  and  for  cen- 
turies afterwards  there  is  no  record  of  their 
origin.  According  to  Herodotus  (vii.  89),  they 
said  of  themselves  in  his  time  that  they  came 
in  days  of  old  from  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea ; 
and  in  this  there  would  be  nothing  in  the 
slightest  degree  improbable,  as  they  spoke  a 
language  cognate  to  that  of  the  Arabians,  who 
inhabited  the  east  .coast  of  that  sea.  Still 
neither  the  truth  nor  the  falsehood  of  the  tra- 
dition can  now  be  proved.  But  there  is  one 
point  respecting  their  race  which  can  be  proved 
to  be  in  the  highest  degree  probable,  and  which 
has  peculiar  interest  as  bearing  on  the  Jews, 
viz.  that  the  Phoenicians  were  of  the  same  race 
as  the  Canaanites.  In  regard  to  Phoenician 
trade,  connected  with  the  Israelites,  it  must  be 
recollected  that  up  to  the  time  of  David,  not 
one  of  the  twelve  tribes  seems  to  have  pos- 
sessed a  single  harbor  on  the  sea-coast ;  it  was 
impossible  therefore  that  they  could  become  a 
commercial  people.  But  from  the  time  that 
David  had  conquered  Edom,  an  opening  for 
trade  was  afforded  to  the  Israelites.  The  com- 
mand of  Ezion-geber  near  Elath,  in  the  land 
of  Edom,  enabled  them  to  engage  in  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Red  Sea.  As  they  were  novices, 
however,  at  sailing,  and  as  the  Phoenicians, 
during  the  period  of  the  independence  of 
Edom,  were  probably  allowed  to  trade  from 
Ezion-geber,  it  was  politic  in  Solomon  to  per- 
mit the  Phoenicians  of  Tyre  to  have  docks, 
and  build  ships  at  Ezion-geber  on  condition 
that  his  sailors  and  vessels  might  have  the 
benefit  of  their  experience.  The  results  seem 
to  have  been  strikingly  successful.  The  re- 
ligion of  the  Phoenicians,  opposed  to  Mono- 
theism, was  a  Pantheistical  personification  of 
the  forces  of  nature,  and  in  its  most  philo- 
sophical shadowing  forth  of  the  Supreme 
powers,  it  may  be  said  to  have  represented 
the  male  and  female  principles  of  production. 
In  its  popular  form,  it  was  especially  a  wor- 
ship of  the  sun,  moon,  and  five  planets,  or, 
as  it  might  have  been  expressed  according  to 
ancient  notions,  of  the  seven  planets — the  most 
beautiful,  and  perhaps  the  most  natural,  form 
of  idolatry  ever  presented  to  the  human  imagi- 
nations. These  planets,  however,  were  not 
regarded  as  lifeless  globes  of  matter,  obedient 
to  physical  laws,  but  as  intelligent  animated 
powers,  influencing  the  human  will,  and  con- 
trolling human  destinies.  It  will  be  proper 
here  to  point  out  certain  effects  which  the 

3 


circumstance  of  their  being  worshipped  in 
Phoenicia  produced  upon  the  Hebrews,  i.  In 
the  first  place,  their  worship  was  a  constant 
temptation  to  Polytheism  and  idolatry.  It  can 
scarcely  be  doubted  that  the  Phoenicians,  as 
a  great  commercial  people,  were  more  gener- 
ally intelligent,  and  as  we  should  now  say 
civiliz'ed,  than  the  inland  agricultural  popu- 
lation of  Palestine.  ,  When  the  simple-minded 
Jews,  therefore,  came  in  contact  with  a  people 
more  versatile,  and,  apparently,  more  enlight- 
ened than  themselves,  but  who  nevertheless, 
either  in  a  philosophical  or  in  a  popular  form, 
admitted  a  system  of  Polytheism,  an  influence 
would  be  exerted  on  Jewish  minds,  tending 
to  make  them  regard  their  exclusive  devotion 
to  their  own  one  God,  Jehovah,  however 
transcendent  His  attributes,  as  unsocial  and 
morose.  2.  The  Phoenician  religion  was  like- 
wise in  other  respects  deleterious  to  the  in- 
habitants of  Palestine,  being  in  some  points 
essentially  demoralizing.  For  example,  it 
sanctioned  the  dreadful  superstition  of  burning 
children  as  sacrifices  to  a  Phoenician  god. 
Again,  parts  of  the  Phoenician  religion,  es- 
pecially the  worship  of  Astarte,  tended  to  en- 
courage dissoluteness  in  the  relations  of  the 
sexes,  and  even  to  sanctify  impurities  of  the 
most  abominable  description.  The  only  other 
fact  respecting  the  Phoenicians  that  need  be 
mentioned  here  is,  that  the  invention  of  let- 
ters was  universally  asserted  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  to  have  been  communicated  by 
the  Phoenicians  to  the  Greeks.  The  names 
of  the  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet  are  in 
accordance  with  this  belief.  Moreover,  as  to 
writing,  the  ancient  Hebrew  letters,  substan- 
tially the  same  as  Phoenician,  agree  closely 
with  ancient  Greek  letters. 

Picture.  In  two  of  the  three  passages  in 
which  "picture"  is  used  in  the  A.  V.  it  denotes 
idolatrous  representations,  either  independent 
images,  or  more  usually  stones  "portrayed," 
i.  e.  sculptured  in  low  relief,  or  engraved  and 
colored.  Movable  pictures,  in  the  modern 
sense,  were  doubtless  unknown  to  the  Jews. 
The  "pictures  of  silver"  of  Prov.  xxv.  11,  were 
probably  wall-surfaces  or  cornices  with  carv- 
ings. 

Piece  of  Gold.  The  A.  V.  in  rendering  the 
elliptical  expression  "six  thousand  of  gold," 
in  a  passage  respecting  Naaman,  relating  that 
he  "took  with  him  ten  talents  of  silver,  and 
six  thousand  of  gold,  and  ten  changes  of  rai- 
ment" (2  K.  V.  5),  supplies  "pieces"  as  the 
word  understood.  The  rendering  "pieces  of 
gold"  is  very  doubtful ;  and  "shekels  of  gold," 
as  designating  the  value  of  the  whole  quan- 
tity, not  individual  pieces,  is  preferable. 

13 


PIECE  OF  SILVER 


PILATE 


Piece  of  Silver.  The  passages  in  the  O.  T. 
and  those  in  the  N.  T.  in  which  the"  A.  V. 
uses  this  term,  must  be  separately  considered. 
I.  In  the  O.  T.  the  word  "pieces"  is  used  in 
the  A.  V.  for  a  word  understood  in  the  He- 
brew, if  we  except  one  case  to  be  afterwards 
noticed.  The  phrase  is  always  "a  thousand" 
or  the  like  ''of  silver"  (Gen.  xx.  i6,  xxx^ii.  28, 
xlv.  22 ;  Judg.  ix.  4,  xvi.  5 ;  2  K.  vi.  25 ;  Hos. 
iii.  2;  Zech.  xi.  12,  13).  In  similar  passages 
the  word  "shekels"  occurs  in  the  Hebrew. 
There  are  other  passages  in  which  the  A.  V. 
supplies  the  word  "shekels"  instead  of  "pieces" 
(Deut.  xxii.  19,  29;  Judg.  xvii.  2,  3,  4,  10; 
2  Sam.  xviii.  11,  12),  and  of  these  the  first 
two  require  this  to  be  done.  The  shekel,  be  it 
remembered,  was  the  common  weight  for 
money,  and  therefore  most  likely  to  be  under- 
stood in  an  elliptical  phrase.  The  exceptional 
case  in  which  a  word  corresponding  to  "pieces" 
is  found  in  the  Hebrew  is  in  the  Psalms  (Ixviii. 
30,  Heb.  31).  The  word  rats,  which  occurs 
nowhere  else,  if  it  preserve  its  radical  mean- 
ing, must  signify  a  piece  broken  off  or  a  frag- 
ment; there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  a 
coin  is  meant.  II.  In  the  N.  T.  two  words  are 
rendered  by  the  phrase  "piece  of  silver:"  i. 
Drachma  (Luke  xv.  8,  9),  which  was  a  Greek 
silver  coin,  equivalent,  at  the  time  of  St.  Luke, 
to  the  Roman  denarius.  2.  Silver  only  occurs 
in  the  account  of  the  betrayal  of  our  Lord  for 
"thirty  pieces  of  silver"  (Matt.  xxvi.  15,  xxvii. 
3>  5.  6,  9).  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  what 
coins  are  here  intended.  If  the  most  common 
silver  pieces  be  meant,  they  would  be  denarii. 
The  parallel  passage  in  Zechariah  (xi.  12,  13) 
must,  however,  be  taken  into  consideration, 
where  shekels  must  be  understood.  It  is  more 
probable  that  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  were 
tetradrachms  than  that  they  were  denarii. 

Piety.  This  word  occurs  but  once  in  the 
A.  V. :  "Let  them  learn  first  to  show  piety  at 
home,"  better,  "towards  their  own  household" 
(i  Tim.  V.  4).  The  choice  of  this  word  here 
instead  of  the  more  usual  equivalents  of  "god- 
liness," "reverence,"  and  the  like,  was  prob- 
ably determined  by  the  special  sense  of  pietas, 
as  "erga  parentes,"  i.  e.  towards  parents. 

Pigeon.  [Turtle-Dove.] 

Pi'late,  Pon'tius.  The  name  indicates  that 
he  was  connected,  by  descent  or  adoption,  with 
the  gens  of  the  Pontii,  first  conspicuous  in 
Roman  history  in  the  person  of  C.  Pontius 
Telesinus,  the  great  Samnite  general.  He  was 
the  sixth  Roman  procurator  of  Judaea,  and 
under  him  our  Lord,  worked,  suffered,  and  died, 
as  we  learn,  not  only  from  Scripture,  but  from 
Tacitus  (Ann.  xv.  44).  He  was  appointed 
A.  D.  25-6,  in  the  12th  year  of  Tiberius.  His 

.31 


arbitrary  administration  nearly  drove  the  Jews 
to  insurrection  on  two  or  three  occasions.  One 
of  his  first  acts  was  to  remove  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  army  from  Caesarea  to  Jerusalem. 
The  soldiers  of  course  took  with  them  their 
standards,  bearing  the  image  of  the  emperor, 
into  the  Holy  City.  No  previous  governor 
had  ventured  on  such  an  outrage.  The  peo- 
ple poured  down  in'  crowds  to  Caesarea,  where 
the  procurator  was  then  residing,  and  besought 
him  to  remove  the  images.  After  five  days 
of  discussion  he  gave  the  signal  to  some  con- 
cealed soldiers  to  surround  the  petitioners,  and 
put  them  to  death  unless' they  ceased  to  trouble 
him ;  but  this  only  strengthened  their  deter- 
mination, and  they  declared  themselves  ready 
rather  to  submit  to  death  than  forego  their 
resistance  to  an  idolatrous  innovation.  Pilate 
then  yielded,  and  the  standards  were  by  his 
orders  brought  down  to  Caesarea.  His 
slaughter  of  certain  Galileans  (Luke  xiii.  i) 


Coins  struck  by  Pontius  Pilate. 

led  to  some  remarks  from  our  Lord  on  the 
connection  between  sin  and  calamity.  It  must 
have  occurred  at  some  feast  at  Jerusalem,  in 
the  outer  court  of  the  Temple.  It  was  the 
custom  for  the  procurators  to  reside  at  Jeru- 
salem during  the  great  feasts,  to  preserve 
order,  and  accordingly,  at  the  time  of  our 
Lord's  last  passover,  Pilate  was  occupying  his 
official  residence  in  Herod's  palace.  We  learn 
from  Josephus  that  Pilate's  anxiety  to  avoid 
giving  offence  to  Caesar  did  not  save  him  from 
political  disaster.  The  Samaritans  were  un- 
quiet and  rebellious — Pilate  led  his  troops 
against  them,  and  defeated  them  easily  enough. 
The  Samaritans  complained  to  Vitellius,  now 
president  of  Syria,  and  he  sent  Pilate  to  Rome 
to  answer  their  accusations  before  the  em- 
peror. When  he  reached  it  he  found  Tiberius 
dead,  and  Caius  (Caligula)  on  the  throne,  A.  D. 
36.  Eusebius  adds  that  soon  afterwards, 
"wearied  with  misfortunes,"  he  killed  him- 
self. As  to  the  scene  of  his  death  there  art 
various  traditions.  One  is,  that  he'  was  ban- 
ished  to  Vienna  Allobrogum  (Vienne  on  thv 

4 


PILLAR 


PISGAH 


Rhone),  where  a  singular  monument — a  pyra- 
mid on  a  quadrangular  base,  52  feet  high — 
is  called  Pontius  Pilate's  tomb.  Another  is, 
that  he  sought  to  hide  his  sorrows  on  the 
mountain  by  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  now  called 
Mount  Pilatus ;  and  there,  after  spending  years 
in  its  recesses,  in  remorse  and  despair  rather 
than  penitence,  plunged  into  the  dismal  lake 
which  occupies  its  summit.  We  learn  from 
the  Fathers  that  Pilate  made  an  official  re- 
port to  Tiberius  of  our  Lord's  trial  and  con- 
demnation;  but  the  Acta  Pilati  now  extant  in 
Greek,  and  two  Latin  epistles  from  him  to  the 
emperor,  are  certainly  spurious. 

Pillar.  The  notion  of  a  pillar  is  one  of  a  shaft 
or  isolated  pile,  either  supporting  or  not  sup- 
porting a  roof.  But  perhaps  the  earliest  ap- 
plication of  the  pillar  was  the  votive  or  monu- 
mental. This  in  early  times  consisted  of  noth- 
ing but  a  single  stone,  or  pile  of  stones  (Gen. 
xxviii.  18,  xxxi.  46,  &c.).  The  stone  Ezel  (i 
Sam.  XX.  19)  was  probably  a  terminal  stone, 
or  a  way-mark.  The  "place"  set  up  by  Saul 
(i  Sam.  XV.  12)  is  explained  by  St.  Jerome 
to  be  a  trophy.  So  also  Jacob  set  up  a  pillar 
over  Rachel's  grave  (Gen.  xxxv.  20).  The 
monolithic  tombs  and  obelisks  of  Petra  are  in- 
stances of  similar  usage.  Lastly,  the  figura- 
tive use  of  the  term  "pillar,"  in  reference  to 
the  cloud  and  fire  accompanying  the  Israelites 


An  Kastern  I'ine. 


on  their  march,  or  as  in  Cant.  iii.  6,  and  Rev.  x. 
I,  is  plainly  derived  from  the  notion  of  an  iso- 
lated column  not  supporting  a  roof. 

Pine-tree.  i.  Heb.  Tidhar  (Is.  xli.  19,  Ix. 
13).  What  tree  is  intended  is  not  certain ;  but 
the  rendering  "pine"  seems  least  probable  of 

31 


any.  2.  Shemen  (Neh.  viii.  15)  is  probably 
the  wild  olive. 

Pipe.  (Heb.  chalil).  The  Hebrew  word  so 
rendered  is  derived  from  a  root  signifying 
"to  bore,  perforate,"  and  is  represented  with 
sufficient  correctness  by  the  English  "pipe"  or 
"flute,"  as  in  the  margin  of  i  K.  i.  40.  It  is 
one  of  the  simplest,  and  therefore  probably 
one  of  the  oldest  of  musical  instruments.  It 
is  associated  with  the  tabret  as  an  instrument 
of  a  peaceful  and  social  character.  The  pipe 
and  tabret  were  used  at  the  banquets  of  the 
Hebrews  (Is.  v.  12),  and  accompanied  the  sim- 
pler religious  services,  when  the  young 
prophets,  returning  from  the  high-place,  caught 
their  inspiration  from  the  harmony  (i  Sam.  x. 
5)  ;  or  the  pilgrims,  on  their  way  to  the  great 
festivals  of  their  ritual,  beguiled  the  weari- 
ness of  the  march  with  psalms  sung  to  the  sim- 
ple music  of  the  pipe  (Is.  xxx.  29).  The  sound 
of  the  pipe  was  apparently  a  soft  wailing  note, 
which  made  it  appropriate  to  be  used  in  mourn- 
ing and  at  funerals  (Matt.  ix.  23),  and  in  the 
lament  of  the  prophet  over  the  destruction 
of  Moab  (Jer.  xlviii.  36).  It  was  even  used 
in  the  Temple  choir,  as  appears  from  Ps. 
Ixxxvii.  7,  where  "the  players  on  instruments" 
are  properly  "pipers."  Twelve  days  in  the 
year,  according  to  the  Mishna,  the  pipes 
sounded  before  the  altar.  They  were  of  reed, 
and  not  of  copper  or  bronze,  because  the  for- 
mer gave  a  softer  sound.  Of  these  there  were 
not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  twelve.  In 
later  times  the  funeral  and  death-bed  were 
never  without  the  professional  pipers  or  flute- 
players  (Matt.  ix.  23),  a  custom  which  still 
exists.  In  the  social  and  festive  life  of  the 
Egyptians  the  pipe  played  as  prominent  a  part 
as  among  the  Hebrews. 

Pis'gah  (Num.  xxi.  20,  xxiii.  14;  Deut.  iii, 
27,  xxxiv.  i),  a  mountain  range  or  district,  the 
same  as,  or  a  part  of,  that  called  the  mountains 
of  Abarim  (comp.  Deut.  xxxii.  49  with  xxxiv. 
i).  It  lay  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  contiguous 
to  the  field  of  Moab,  and  immediately  opposite 
Jericho.  Its  highest  point  or  summit — its 
"head" — was  the  Mount  Nebo.  If  it  was  a 
proper  name,  we  can  only  conjecture  that  it 
denoted  the  whole  or  part  of  the  range  of  the 
highlands  on  the  east  of  the  lower  Jordan. 
No  traces  of  the  name  Pisgah  have  been  met 
with  in  later  times  on'  the  east  of  Jordan,  but 
in  the  Arabic  garb  of  Ras  el-Feshkah  (almost 
identical  with  the  Hebrew  Rosh  hap-pisgah) 
it  is  attached  to  a  well-known  headland  on  the 
north-western  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  a  mass  of 
mountain  on  which  is  situated  the  great  Mus- 
sulman sanctuary  of  Neby  Musa  (Moses). 
This  association  of  the  names  of  Moses  and 

K 


PIT 

Pisgah  on  the  west  side  of  the  Dead  Sea  is 
extremely  startling. 
Pit.  [Hell.] 

Pitch.  The  three  Hebrew  words  all  repre- 
sent the  same  object,  viz.  mineral  pitch  or 
asphalt,  in  its  different  aspects.  Asphalt  is 
an  opaque,  inflammable  substance,  which  bub- 
bles up  from  subterranean  fountains  in  a  liquid 
state,  and  hardens  by  exposure  to  the  air,  but 
readily  melts  under  the  influence  of  heat.  In 
the  latter  state  it  is  very  tenacious,  and  was 
used  as  a  cement  in  lieu  of  mortar  in  Baby- 
lonia (Gen.  xi.  3),  as  well  as  for  coating  the 
outsides  of  vessels  (Gen.  vi.  14),  and  particu- 
larly for  making  the  papyrus  boats  of  the 
Egyptians  water-tight  (Ex.  ii.  3).  The  Jews 
and  Arabians  got  their  supply  in  large  quan- 
tities from  the  Dead  Sea. 

Pitcher.  The  word  "pitcher"  is  used  in 
A.  V.  to  denote  the  water-jars  or  pitchers  with 
one  or  two  handles,  used  chiefly  by  women  for 
carrying  water,  as  in  the  story  of  Rebekah 
(Gen.  xxiv.  15-20;  but  see  Mark  xiv.  13; 
Luke  xxii.  10).  This  practice  has  been,  and  is 
still  usual  both  in  the  East  and  elsewhere. 
The  vessels  used  for  the  purpose  are  gener- 
ally carried  on  the  head  or  the  shoulder.  The 
Bedouin-  women  commonly  vise  skin-bottles. 
Such  was  the  "bottle"  carried  by  Hagar  (Gen. 
xxi.  14).  The  same  word  is  used  of  the  pitch- 
ers employed  by  Gideon's  300  men  (Judg.  vii. 
16). 

Plague,  The.  Several  Hebrew  words  are 
translated  "pestilence"  or  "plague ;"  but  not 
one  of  these  words  can  be  considered  as  desig- 
nating by  its  signification  the  disease  now 
called  the  Plague.  Whether  the  disease  be 
mentioned  must  be  judged  from  the  sense  of 
passages,  not  from  the  sense  of  words.  Those 
pestilences  which  were  sent  as  special  judg- 
ments, and  were  either  supernaturally  rapid 
in  their  effects,  or  in  addition  directed  against 
particular  culprits,  are  beyond  the  reach  of 
human  inquiry.  But  we  also  read  of  pesti- 
lences which,  although  sent  as  judgments,  have 
the  characteristics  of  modern  epidemics,  not 
being  rapid  beyond  nature,  nor  directed  against 
individuals  (Lev.  xxvi.  25;  Deut.  xxviii.  21). 
In  neither  of  these  passages  does  it  seem  cer- 
tain that  the  Plague  is  specified.  The  notices 
in  the  prophets  present  the  same  difficulty. 
Hezekiah's  disease  has  been  thought  to  have 
been  the  Plague,  and  its  fatal  nature,  as  well 
as  the  mention  of  a  boil,  makes  this  not  im- 
probable. On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  men- 
tion of  a  pestilence  among  his  people  at  the 
time. 

Plagues,  The  Ten.  The  occasion  on  which 
the  plagues  were  sent  is  described  in  Ex.  iii.- 

31 


POETRY,  HEBREW 

xii.  The  history  of  the  ten  plagues  strictly 
cuds  with  the  death  of  the  firstborn.  The 
gradual  increase  in  severity  of  the  plagues  is 
perhaps  the  best  key  to  their  meaning.  They 
seem  to  have  been  sent  as  warnings  to  the 
oppressor,  to  afiford  him  a  means  of  seeing 
God's  will  and  an  opportunity  of  repenting 
before  Egypt  was  ruined.  The  lesson  that 
Pharaoh's  career  teaches  us  seems  to  be,  that 


An  Arab  I'loughing.  (Modein.) 

there  are  men  whom  the  most  signal  judg- 
ments do  not  afifect  so  as  to  cause  any  lasting 
repentance. 

Plough.  The  ploughs  used  in  Palestine 
have  usually  but  one  handle  with  a  pole  joined 
to  it  near  the  ground  and  drawn  by  oxen, 
cows   or  camels.    The   ploughs   of  ancient 


Eastern  Plough. 

Egypt  consisted  of  a  share — often  pointed 
with  iron  or  bronze — two  handles  and  a  pole 
inserted  into  the  base  of  two  handles. 

Poetry,  Hebrew.  Of  the  three  kinds  of 
poetry  which  are  illustrated  by  the  Hebrew 
literature,  the  lyric  occupies  the  foremost 
place.  The  Shemitic  nations  have  nothing  ap- 
proaching to  an  epic  poem,  and  in  proportion 
to  this  defect  the  lyric  element  prevailed  more 
greatly,  commencing  in  the  pre-Mosaic  times, 
flourishing  in  rude  vigor  during  the  earlier 
periods  of  the  Judges,  the  heroic  age  of  the 
Hebrews,  growing  with  the  nation's  growth 
and  strengthening  with  its  strength,  till  it 
6 


THE  liByRY 


POLLUX 


POOR 


reached  its  highest  excellence  in  David,  the 
warrior-poet,  and  from  thenceforth  began 
slowly  to  decline.  The  second  grand  division 
of  Hebrew  poetry  is  occupied  by  a  class  of 
poems  which  are  peculiarly  Shemitic,  and 
which  represent  the  nearest  approaches  made 
by  the  people  of  that  race  to  anything  like 
philosophic  thought.  Reasoning  there  is  none : 
we  have  only  results,  and  those  rather  the 
product  of  observation  and  reflection  than  of 
induction  or  argumentation.  As  lyric  poetry 
is  the  expression  of  -the  poet's  own  feelings 
and  impulses,  so  gnomic  poetry  is  the  form 
in  which  the  desire  of  communicating  knowl- 
edge to  others  finds  vent.  Its  germs  are  the 
floating  proverbs  which  pass  current  in  the 
mouths  of  the  people,  and  embody  the  experi- 
ences of  many  with  the  Avit  of  one.  The  vit- 
terer  of  sententious  sayings  was  to  the  He- 
brews the  wise  man,  the  philosopher.  Of  the 
earlier  isolated  proverbs  but  few  examples  re- 
main. It  is  impossible  to  assert  that  no  form 
of  the  drama  existed  among  the  Hebrew  peo- 
ple. It  is  unquestionably  true,  as  Ewald  ob- 
serves, that  the  Arab  reciters  of  romances  will 
many  times  in  their  own  persons  act  out  a 
complete  drama  in  recitation,  changing  their 
voice  and  gestures  with  the  change  of  person 
and  subject.  Something  of  this  kind  may  pos- 
sibly have  existed  among  the  Hebrews ;  but 
there  is  no  evidence  that  it  did  exist,  nor  any 
grounds  for  making  eveii  a  probable  conjec- 
ture with  regard  to  it.  But  the  mere  fact  of 
the  existence  of  these  rude  exhibitions  among 
the  Arabs  and  Egyptians  of  the  present  clay  is 
of  no  weight  when  the  question  to  be  decided 
is,  whether  the  Song  of  Songs  was  designed 
to  be  so  represented,  as  a  simple  pastoral 
drama,  or  whether  the  Book  of  Job  is  a  dra- 
matic poem  or  not.  One  characteristic  of  He- 
brew poetry,  not  indeed  peculiar  to  it,  but 
shared  by  it  in  common  with  the  literature  of 
other  nations,  is  its  intensely  national  and 
local  coloring.  The  writers  were  Hebrews  of 
the  Hebrews,  drawing  their  inspiration  from 
the  mountains  and  rivers  of  Palestine,  which 
they  have  immortalized  in  their  poetic  figures, 
and  even  while  uttering  the  sublimest  and 
most  universal  truths  never  forgetting  their 
own  nationality  in  its  narrowest  and  intensest 
form. 

Pol'lux.    [Castor  and  Pollux.] 

Polygamy.  [Marriage.] 

Pomegranate.  The  pomegranate  was  early 
cultivated  in  Egypt ;  hence  the  complaint  of 
the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  of  Zin  (Num. 
XX.  5),  this  "is  no  place  of  figs,  or  of  vines,  or 
of  pomegranates."  The  tree,  with  its  charac- 
teristic calyx-crowned  fruit,  is  easily  recog- 

3 


nizcd  on  the  Egyptian  sculptures.  Mention  is 
made  of  "an  orchard  of  pomegranates"  in 
Cant.  iv.  13.  Carved  figures  of  the  pomegran- 
ate adorned  the  tops  of  the  pillars  in  Solo- 
mon's Temple  (i   K.  vii.  18,  20,  &c.)  ;  and 


Tomegranate  and  Flower. 


worked  representations  of  this  fruit,  in  blue, 
purple,  and  scarlet,  ornamented  the  hem  of 
the  robe  of  the  ephod  (Ex.  xxviii.  33,  34). 

Pon'tius  Pi'late.  [Pilate.] 

Pool.  Pools,  like  the  tanks  of  India,  are  in 
many  parts  of  Palestine  and  Syria  the  only  re- 
source for  water  during  the  dry  season,  and 
the  failure  of  them  involves  drought  and  ca- 
lamity (Is.  xlii.  15).  Of  the  various  pools 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  perhaps  the  most  cele- 
brated are  the  pools  of  Solomon  near  Bethle- 
hem, called  by  the  Arabs  el-Burak,  from  which 
an  aqueduct  was  carried  which  still  supplies 
Jerusalem  with  water  (Eccl.  ii.  6;  Ecclus.  xxiv. 
30,  31)- 

Poor.  The  general  kindly  spirit  of  the  law 
towards  the  poor  is  sufficiently  shown  by  such 
passages  as  Deut.  xv.  7,  for  the  reason  that 
(ver.  11)  "the  poor  shall  never  cease  out  of 
the  land."  Among  the  special  enactments  in 
their  favor  the  following  must  be  mentioned : 
I.  The  right  of  gleaning  (Lev.  xix.  9,  10; 
Deut.  xxiv.  19,  21).  2.  From  the  produce  of 
the  land  in  sabbatical  years,  the  poor  and  the 
stranger  were  to  have  their  portion  (Ex.  xxiii. 
11;  Lev.  xxv.  6).  3.  Re-entry  upon  land  in 
the  jubilee  year,  with  the  limitation  as  to  town 
homes  (Lev.  xxv.  25-30).  4.  Prohibition  of 
usury,  and  of  retention  of  pledges  (Lev.  xxv. 
35,  37;  Ex.  xxii.  25-27,  &c.).  5.  Permanent 
bondage  forbidden,  and  manumission  of  He- 
brew bondsmen  or  bondswomen  enjoined  in 
the  sabbatical  and  jubilee  years  (Deut.  xv. 
12-15;  Lev.  xxv.  39-42,  47-54).  6.  Portions 
from  the  tithes  to  be  shared  by  the  poor  after 
the  Levites  (Deut.  xiv.  28,  xxvi.  12,  13).  7. 
The  poor  to  partake  in  entertainments  at  the 

17 


POPLAR 

feasts  of  Weeks  and  Tabernacles  (Deut.  xvi. 
II,  14;  see  Nell.  viii.  10).  8.  Daily  payment  of 
wages  (Lev.  xix.  13).  Principles  similar  to 
those  laid  down  by  Moses. are  inculcated  in 
the  New  Testament,  as  Luke  iii.  11;  xiv.  13; 
Acts  vi.  I ;  Gal.  ii.  10;  James  ii.  15. 

Poplar,  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
libneh,  which  occurs  in  Gen.  xxx.  37,  and  Hos. 
iv.  13.  Several  authorities  are  in  favor  of  the 
rendering  of  the  A.  V.,  and  think  the  "white 
poplar"  is  the  tree  denoted ;  others  understand 
the  "storax  tree."  Both  poplars  and  styrax 
or  storax  trees  are  common  in  Palestine,  and 
either  would  suit  the  passages  where  the  Heb. 
terms  occurs.  Storax  is  mentioned  in  Ecclus. 
xxiv.  15,  together  with  other  aromatic  sub- 
stances. The  Styrax  offi'cinale  is  a  shrub  from 
nine  to  twelve  feet  high,  with  ovate  leaves, 
which  are  white  underneath ;  the  flowers  are 
in  racemes,  and  are  white  or  cream-colored. 

Porch.  (Judg.  iii.  23.)  Strictly  a  vestibule, 
was  probably  a  sort  of  veranda  chamber  in  the 
works  of  Solomon,  open  in  front  and  at  the 
sides,  but  capable  of  being  enclosed  with  awn- 
ings or  curtains.  The  porch  (Matt.  xxvi.  71) 
may  have  been  the  passage  from  the  street 
into  the  first  court  of\he  house,  in  which,  in 
Eastern  houses,  is  the  stone  bench,  for  the 
porter  or  persons  waiting,  and  where  also  the 
master  of  the  house  often  receives  visitors 
and  transacts  business. 

Possession.  [Demoniacs.] 

Pot.  The  term  "pot"  is  applicable  to  so 
many  sorts  of  vessels,  that  it  can  scarcely  be 
restricted  to  any  one  in  particular,  i.  Asvic 
(2  K.  iv.  2),  an  earthen  jar,  deep  and  narrow, 
without  handles,  probably  like  the  Roman  and 


Stone  Water  .Tars. 


Egyptian  amphora,  inserted  in  a  stand  of  wood 
or  stone.  2.  Cheres,  an  earthen  vessel  for 
stewing  or  seething  (Ez.  iv.  9;  Lev.  vi.  28). 
3.  Dud,  a  vessel  for  culinary  purposes,  perhaps 
of  smaller  size  (i  Sam.  ii.  14).  The  "pots" 
set  before  the  Rechabites  (Jer.  xxxv.  5)  were 
probably  bulging  jars  or  bowls.    The  water- 

3 


POTTERY 

pots  of  Cana  appear  to  have  been  large  am- 
phorae, such  as  are  in  use  at  the  present  day 
in  Syria.  These  were  of  stone  or  hard  earthen 
ware.  The  water-pot  of  the  Samaritan  woman 
may  have  been  a  leathern  bucket,  such  as 
Bedouin  women  use. 

Pot'iphar,  an  Egyptian  name,  also  written 
Potipherah,  signifies  "Belonging  to  the  Son." 
Potiphar,  with  whom  the  history  of  Joseph  is 
connected,  is  described  as  "an  officer  of  Phar- 
aoh, chief  of  the  executioners,  an  Egyptian" 
(Gen.  xxxix.  i  ;  comp.  xxxvii.  36).  He  is  called 
an  Egyptian,  though  his  master  was  probably 
a  Shepherd-king  of  the  xvth  dynasty.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  wealthy  man  (xxxix. 
4-6).  [Joseph.] 

Potter's  Field,  The.  A  piece  of  ground  which, 
according  to  the  statement  of  St.  Matthew 
(xxvii.  7),  was  purchased  by  the  priests  with 
the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  rejected  by  Judas, 
and  converted  into  a  burial-place  for  Jews  not 
belonging  to  the  city. 

Pottery.  The  art  of  pottery  is  one  of  the 
most  common  and  most  ancient  of  all  manu- 
factures.   It  is  abundantly  evident,  both  that 


Eastern  I'otter. 


the  Hebrews  used  earthen-ware  vessels  in  the 
wilderness,  and  that  the  potter's  trade  was 
afterwards  carried  on  in  Palestine.  They  had 
themselves  been  concerned  in  the  potter's  trade 
in  Egypt  (Ps.  Ixxxi.  6),  and  the  wall-paintings 
minutely  illustrate  the  Egyptian  process.  The 
clay,  when  dug,  was  trodden  by  men's  feet 
so  as  to  form  a  paste  (Is.  xli.  25 ;  Wisd.  xv.  7)  ; 
then  placed  by  the  potter  on  the  wheel  beside 
which  he  sat,  and  shaped  by  him  with  his 
hands.  How  early  the  wheel  came  in  use  in 
Palestine  we  know  not,  but  it  seems  likely 
that  it  was  adopted  from  Egypt  (Is.  xlv.  9; 
Jer.  xviii.  3).  The  vessel  was  then  smoothed 
and  coated  with  a  glaze,  and  finally  burnt  in 
a  furnace.  There  was  at  Jerusalem  a  royal  es- 
tablishment of  potters  (i  Chr.  iv.  23),  from 
whose  employment,  and  from  the  fragments 

[8 


POUND 


PRAYER 


cast  away  in  the  process,  the  Potter's  Field 
perhaps  received  its  name  (Is.  xxx.  14). 

Pound.  I.  A  weight.  See  Weights  and 
Measures.  2.  A  money  of  account,  mentioned 
in  the  parable  of  the  Ten  Pounds  (Luke  xix. 
12-27),  the  talent  is  iH  the  parable  of  the 
Talents  (?klatt.  xxv.  14-30).  The  reference  ap- 
pears to  be  to  a  Greek  pound,  a  weight  used 
"as  a  money  of  account,  of  which  sixty  went 
to  the  talent,  the  weight  depending  upon  the 
weight  of  the  talent. 

Praeto'rium.  The  headquarters  of  the  Ro- 
man military  governor,  wherever  he  happened 
to  be.  In  time  of  peace  some  one  of  the  best 
buildings  of  the  city,  which  was  the  residence 
of  the  proconsul  or  praetor,  was  selected  for 
this  purpose.  Thus  at  Caesarea  that  of  Herod 
the  Great  was  occupied  by  Felix  (Acts  xxiii. 
35)  ;  and  at  Jerusalem  the  new  palace  erected 
by  the  same  prince  was  the  residence  of  Pilate. 
The  Praetorian  camp  at  Rome,  to  which  St. 
Paul  refers  (Phil,  i.  13),  was  erected  by  the 
Emperor  Tiberius,  acting  under  the  advice  of 
Sejanus. 

Prayer.  Not  only  is  its  subjective  eflfect  as- 
serted, but  its  real  objective  efficacy,  as  a 
means  appointed  by  God  for  obtaining  bless- 
ing, is  both  implied  and  expressed  in  the  plain- 
est terms.  Thus,  as  usual  .in  the  case  of  such 
mysteries,  the  two  apparently  opposite  truths 
are  emphasized,  because  they  are  needful  to 
man's  conception  of  his  relation  to  God ;  their 
reconcilement  is  not,  perhaps  cannot  be,  fully 
revealed.  For,  in  fact,  it  is  involved  in  that 
inscrutable  mystery  which  attends  on  the  con- 
ception of  any  free  action  of  man  as  necessary 
for  the  working  out  of  the  general  laws  of 
God's  unchangeable  will.  Al  the  same  time  it 
is  clearly  implied  that  such  a  reconcilement 
exists,  and  that  all  the  apparently  isolated  and 
independent  exertions  of  man's  spirit  in  prayer 
are  in  some  way  perfectly  subordinated  to  the 
one  supreme  will  of  God,  so  as  to  form  a  part 
of  His  scheme  of  providence.  It  is  also  im- 
plied that  the  key  to  the  mystery  lies  in  the 
fact  of  man's  spiritual  unity  with  God  in 
Christ,  and  of  the  consequent  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  So  also  is  it  said  of  the  spiritual  in- 
fluence of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  each  individual 
mind,  that  while  "we  know  not  what  to  pray 
for,"  the  indwelling  "Spirit  makes  intercession 
for  the  saints,  according  to  the  will  of  God" 
(Rom.  viii.  26.  27).  Here,  as  probably  in  all 
other  cases,  the  action  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on 
the  soul  is  to  free  agents  what  the  laws  of  na- 
ture are  to  things  inanimate,  and  is  the  power 
which  harmonizes  free  individual  action  with 
the  universal  will  of  God.  There  are  no  direc- 
tions as  to  prayer  given  in  the  Mosaic  law ; 


the  duty  is  rather  taken  for  granted;  as  an  ad- 
junct to  sacrifice,  than  enforced  or  elaborated. 
It  is  hardly  conceivable  that,  even  from  the  be- 
ginning, public  prayer  did  not  follow  every 
public  sacrifice.  Such  a  practice  is  alluded  to 
as  common  in  Luke  i.  10;  and  in  one  in- 
stance, at  the  offering  of  the  first-fruits,  it 
was  ordained  in  a  striking  form  (Deut.  xxvi. 
12-15).  In  later  times  it  certainly  grew  into  a 
regular  service,  both  in  the  Temple  and  in  the 
Synagogue.  But,  besides  this  public  prayer, 
it  was  the  custom  of  all  at  Jerusalem  to  go 
up  to  the  Temple,  at  regular  hours  if  possible, 
for  private  prayer  (see  Luke  xviii.  10;  Acts 
iii.  i)  ;  and  those  who  were  absent- were  wont 
to  "open  their  windows  towards  Jerusalem," 
and  pray  "towards"  the  place  of  God's  Pres- 
ence (i  K.  viii.  46-49;  Dan.  vi.  10;  Ps.  v.  7, 
xxviii.  2,  cxxxviii.  2).  The  regular  hours  of 
prayer  seem  to  have  been  three  (see  Ps.  Iv. 
17;  Dan.  vi.  10),  "the  evening,"  that  is,  the 
ninth  hour  (Acts  iii.  i,  x.  3),  the  hour  of  the 
evening  sacrifice  (Dan.  ix.  21)  ;  the  "morning," 
that  is,  the  third  hour  (Acts  ii.  15),  that  of  the 
morning  sacrifice ;  and  the  sixth  hour,  or 
"noonday."  Grace  before  meat  would  seem  to 
have  been  a  common  practice  (see  Matt.  xv. 
36;  Acts  xxvii.  35).  The  posture  of  prayer 
among  the  Jews  seems  to  have  been  most  often 
standing  (i  Sam.  i.  26;  Matt.  vi.  5;  Mark  xi. 
25  ;  Luke  xviii.  11)  ;  unless  the  prayer  were  of- 
fered with  especial  solemnity,  and  humiliation, 
which  was  naturally  expressed  by  kneeling  (i 
K.  viii.  54;  comp.  2  Chr.  vi.  13;  Ezr.  ix.  5;  Ps. 
xcv.  6;  Dan.  vi.  10),  or  prostration  (Josh.  vii. 
6;  I  K.  xviii.  42 ;  Neh.  viii.  6). — The  only  Form 
of  Prayer  given  for  perpetual  use  in  the  O.  T. 
is  the  one  in  Deut.  xxvi.  5-15,  connected  with 
the  offering  of  tithes  and  first-fruits,  and  con- 
taining in  simple  form  the  important  elements 
of  prayer,  acknowledgment  of  God's  mercy, 
self-dedication,  and  prayer  for  future  blessing. 
To  this  may  perhaps  be  added  the  threefold 
blessing  of  Num.  vi.  24-26,  couched  as  it  is  in 
a  precatory  form,  and  the  short  prayer  of 
Moses  (Num.  x.  35,  36)  at  the  moving  and 
resting  of  the  cloud,  the  former  of  which  was 
the  germ  of  the  68th  Psalm.  But  of  the  pray- 
ers recorded  in  the  O.  T.,  the  two  most  re- 
markable are  those  of  Solomon  at  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  Temple  (i  K.  viii.  23-53),  of 
Joshua  the  high  priest,  and  his  colleagues, 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  ix.  5-38). — It  appears 
from  the  question  of  the  disciples  in  Luke  xi.  i, 
and  from  Jewish  tradition,  that  the  chief  teach- 
ers of  the  day  gave  special  forms  of  prayer  to 
their  disciples,  as  the  badge  of  their  disciple- 
ship  and  the  best  fruits  of  their  learning.  All 
Christian  prayer  is,  of  course,  based  on  the 


319 


PRESENTS 


PRIEST 


Lord's  Prayer;  but  its  spirit  is  also  .guided 
by  that  of  His  prayer  in  Gethsemane,  and  of 
the  prayer  recorded  by  St.  John  (ch.  xvii.), 
the  beginning  of  His  great  work  of  interces- 
sion. The  influence  of  these  prayers  is  more 
distinctly  traced  in  the  prayers  contained  in 
the  Epistles  (see  Eph.  iii.  14-21 ;  Rom.  xvi.  25- 
27  ;  Phil.  i.  3-1 1  ;  Col.  i.  9-15;  Heb.  xiii.  20,  21  ; 
I  Pet.  V.  10,  II,  &c.),  than  in  those  recorded 
in  the  Acts.  The  public  prayer  probably  in 
the  first  instance  took  much  of  its  form  and 
style  from  the  prayers  of  the  synagogues. 
In  the  record  of  prayers  accepted  and  granted 
by  God,  we  observe,  as  always,  a  special  adap- 
tation to  the  period  of  His  dispensation  to 
which  they  belong.  In  the  patriarchal  period, 
they  have  the  simple  and  child-like  tone  of  do- 
mestic supplication  for  the  simple  and  appar- 
ently trivial  incidents  of  domestic  life.  In  the 
Mosaic  period  they  assume  a  more  solemn 
tone  and  a  national  bearing,  chiefly  that  of 
direct  intercession  for  the  chosen  people.  More 
rarely  are  they  for  individuals.  A  special  class 
are  those  which  precede  and  refer  to  the  exer- 
cise of  miraculous  power.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment they  have  a  more  directly  spiritual  bear- 
ing. It  would  seem  the  intention  of  Holy 
Scripture  to  encourage  all  prayer,  more  es- 
pecially intercession,  in  all  relations,  and  for 
all  righteous  objects. 
Presents.  [Gifts.] 

Priest.  The  English  word  is  derivecl  from 
the  Greek  Presbyter,  signifying  an  '-'elder." 
Origin. — The  idea  of  a  priesthood  connects  it- 
self, in  all  its  forms,  pure  or  corrupted,  with 
the  consciousness,  more  or  less  distinct,  of 
sin.  Men  feel  that  they  have  broken  a  law. 
The  power  above  them  is  holier  than '  they 
are,  and  they  dare  not  approach  it.  They 
crave  for  the  intervention  of  some  one  of 
whom  they  can  think  as  likely  to  be  more  ac- 
ceptable than  themselves.  He  must  of¥er  up 
their  prayers,  thanksgivings,  sacrifices.  He  be- 
comes their  representative  in  "things  pertain- 
ing unto  God."  He  may  become  also  (though 
this  does  not  always  follow)  the  representative 
of  God  to  man.  The  functions  of  the  priest 
and  prophet  may  exist  in  the  same  person. 
No  trace  of  an  hereditary  or  caste-priesthood 
meets  us  in  the  worship  of  the  patriarchal  age. 
Once,  and  once  only,  does  the  word  Cohen 
meet  us  as  belonging  to  a  ritual  earlier  than 
the  time  of  Abraham.  Melchizedek  is  "the 
priest  of  the  most  high  God"  (Gen.  xiv.  18). 
In  the  worship  of  the  patriarchs  themselves, 
the  chief  of  the  family,  as  such,  acted  as  the 
priest.  The  office  descended  with  the  birth- 
right, and  might  apparently  be  transferred 
with  it.    The  Priesthood  was  first  established 


in  the  family  of  Aaron,  and  all  the  sons  of 
Aaron  were  priests.  They  stood  between  the 
High  Priest  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Levites 
on  the  other.  [High  Priest;  Levites.]  The 
ceremony  of  their  consecration  is  described  in 
Ex.  xxix..  Lev.  viii.  The  dress  which  they 
wore  during  their  ministrations  consisted  of 


EgypUan  High  I'ricst  in  Full  Dress. 

linen  drawers,  with  a  close-fitting  cassock, 
also  of  linen,  white,  but  with  a  diamond  or 
chess-board  pattern  on  it.  This  came  nearly 
to  the  feet,  and  was  to  be  worn  in  its  garment 
shape  (comp.  John  xix.  23).  The  white  cas- 
sock was  gathered  round  the  body  with  a 
girdle  of  needlework,  into  which,  as  in»  the 
more  gorgeous  belt  of  the  High  Priest,  blue, 
purple,  and  scarlet,  were  intermingled  with 
white,  and  worked  in  the  form  of  flowers  (Ex. 
xxviii.  39,  40,  xxxix.  2;  Ezek.  xliv.  17-19). 
Upon  their  heads  they  were  to  wear  caps  or 
bonnets  in  the  form  of  a  cup-shaped  flower, 
also  of  fine  linen.  In  all  their  acts  of  minis- 
tration they  were  to  be  barefooted.  Their 
chief  duties  were  to  watch  over  the  fire  on 
the  altar  of  burnt-ofiferings,  and  to  keep  it 
burning  evermore  both  by  day  and  night  (Lev. 
vi.  12;  2  Chr,  xiii.  11),  to  feed  the  golden  lamp 
outside  the  vail  with  ail  (Ex.  xxvii.  20,  21 ; 
Lev.  xxiv.  2),  to  ofifer  the  morning  and  even- 
ing sacrifices,  each  accompanied  with  a  meat- 
ofl:"ering  and  a  drink-offering,  at  the  door  of 
the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxix.  38-44).  They  were 
also  to  teach  the  children  of  Israel  the  statutes 
of  the  Lord  (Lev.  x.  11;  Deut.  xxxiii.  10;  2 
Chr.  XV.  3;  Ezek.  xliv.  23,  24).  Other  func- 
tions were  hinted  at  in  Deuteronomy  which 
might  have  given  them  greater  influence  as 
the  educators  and  civilizers  of  the  people. 
They  were  to  act  (whether  individually  or  col- 
lectively does  not  distinctly  appear)  as  a  court 
of  appeal  in  the  more  difficult  controversies 
in  criminal  or  civil  cases  (Deut.  xvii.  8-13). 


320 


PRINCE,  PRINCESS 


PROPHET 


Functions  such  as  these  were  clearly  incom- 
patible with  the  common  activities  of  men. 
If  we  accept  the  numbers  given  by  Jewish 
writers  as  at  all  trustworthy,  the  proportion 
of  the  priesthood  to  the  population  of  Pales- 
tine, during  the  last  century  of  their  exist- 
ence as  an  order,  must  have  been  far  greater 
than  that  of  the  clergy  has  ever  been  in  any 
Christian  nation.  Over  and  above  those  that 
were  scattered  in  the  country  and  took  their 
turn,  there  were  not  fewer  than  24,000  sta- 
tioned permanently  at  Jerusalem,  and  12,000 
at  Jericho.  It  was  almost  inevitable  that  the 
great  mass  of  the  order,  under  such  circum- 
stances, should  sink  in  character  and  repu- 
taticffi.  The  reigns  of  the  two  kings  David 
and  Solomon  were  the  culminating  period 
of  the  glory  of  the  Jewish  priesthood. 
The  language  of  the  N.  T.  writers  in  relation 
to  the  priesthood  ought  not  to  be  passed  over. 
They  recognize  in  Christ,  the  first-born,  the 
king,  and  Anointed,  the  representative  of  the 
true  primeval  priesthood  after  the  order  of 
!Melchizedek  (Heb.  vii.,  viii.),  from  which  that 
of  Aaron,  however  necessary  for  the  time,  is 
now  seen  to  have  been  a  deflection.  But  there 
is  no  trace  of  an  order  in  the  new  Christian 
society,  bearing  the  name  and  exercising  func- 
tions like  those  of  the  priests  of  the  older 
Covenant.  The  idea  which  pervades  the  teach- 
ing of  the  Epistles  is  that  of  a  universal  priest- 
hood. It  was  the  thought  of  a  succeeding  age 
that  the  old  classification  of  the  high-priest, 
priests,  and  Levites  was  reproduced  in  the 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

Prince,  Princess.  The  only  special  uses  of 
the  word  "prince"  are — i.  "Princes  of  prov- 
inces" (i  K.  XX.  14),  who  were  probably  local 
governors  or  magistrates.  2.  The  "princes" 
mentioned  in  Dan.  vi.  i  (see  Esth.  i.  i)  were 
the  predecessors  of  the  satraps  of  Darius  Hys- 
taspis. 

Prison.  For  imprisonment  as  a  punish- 
ment, see  Punishments.  During  the  wander- 
ing in  the  desert  we  read  on  two  occasions  of 
confinement  "in  ward"  (Lev.  xxiv.  12;  Num. 
XV.  34)  ;  but  as  imprisonment  was  not  directed 
by  the  Law,  so  we  hear  of  none  till  the  time 
of  the  kings,  when  the  prison  appears  as  an 
appendage  to  the  palace,  or  a  special  part 
of  it  (i  K.  xxii.  27). 

Proconsul.  The  Greek  word  for  which 
this  is  the  true  equivalent,  is  rendered 
uniformly  "deputy"  in  the  A.  V.  of  Acts  xiii. 
7,  8,  12,  xix.  38;  and  the  derived  verb 
avounarstivv  in  Acts  xviii.  12,  is  translated  "to 
be  deputy."  At  the  division  of  the  Roman 
provinces  by  Augustus,  in  the  year  B.  C.  27, 


into  Senatorial  and  Imperial,  the  emperor  as- 
signed to  the  senate  such  portions  of  territory 
as  were  peaceable,  and  could  be  held  without 
force  of  arms.  Over  these  senatorial  provinces 
the  senate  appointed  by  lot  yearly  an  officer, 
who  was  called  "proconsul,"  and  who  exer- 
cised purely  civil  functions.  The  provinces 
were  in  consequence  called  "proconsular." 

Procurator,  The  Greek  word  is  rendered 
"governor"  in  the  A.  V.,  and  is  applied  in  the 
N.  T.  to  the  officer  who  presided  over  the  im- 
perial province  of  Judaea.  It  is  used  of 
Pontius  Pilate  (Matt,  xxvii.),  of  Felix  (Acts 

xxiii.  ,  xxiv.),  and  of  Festus  (Acts  xxvi.  30). 
In  all  these  cases  the  Vulgate  equivalent  is 
praeses.  The  office  of  procurator  is  mentioned 
in  Luke  iii.  I.  It  is  explained,  under  Procon- 
sul, that  after  the  battle  of  Actium  (B.  C. 
27)  the  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  were 
divided  by  Augustus  into  two  portions,  giving 
some  to  the  senate,  and  reserving  to  himself 
the  rest.  The  imperial  provinces  were  admin- 
istered by  Legati.  No  quaestor  came  into  the 
emperor's  provinces,  but  the  property  and  rev- 
enues of  the  imperial  treasury  were  adminis- 
tered by  Procuratores.  Sometimes  a  province 
was  governed  by  a  procurator  with  the  func- 
tions of  a  Legatus.  This  was  especially  the 
case  with  the  smaller  provinces  and  the  out- 
lying districts  of  a  larger  province ;  and  such 
is  the  relation  in  which  Judaea  stood  to  Syria. 
The  headquarters  of  the  procurator  were  at 
Caesarea  (Acts  xxiii.  23),  where  he  had  a 
judgment  seat  (Acts  xxv.  6)  in  the  audience 
chamber  (Acts  xxv.  23),  and  was  assisted  by 
a  council  (Acts  xxv.  12),  whom  he  consulted 
in  cases  of  difficulty.  In  the  N.  T.  we  see  the 
procurator  only  in  his  judicial  capacity.  Thus 
Christ  is  brought  before  Pontius  Pilate  as  a 
political  offender  (Matt,  xxvii.  2,  11),  and  the 
accusation  is  heard  by  the  procurator,  who  is 
seated  on  the  judgment  seat  (Matt,  xxvii.  19). 
Felix  heard  St.  Paul's  accusation  and  defence 
from  the  judgment   seat   at  Caesarea  (Acts 

xxiv.  )  ;  and  St.  Paul  calls  him  "judge"  (Acts 
xxiv.  10),  as  if  this  term  described  his  chief 
functions.  The  procurator  is  again  alluded  to 
in  his  judicial  capacity  in  i  Pet.  ii.  14).  He 
was  attended  by  a  cohort  as  body-guard  (Matt, 
xxvii.  27),  and  apparently  went  up  to  Jeru- 
salem at  the  time  of  the  high  festivals,  and 
there  resided  at  the  palace  of  Herod,  in  which 
was  the  praetorium,  or  "judgment  hall,"  as  it 
is  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  (Matt,  xxvii.  27; 
Mark  xv.  16;  comp.  Acts  xxiii.  35). 

Prophet.      Prophecy    comprehends  three 
things;  prediction;  singing  by  the  dictate  of 
the  Spirit;  and  understanding  and  explaining 
the  mysterious,  hidden  sense  of  Scripture,  by 
321 


PROPHET 


PROPHET 


an  immediate  illumination  and  motion  of  the 
Spirit. — The  sacerdotal  order  was  originally 
the  instrument  by  which  the  members  of  the 
Jewish  Theocracy  were  taught  and  governed 
in  things  spiritual.  But  during  the  time  of  the 
Judges,  the  priesthood  sank  into  a  state  of 
degeneracy,  and  the  people-  were  no  longer 
afifected  by  the  acted  lessons  of  the  ceremon- 
ial service.  Under  these  circumstances  a  new 
moral  power  was  evoked — the  Prophetic  Or- 
der. Samuel,  himself  a  Levite,  of  the  family 
of  Kohath  (i  Chr.  vi.  28),  and  almost  certainly 
a  priest,  was  the  instrument  used  at  once  for 
effecting  a  reform  in  the  sacerdotal  order  (i 
Chr.  ix.  22),  and  for  giving  to  the  prophets 
a  position  of  importance  which  they  had  never 
before  held.  The  germs  both  of  the  prophetic 
and  of  the  regal  order  are  found  in  the  Law 
as  given  to  the  Israelites  by  Moses  (Deut, 
xiii.  I,  xviii.  20,  xvii.  18),  but  they  were  not 
yet  developed,  because  there  was  not  yet  the 
demand  for  them.  Samuel  took  measures  to 
make  his  work  of  restoration  permanent  as 
well  as  effective  for  the  moment.  For  this 
purpose  he  instituted  Companies,  or  Colleges 
of  Prophets.  One  we  find  in  his  lifetime  at 
Ramah  (i  Sam.  xix.  19,  20)  ;  others  afterwards 
at  Bethel  (2  K.  ii.  3),  Jericho  (2  K.  ii.  5), 
Gilgal  (2  K.  iv.  38),  and  elsewhere  (2  K. 
vi.  i).  So  successful  were  these  institutions, 
that  from  the  time  of  Samuel  to  the  closing 
of  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  there 
seems  never  to  have  been  wanting  a  due  sup- 
ply of  men  to  keep  up  the  line  of  official 
prophets.  Their  chief  subject  of  study  was, 
no  doubt,  the  Law  and  its  interpretation ; 
oral,  as  distinct  from  symbolical,  teaching  be- 
ing henceforth  tacitly  transferred  from  the 
priestly  to  the  prophetical  order.  Subsidiary 
subjects  of  instruction  were  music  and  sacred 
poetry,  both  of  which  had  been  connected  with 
prophecy  from  the  time  of  Moses  (Ex.  xv.  20) 
and  the  Judges  (Judg.  iv.  4,  v.  i).  But  to  be- 
long to  the  prophetic  order  and  to  possess  the 
prophetic  gift  are  not  convertible  terms.  Gen- 
erally, the  inspired  prophet  came  from  the 
College  of  the  Prophets,  and  belonged  to  the 
prophetic  order,  but  this  was  not  always  the 
case.  Thus  Amos,  though  called  to  the 
prophetic  office,  did  not  belong  to  the  prophetic 
order  (Am.  vii.  14).  The  sixteen  prophets 
whose  books  are  in  the  Canon  have  therefore 
that  place  of  honor,  because  they  were  en- 
dowed with  the  prophetic  gift  as  well  as  ordi- 
narily (so  far  as  we  know)  belonging  to  the 
prophetic  order.  What  then  are  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  sixteen  prophets,  thus  called 
and  commissioned,  and  intrusted  with  the  mes- 
sages of  God  to  His  people?    (i.)  They  were 


the  national  poets  of  Judaea.  (2.)  They  were 
annalists  and  historians.  A  great  portion  of 
Isaiah,  of  Jeremiah,  of  Daniel,  of  Jonah,  of 
Haggai,  is  direct  or  indirect  history.  (3.) 
They  were  preachers  of  patriotism ;  their 
patriotism  being  founded  on  the  religious  mo- 
tive. (4.)  They  were  preachers  of  morals  and 
of  spiritual  religion.  The  system  of  morals 
put  forward  by  the  prophets,  if  not  higher,  or 
sterner,  or  purer  than  that  of  the  Law,  is  more 
plainly  declared,  and  with  greater,  because 
now  more  needed,  vehemence  of  diction.  (5.) 
They  were  extraordinary,  but  yet  authorized 
exponents  of  the  Law.  (6.)  They  held  a  pas- 
toral or  quasi-pastoral  office.  (7.)  They  were 
a  political  power  in  the  state.  (8.)  But  the 
prophets  were  .something  more  than  national 
poets  and  annalists,  preachers  of  patriotism, 
moral  teachers,  exponents  of  the  Law,  pastors, 
and  politicians.  Their  most  essential  charac- 
teristic is,  that  they  were  instruments  of  re- 
vealing God's  will  to  man,  as  in  other  ways, 
so  specially  by  predicting  future  events,  and, 
in  particular,  by  foretelling  the  incarnation  of 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  redemption  ef- 
fected by  Him.  We  learn  from  Holy  Scrip- 
ture that  it  was  by  the  agency  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  that  the  prophets  received  the  divine 
communication.  In  Num.  xii.  6-8  we  have  an 
exhaustive  division  of  the  different  ways  in 
which  the  revelations  of  God  are  made  to  man. 

1.  Direct  declaration  and  manifestation:  'T 
will  speak  mouth  to  mouth,  apparently,  and 
the  similitude  of  the  Lord  shall  he  behold." 

2.  Vision.  3.  Dream.  But  though  it  must  be 
allowed  that  Scripture  language  seems  to  point 
out  the  state  of  dream  and  of  trance,  or 
ecstasy,  as  a  condition  in  which  the  human 
instrument  received  the  Divine  communica- 
tions, it  does  not  follow  that  all  the  prophetic 
revelations  were  thus  made.  Had  the  prophets 
a  full  knowledge  of  that  which  they  predicted  ? 
It  follows  from  what  we  have  already  said 
that  they  had  not,  and  could  not  have.  They 
were  the  "spokesmen"  of  God  (Ex.  vii.  i),  the 
"mouth"  by  which  His  words  were  uttered, 
or  they  were  enabled  to  view,  and  empowered 
to  describe,  pictures  presented  to  their  spiritual 
intuition  ;  but  there  are  no  grounds  for  believ- 
ing that,  contemporaneously  with  this  miracle, 
there  was  wrought  another  miracle,  enlarging 
the  understanding  of  the  prophet  so  as  to 
grasp  the  whole  of  the  Divine  counsels  which 
he  was  gazing  into,  or  which  he  was  the  in- 
strument of  enunciating.  Prediction,  in  the 
shape  of  promise  and  threatening,  begins  with 
the  Book  of  Genesis.  Immediately  upon  the 
Fall,  hopes  of  recovery  and  salvation  are  held 
out,  but  the  manner  in  which  this  salvation 


322 


PROPHET 


PROSELYTES 


is  to  be  effected  is  left  altogether  indefinite. 
All  that  is  at  first  declared  is,  that  it  shall  come 
through  a  child  of  woman  (Gen.  iii.  15).  By 
degrees  the  area  is  limited:  it  is  to  come 
through  the  family  of  Shem  (Gen.  ix.  26), 
through  the  family  of  Abraham  (Gen.  vii.  3), 
of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  18),  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxviii. 
14);  of  Judah  (xlix.  10).  Balaam  seems  to 
say  that  it  will  be  wrought  by  a  warlike 
Israelitish  King  (Xum.  xxiv.  17)  ;  Jacob,  by  a 
peaceful  Ruler  of  the  earth  (Gen.  xlix.  lo)'; 
Moses,  by  a  Prophet  like  himself,  i.  e.,  a  re- 
vealer  of  a  new  religious  dispensation  (Deut. 
xviii.  15).  Nathan's  announcement  (2  Sam. 
vii.  16)  determines  further  that  the  salvation 
is  to  come  through  the  house  of  David,  and 
through  a  descendant  of  David  who  shall  be 
himself  a  king.  This  promise  is  developed  by 
David  himself  in  the  ]Messianic  Psalms.  Pss. 
xviii.  and  Ixi.  are  founded  on  the  promise  com- 
municated by  Nathan,  and  do  not  go  beyond 
the  announcement  made  by  Nathan.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  Ps.  Ixxxix.,  which  was 
composed  by  a  later  writer.  Pss.  ii.  and  ex. 
rest  upon  the  same  promise  as  their  founda- 
tion, but  add  new  features  to  it.  The  Son  of 
David  is  to  be  the  Son  of  God  (ii.  7),  the 
Anointed  of  the  Lord  (ii.  2),  not  only  the 
King  of  Zion  (ii.  6,  ex.  i),  but  the  Inheritor 
and  Lord  of  the  whole  earth  (ii.  8,  ex.  6),  and 
besides  this,  a  Priest  forever  after  the  order 
of  Melchizedek  (ex.  4).  At  the  same  time, 
he  is,  as  typified  by  his  progenitor,  to  be  full 
of  suffering  and  affliction  (Pss.  xxii.,  Ixxi.,  cii., 
cix.)  ;  brought  down  to  the  grave,  yet -raised  to 
life  without  seeing  corruption  (Ps.  xvi.)-  In 
Pss.  xlv.,  Ixxii.,  the  sons  of  Korah  and  Solo- 
mon describe  his  peaceful  reign.  Between 
Solomon  and  Ilezekiah  intervened  some  200 
years,  during  which  the  voice  of  prophecy  was 
silent.  The  Messianic  conception  entertained 
at  this  time  by  the  Jews  might  have  been 
that  of  a  King  of  the  royal  house  of  David, 
who  would  arise,  and  gather  under  his  peace- 
ful sceptre  his  own  people  and  strangers.  Suf- 
ficient allusion  to  his  prophetical  and  priestly 
offices  had  been  made  to  create  thoughtful 
consideration,  but  as  yet  there  was  no  clear 
delineation  of  him  in  these  characters.  It  was 
reserved  for  the  Prophets  to  bring  out  these 
features  more  distinctly.  In  this  great  period 
of  prophetism  there  is  no  longer  any  chrono- 
logical development  of  Messianic  Prophecy, 
as  in  the  earlier  period  previous  to  Solomon. 
Each  prophet  adds  a^  feature,  one  more,  an- 
other less  clearly :  combine  the  feature,  and 
we  have  the  portrait ;  but  it  does  not  grow 
gradually  and  perceptibly  under  the  hands  of 
the  several  arti.sts.    Its  culminating  point  is 


found  in  the  prophecy  contained  in  Is.  Hi.  13- 
15,  and  liii.  So  far  as  their  predictive  powers 
are  concerned,  the  Old  Testament  prophets 
find  their  New  Testament  counterpart  in  the 
writer  of  the  Apocalypse ;  but  in  their  general 
character,  as  specially  illumined  revealers  of 
God's  will,  their  counterpart  will  rather  be 
found,  first  in  the  Great  Prophet  of  the  Church, 
and  his  forerunner  John  the  Baptist,  and  next 
in  all  those  persons  who  were  endowed  with 
the  extraordinary  gifts  of  the  Spirit  in  the 
Apostolic  age,  the  speakers  with  tongues  and 
the  interpreters  of  tongues,  the  prophets  and 
the  discerners  of  spirits,  the  teachers  and 
workers  of  miracles  (i  Cor.  xii,  10,  28).  That 
predictive  powers  did  occasionally  exist  in  the 
N.  T.  prophets  is  proved  by  the  case  of  Agabus 
(Acts  xi.  28),  but  this  was  not  their  charac- 
teristic. The  prophets  of  the  N.  T.  were  super- 
naturally-illuminated  expounders  and  preach- 
ers. 

Proselytes  (A  stranger  or  newcomer).  The 
Hebrew  word  thus  translated  is  in  the  A.  V. 
commonly  rendered  "stranger"  (Gen.  xv.  13 -; 
Ex.  ii.  22;  Is.  V.  17,  &c.).  In  the  N.  T.  the 
A.  V.  has  taken  the  word  in  a  more  restricted 
meaning,  and  translated  it  accordingly  (Matt, 
xxiii.  15;  Acts  ii.  10,  vi.  5).  The  Cherethites 
and  Pelethites  consisted  probably  of  foreign- 
ers who  had  been  attracted  to  the  service  of 
David,  and  were  content  for  it  to  adopt  the 
religion  of  their  jnaster.  A  convert  of  another 
kind,  the  type,  as  it  has  been  thought,  of  the 
later  proselytes  of  the  gate,  is  found  in  Naa- 
man  the  Syrian  (2  K.  v.  15,  18),  recognizing 
Jehovah  as  his  God,  yet  not  binding  himself  to 
any  rigorous  observance  of  the  Law.  The 
Dispersion  of  the  Jews  in  foreign  countries, 
which  has  been  spoken  of  elsewhere  [Disper- 
sion, The],  enabled  them  to  make  many  con- 
verts of  their  faith.  The  converts  who  were 
thus  attracted,  joined,  with  varying  strictness, 
in  the  worship  of  the  Jews.  In  Palestine  it- 
self, even  Roman  centurions  learnt  to  love  the 
conquered  nation,  built  synagogues  for  them 
(Luke  vii.  5),  fasted  and  prayed,  and  gave 
alms  after  the  pattern  of  the  strictest  Jews 
(Acts  X.  2,  30),  and  became  preachers  of  the 
new  faith  to  the  soldiers  under  them  (ib.  v.  7). 
-Such  men,  drawn  by  what  was  best  in  Juda- 
ism, were  naturally  among  the  readiest  re- 
ceivers of  the  new  truth  which  rose  out  of  it, 
and  became,  in  many  cases,  the  nucleus  of  a 
Gentile  Church.  The  term  Proselytes  of  the 
Gate  was  derived  from  the  frequently  occur- 
ring description  in  the  Law,  "the  stranger 
that  is  within  thy  gates"  (Ex.  xx.  10,  &c.)- 
Converts  of  this  class  were  not  bound  by  cir- 
cumcision and  the  other  especial  laws  of  the 


323 


PROVERBS 


PROVINCE 


Mosaic  code.  It  was  enough  for  them  to  ob- 
serve the  seven  precepts  of  Noah  — i.  e.  the  six 
supposed  to  have  been  given  to  Adam,  (i) 
against  idolatry,  (2)  against  blaspheming,  (3) 
against  bloodshed,  (4)  against  uncleanness, 
(5)  against  theft,  (6)  of  obedience,  with  (7) 
the  prohibition  of  "flesh  with  the  blood  there- 
of" given  to  Noah.  The  Proselytes  of  Right- 
eousness, known  also  as  Proselytes  of  the 
Covenant,  were  perfect  Israelites.  We  learn 
from  the  Talmud  that,  in  addition  to  circum- 
cision, baptism  was  also  required  to  complete 
their  admission  to  the  faith.  The  proselyte 
was  placed  in  a  tank  or  pool,  up  to  his  neck 
in  water.  His  teachers,  who  now  acted  as  his 
sponsors,  repeated  the  great  commandments 
of  the  Law.  The  baptism  was  followed,  as 
long  as  the  Temple  stood,  by  the  offering  or 
Corban. 

Proverbs,  Book  of.  The  canonicity  of  the 
Book  of  Proverbs  has  never  been  disputed  ex- 
cept by  the  Jews  themselves.  It  appears  to 
have  been  one  of  the  points  urged  by  the 
school  of  Shammai,  that  the  contradictions  in 
the  Book  of  Proverbs  rendered  it  apocryphal. 
It  occurs  in  all  the  Jewish  lists  of  canonical 
books,  and  is  reckoned  among  what  are  called 
the  "writings"  (cethiibim)  or  Hagiographa, 
which  form  the  third  great  division  of  the  He- 
brew Scriptures.  The  superscriptions  which  are 
affixed  to  several  portions  of  the  Book,  in  i.  i, 
X.  I,  XXV.  I,  attribute  the  authorship  of  those 
portions  to  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  king 
of  Israel.  With  the  exception  of  the  last  two 
chapters,  which  are  distinctly  assigned  to  other 
authors,  it  is  probable  that  the  statement  of 
the  superscriptions  is  in  the  main  correct,  and 
that  the  majority  of  the  Proverbs  contained  in 
the  book  were  uttered  or  collected  by  Solo- 
mon. Speaking  roughly,  the  book  consists  of 
three  main  divisions,  with  two  appendices,  i. 
Chaps,  i.-ix.  form  a  connected  didactic  poem, 
in  which  Wisdom  is  praised  and  the  youth  ex- 
horted to  devote  himself  to  her.  This  portion 
is  preceded  by  an  introduction  and  title  de- 
scribing the  character  and  general  aim  of  the 
book.  2.  Chaps,  x.-xxiv.,  with  the  title,  "The 
Proverbs  of  Solomon,"  consists  of  three  parts: 
X.  i-xxii.  16,  a  collection  of  single  proverbs, 
and  detached  sentences  out  of  the  region  of 
moral  teaching  and  worldly  prudence;  xxii.  17- 

xxiv.  21,  a  more  connected  didactic  poem,  with 
an  introduction,  xxii.  17-22,  which  contains 
precepts  of  righteousness  and  prudence:  xxiv. 
23-34,  with  the  inscription,  "These  also  belong 
to  the  wise,"  a  collection  of  unconnected 
maxims,  which  serve  as  an  appendix  to  the 
preceding.    Then  follows  the  third  division, 

xxv.  -xxix.,  which,  according  to  the  superscrip- 


tion, professes  to  be  a  collection  of  Solomon's 
proverbs,  consisting  of  single  sentences,  which 
the  men  of  the  court  of  Hezekiah  copied  out. 
The  first  appendix,  ch.  xxx.,  "The  words  of 
Agur,  the  son  of  Jakeh,"  is  a  collection  of  part- 
ly proverbial  and  partly  enigmatical  sayings; 
the  second,  ch.  xxxi.,  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
"The  words  of  king  Lemuel"  (1-6),  and  an 
alphabetical  acrostic  in  praise  of  a  virtuous 
woman,  which  occupies  the  rest  of  the  chap- 
ter. Who  was  Agur,  and  who  was  Jakeh,  are 
questions  which  have  been  often  asked,  and 
never  satisfactorily  answered.  All  that  can  be 
said  of  him  is,  that  he  is  an  unknown  Hebrew 
sage,  the  son  of  an  equally  unknown  Jakeh, 
and  that  he  lived  after  the  time  of  Hezekiah. 
Lelnuel,  like  Agur,  is  unknown.  It  is  even 
uncertain  whether  he  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
real  personage,  or  whether  the  name  is  merely 
symbolical.  If  the  present  text  be  retained,  it 
is  difficult  to  see  what  other  conclusion  can 
be  arrived  at.  If  Lemuel  were  a  real  person- 
age, he  must  have  been  a  foreign  neighbor- 
king,  or  the  chief  of  a  nomade  tribe ;  and  in 
this  case  the  proverbs  attributed  to  him  must 
have  come  to  the  Hebrews  from  a  foreign 
source,  which  is  highly  improbable,  and  con- 
trary to  all  we  know  of  the  people.  The  Pro- 
verbs are  frequently  quoted  or  alluded  to  in 
the  New  Testament,  and  the  canonicity  of  the 
book  thereby  confirmed. 

Province.  It  is  not  intended  here  to  do  more 
than  indicate  the  points  of  contact  which  this 
word  presents  with  Biblical  history  and  litera- 
ture, (i.)  In  the  O.  T.  it  appears  in  connec- 
tion with  the  wars  between  Ahab  and  Ben- 
hadad  (i  K.  xx.  14,  15,  19).  The  victory  of 
the  former  is  gained  chiefly  "by  the  young 
men  of  the  princes  of  the  provinces,"  i.  e., 
probably,  of  the  chiefs  of  tribes  in  the  Gilead 
country.  (2.)  More  commonly  the  word  is 
used  of  the  divisions  of  the  Chaldaean  (Dan. 
ii.  49,  iii.  I,  30)  and  the  Persian  kingdoms 
(Ezr.  ii.  I ;  Neh.  vii.  6;  Esth.  i.  i,  22,  ii.  3,  &c.). 
In  the  N.  T.  we  are  brought  into  contact  with 
the  administration  of  the  provinces  of  the  Ro- 
man empire.  The  classification  of  provinces 
supposed  to  need  military  control,  and  there- 
fore placed  under  the  immediate  government 
of  the  Caesar,  and  those  still  belonging  the- 
oretically to  the  republic,  and  administered  by 
the  senate ;  and  of  the  latter  again  into  pro- 
consular and  praetorian,  is  recognized,  more 
or  less  distinctly,  in  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts 
[Proconsul;  Procujator.]  The  "magistrates," 
A.  V.  Acts  xvi.  22,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  the  duumviri,  or  praetors  of  a 
Roman  colony.  The  right  of  any  Roman 
citizen  to  appeal  from  a  provincial  governor 


324 


1 


PSALMS,  BOOK  OF 


PSALMS,  BOOK  OF 


to  the  emperor  meets  us  as  asserted  by  St. 
Paul  (Acts  XXV.  ii).  In  the  council  of  Acts 
XXV.  12  we  recognize  the  assessors  who  were 
appointed  to  take  part  in  the  judicial  func- 
tions of  the  governor. 

Psalms,  Book  of.  The  Christian  Church  ob- 
viously received  the  Psalter  from  the  Jews  not 
only  as  a  constituent  portion  of  the  sacred  vol- 
ume of  Holy  Scripture,  but  also  as  the  liturgi- 
cal hymn-book  which  the  Jewish  Church  had 
regularly  used  in  the  Temple.  The  book  con- 
tains 150  Psalms,  and  may  be  divided  into 
five  great  divisions  .or  books,  which  must  have 
been  originally  formed  at  different  periods. 
This  is  by  various  further  considerations  ren- 
dered all  but  certain.  Thus,  there  is  a  re- 
markable difference  between  the  several  books 
in  their  use  of  the  divine  names  Jehovah  and 
Elohim,  to  designate  Almighty  God.    In  Book 

I.  (i.-xli.)  the  former  name  prevails:  it  is  found 
272  times,  while  Elohim  occurs  but  15  times. 
In  Book  II.  (xlii.-lxxii.),  Elohim  is  found  more 
than  five  times  as  often  as  Jehovah.  In  Book 
III.  (Ixxiii.-lxxxix.),  the  preponderance  of 
Elohim  in  the  earlier  is  balanced  by  that  of 
Jehovah  in  the  latter  psalms  of  the  book.  In 
Book  IV.  (xc.-cvi.)  the  name  Jehovah  is  ex- 
clusively employed ;  and  so  also,  virtually,  in 
Book  V.  (cvii.-cl.),  Elohim  being  there  found 
only  in  two  passages  incorporated  from  earlier 
psalms.  We  find  the  several  groups  of  psalms 
which  form  the  respective  five  books  distin- 
guished in  great  measure,  by  their  superscrip- 
tions, from  each  other.  Book  I.  is,  by  the 
superscriptions,  entirely  Davidic ;  nor  do  we 
find  in  it  a  trace  of  any  but  David's  author- 
ship. We  may  well  believe  that  the  compila- 
tion of  the  book  was  also  David's  work.  Book 

II.  appears  by  the  date  of  its  latest  psalm, 
Ps.  xlvi.,  to  have  been  compiled  in  the  reign  of 
king  Hezekiah.  It  would  naturally  comprise, 
1st,  several  or  most  of  the  Levitical  psalms 
anterior  to  that  date ;  and  2dly,  the  remainder 
of  the  psalms  of  David  previously  uncompiled. 
To  these  latter  the  collector,  after  properly 
appending  the  single  psalm  of  Solomon,  has 
affixed  the  notice  that  "the  prayers  of  David 
the  son  of  Jesse  are  ended"  (Ps.  Ixxii.  20)  ; 
evidently  implying,  at  least  on  the  prima  facie 
view,  that  no  more  compositions  of  the  royal 
psalmist  remained.  How  then  do  we  find,  in 
the  later  Books  III.,  IV.,  V.,  further  psalms 
yet  marked  with  David's  name?  The  name 
David  is  used  to  denote,  in  other  parts  of 
Scripture,  after  the  original  David's "  death, 
the  then  head  of  the  Davidic  family ;  and  so, 
in  prophecy,  the  Messiah  of  the  seed  of  David, 
who  was  to  sit  on  David's  throne  (i  K.  xii. 
16;  Hos.  iii.  5;  Is.  Iv.  3  ;  Jer.  xxx.  9;  Ez.  xxxiv. 


23,  24).  And  thus  then  we  may  explain  the 
meaning  of  the  later  Davidic  superscriptions 
in  the  Psalter.  The  psalms  to  which  they  be- 
long were  written  by  Hezekiah,  by  Josiah,  by 
Zerubbabel,  or  others  of  David's  posterity. 
The  above  explanation  removes  all  serious  dif- 
ficulty respecting  the  history  of  th<;  later  books 
of  the  Psalter.  Book  HI.,  the  interest  of  which 
centres  in  the  times  of  Hezekiah,  stretches  out, 
by  its  last  two  psalms,  to  the  reign  of  Manas- 
seh :  it  was  probably  compiled  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah.  Book  IV.  contains  the  remainder  of 
the  psalms  up  to  the  date  of  the  captivity ; 
Book  V.  the  psalms  of  the  Return.  There  is 
nothing  to  distinguish  these  two  books  from 
each  other  in  respect  of  outward  decoration  or 
arrangement,  and  they  may  have  been  com- 
piled together  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah.  The 
psalm  of  Moses,  Ps.  xc,  which  is  in  point  of 
actual  date  the  earliest,  faithfully  reflects  the 
long,  weary  wanderings,  the  multiplied  provo- 
cations, and  the  consequent  punishments  of  the 
wilderness.  It  is,  however,  with  David  that 
Israelitish  psalmody  may  be  said  virtually  to 
commence.  Previous  mastery  over  his  harp 
had  probably  already  prepared  the  way  for 
his  future  strains,  when  the  anointing  oil  of 
Samuel  descended  upon  him,  and  he  began  to 
drink  in  special  measure,  from  that  day  for- 
ward, of  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord.  It  was  then 
that,  victorious  at  home  over  the  mysterious 
melancholy  of  Saul,  and  in  the  field  over  the 
vaunting  champion  of  the  Philistine  hosts,  he 
sang  how  from  even  babes  and  sucklings  God 
had  ordained  strength  because  of  His  enemies 
(Ps.  viii.).  His  next  psalms  are  of  a  different 
character ;  his  persecutions  at  the  hands  of 
Saul  had  commenced.  When  David's  reign 
has  begun,  it  is  still  with  the  most  exciting  in- 
cidents of  his  history,  private  or  public,  that 
his  psalms  are  mainly  associated.  There  are 
none  to  which-  the  period  of  his  reign  at 
Hebron  can  lay  exclusive  claim.  But  after 
the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  his  psalmody 
opened  afresh  with  the  solemn  removal  of  the 
ark'  to  Mount  Zion  f  and  in  Pss.  xxiv.-xxix., 
which  belong  together,  we  have  the  earliest 
definite  instance  of  David's  systematic  com- 
position or  arrangement  of  psalms  for  public 
use.  Even  of  those  psalms  which  cannot  be 
referred  to  any  definite  occasion,  several  re- 
flect the  general  historical  circumstances  of 
the  times.  A  season  of  repose  near  the  close 
of  his  reign  induced  David  to  compose  his 
grand  personal  thanksgiving  for  the  deliver- 
ances of  his  whole  life,  Ps.  xviii. ;  the  date  of 
which  is  approximately  determined  by  the 
place  at  which  it  is  inserted  in  the  history  (2 
Sam.  xxii.).    It  was  probably  at  this  period 


325 


PSALMS,  BOOK  OF 


PSALTERY 


that  he  finally  arranged  for  the  sanctuary- 
service  that  collection  of  his  psalms  which 
now  constitutes  the  First  Book  of  the  Psalter. 
The  course  of  David's  reign  was  not,  how- 
ever, as  yet  complete.  The  solemn  assembly 
convened  by  him  for  the  dedication  of  the 
materials  of  the  future  Temple  (i  Chr.  xxviii., 
xxix.)  would  naturally  call  forth  a  renewal  of 
his  best  efforts  to  glorify  the  God  of  Israel  in 
psalms ;  and  to  this  occasion  we  doubtless  owe 
the  great  festal  hymns  Pss.  Ixv.-lxvii.,  Ixviii., 
containing  a  large  review  of  the  past  history, 
present  position,  and  prospective  glories  of 
God's  chosen  people.  The  supplications  of 
Ps.  Ixix.  suit  best  with  the  renewed  distress 
occasioned  by  the  sedition  of  Adonijah.  Ps. 
Ixxi.,  to  which  Ps.  Ixx.,  a  fragment  of  a  former 
psalm,  is  introductory,  forms  David's  parting 
strain.  Yet  that  the  psalmody  of  Israel  may 
not  seem  finally  to  terminate  with  him,  the 
glories  of  the  future  are  forthwith  anticipated 
by  his  son  in  Ps.  Ixxii.  For  a  time  the  single 
psalm  of  Solomon  remained  the  only  addition 
to  those  of  David.  We  are  now  brought  to  a 
series  of  psalms  of  peculiar  interest,  springing 
out  of  the  political  and  religious  history  of  the 
separated  ten  tribes.  In  date  of  actual  com- 
position they  commence  before  the  times  of 
Hezekiah.  The  earliest  is  probably  Ps.  Ixxx., 
a  supplication  for  the  Israelitish  people  at  the 
time  of  the  Syrian  oppression.  AH  these 
psalms  (Ixxx.-lxxxiii.)  are  referred  by  their 
superscriptions  to  the  Levite  singers,  and  thus 
bear  witness  to  the  efforts  of  the  Levites  to 
reconcile  the  two  branches  of  the  chosen  na- 
tion. The  captivity  of  Manasseh  himself 
proved  to  be  but  temporary ;  but  the  sentence 
which  his  sins  had  provoked  upon  Judah  and 
Jerusalem  still  remained  to  be  executed,  and 
precluded  the  hope  that  God's  salvation  could 
be  revealed  till  after  such  an  outpouring  of 
His  judgments  as  the  nation  never  yet  had 
known.  Labor  and  sorrow  must  be  the  lot  of 
the  present  generation ;  through  these  mercy 
might  occasionally  gleam,  but  the  glory  which 
was  eventually  to  be  manifested  must  be  for 
posterity  alone.  The  psalms  of  Book  IV.  bear 
generally  the  impress  of  this  feeling.  ■  We  pass 
to  Book  V.  Ps.  cvii.  is  the  opening  psalm  of 
the  return,  sung  probably  at  the  first  Feast  of 
Taberna:cles  (Ezr.  iii.).  The  ensuing  Davidic 
psalms  may  well  be  ascribed  to  Zerubbabel. 
We  here  pass  over  the  questions  connected 
with  Ps.  cxix. ;  but  .a  directly  historical  char- 
acter belongs  to  Pss.  cxx.-cxxxiv.,  styled  in 
our  A.  V.  "Songs  of  Degrees."  Internal  evi- 
dence refers  these  to  the  period  when  the 
Jews  under  Nehemiah  were,  in  the  very  face 
of  the  enemy,  repairing  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 


and  the  title  may  well  signify  "Songs  of 
goings  up  upon  the  walls,"  the  psalms  being, 
from  their  brevity,  well  adapted  to  be  sung 
by  the  workmen  and  guards  while  engaged  in 
their  respective  duties.  Of  somewhat  earlier 
date,  it  may  be,  are  Ps.  cxxxvii.  and  the  en- 
suing Davidic  psalms.  Of  these,  Ps.  cxxxix. 
is  a  psalm  of  the  new  birth  of  Israel,  from  the 
womb  of  the  Babylonish  captivity,  to  a  life  of 
righteousness;  Pss.  cxl.-cxliii.  may  be  a 
picture  of  the  trials  to  which  the  unrestored 
exiles  were  still  exposed  in  the  realms  of  the 
Gentiles.  Henceforward,  as  we  approach  the 
close  of  the  Psalter,  its  strains  rise  in  cheer- 
fulness;  and  it  fittingly  terminates  with  Pss. 
cxlvii.-cl.,  which  were  probably  sung  on  the 
occasion '  of  the  thanksgiving  procession  of 
Neh.  xii.,  after  the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  had  been  completed.  The  moral 
struggle  between  godliness  and  ungodliness, 
so  vividly  depicted  in  the  Psalms,  culminates, 
in  Holy  Scripture,  in  the  life  of  the  Incarnate 
Son  of  God  upon  earth.  It  only  remains  to 
show  that  the  Psalms  themselves  definitely 
anticipated  this  culmination.  Now  there  are 
in  the  Psalter  at  least  three  psalms  of  which 
the  interest  evidently  centres  in  a  person  dis- 
tinct from  the  speaker,  and  which,  since  they 
cannot  without  violence  to  the  language  be  in- 
terpreted of  any  but  the  Messiah,  may  be 
termed  directly  and  exclusively  Messianic.  We 
refer  to  Pss.  ii.,  xlv.,  ex. ;  to  which  may  per- 
haps be  added  Ps.  Ixxii.  It  would  be  strange 
if  these  few  psalms  stood,  in  their  prophetical 
significance,  absolutely  alone  among  the  rest. 
And  hence  the  impossibility  of  viewing  the 
psalms  generally,  notwithstanding  the  histori- 
cal drapery  in  which  they  are  outwardly 
clothed,  as  simply  the  past  devotions  of  the 
historical  David  or  the  historical  Israel.  The 
national  hymns  of  Israel  are  indeed  also  pros- 
pective ;  but  in  general  they  anticipate  rather 
the  struggles  and  the  triumphs  of  the  Christian 
Church  than  those  of  Christ  Himself. 

Psaltery  was  a  stringed  instrument  of  music 
to  accompany  the  voice.  The  Hebrew  nebel, 
or  nebel,  is  so  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  in  all 
passages  where  it  occurs,  except  in  Is.  v.  12, 
xiv.  II,  xxii.  24  marg. ;  Am.  v.  23,  vi.  5,  where 
it  is  translated  viol.  The  ancient  viol  was  a 
six-stringed  guitar.  In  the  Prayer  Book  ver- 
sion of  the  Psalms,  the  Hebrew  word  is 
rendered  "lute."  This  instrument  resembled 
the  guitar,  but  was  superior  in  tone,  being 
larger,  and  having  a  convex  back,  somewhat 
like  the  vertical  section  of  a  gourd,  or  more 
nearly  resembling  that  of  a  pear.  These  three 
instruments,  the  psaltery  or  sautry,  the  viol, 
and  the  lute,  are  frequently  associated  in  the 


326 


PUBLICAN 


PUNISHMENTS 


old  English  poets,  and  were  clearly  instru- 
ments resembling  each  other,  though  still  dif- 
ferent. The  Greek  Psalterium  denotes  an 
instrument  played  with  the  fingers  instead  of 
a  plectrum  or  quill,  the  verb  being  used  of 
twanging  the  bow-string.  It  is  impossible  to 
say  positively  with  what  instrument  the  nebel 
of  the  Hebrew  exactly  corresponded.  From 
the  fact  that  nebel  is  Hebrew  also  signifies  a 
wine-bottle  or  skin,  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  the  term  when  applied  to  a  musical  in- 
strument denotes  a  kind  of  bagpipe. 

Publican.  The  class  designated  by  this 
word  in  the  N.  T.  were  employed  as  collectors 
of  the  Roman  revenue.  The  Roman  senate 
farmed  the  direct  taxes  and  the  customs  to 
capitalists  who  undertook  to  pay  a  given  sum 
into  the  treasury,  and  so  received  the  name  of 
publicani.  Contracts  of  this  kind  fell  naturally 
into  the  hands  of  the  equites,  as  the  richest 
class  of  Romans.  They  appointed  managers, 
uruier  whom  Avere  the  portitores,  the  actual 
custom-house  officers,  who  examined  each 
bale  of  goods,  exported  or  imported,  assessed 
its  value  more  or  less  arbitrarily,  wrote  out 
the  ticket,  and  enforced  payment.  The  latter 
were  commonly  natives  of  the  province  in 
which  they  were  stationed,  as  being  brought 
daily  into  contact  with  all  classes  of  the  popu- 
lation. The  name  publicani  was  used  popu- 
larly, and  in  the  N.  T.  exclusively,  of  the 
portitores.  The  system  was  essentially  a 
vicious  one.  The  portitores  were  encouraged 
in  the  most  vexatious  or  fraudulent  exactions, 
and  a  remedy  was  all  but  impossible.  They 
overcharged  whenever  they  had  an  oppor- 
tunity (Luke  iii.  13).  They  brought  false 
charges  of  smuggling  in  the  hope  of  extorting 
hush-money  (Luke  xix.  8).  They  detained 
and  opened  letters  on  mere  suspicion.  It  was 
the  basest  of  all  livelihoods.  All  this  was 
enough  to  bring  the  class  into  ill  favor  every- 
where. In  Judaea  and  Galilee  there  were  spe- 
cial circumstances  of  aggravation.  The  em- 
ployment brought  out  all  the  besetting  vices 
of  the  Jewish  character.  The  strong  feeling 
of  many  Jews  as  to  the  absolute  unlawfulness 
of  paying  tribute  at  all  made  matters  worse. 
The  Scribes  who  discussed  the  question 
(Matt.  xxii.  15)  for  the  most  part  answered  it 
in  the  negative.  In  addition  to  their  other 
faults,  accordingly,  the  publicans  of  the  N.  T. 
were  regarded  as  traitors  and  apostates,  de- 
filed by  their  frequent  intercourse  with  the 
heathen,  willing  tools  of  the  oppressor.  The 
class  thus  practically  excommunicated  fur- 
nished some  of  the  earliest  disciples  both  of 
the  Baptist  and  of  our  Lord.  The  position  of 
Zacchaeus  as  a  "chief  among  the  publicans" 


(Luke  xix.  2),  implies  a  gradation  of  some 
kind  among  the  persons  thus  employed. 

Pul,  an  Assyrian  king  and  the  first  of  those 
monarchs  mentioned  in  Scripture.  He  made 
an  expedition  against  Menahem,  king  of 
Israel,  about  B.  C.  770. 

Pulse  occurs  only  in  the  A.  V.  in  Dan.  i.  12, 
16,  as  the  translation  of  words,  the  literal 
meaning  of  which  is  "seeds"  of  any  kind. 
Probably  the ''term  denotes  uncooked  grain  of 
any  kind,  whether  barley,  wheat,  millet, 
vetches,  &c. 

Punishments.  The  earliest  theory  of  pun- 
ishment current  among  mankind  is  doubtless 
the  one  of  simple  retaliation,  "blood  for 
blood."  Viewed  historically,  the  first  case  of 
punishment  for  crime  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
next  to  the  Fall  itself,  is  that  of  Cain,  the  first 
murderer.  That  death  was  regarded  as  the 
fitting  punishment  for  murder  appears  plain 
from  the  remark  of  Lamech  (Gen.  iv.  24).  In 
the  first-diluvian  code,  if  we  may  so  call  it, 
retribution  by  the  hand  of  man,  even  in  the 
case  of  an  offending  animal,  for  blood  shed,  is 
clearly  laid  down  (Gen.  ix.  5,  6).  Passing 
onwards  to  Mosaic  times,  we  find  the  sen- 
tence of  capital  punishment,  in  the  case  of 
murder,  plainly  laid  down  in  the  Law.  The 
murderer  was  t6  be  put  to  death,  even  if  he 
should  have  taken  refuge  at  God's  altar  or  in  a 
refuge  city,  and  the  same  principle  was  to  be 
carried  out  even  in  the  case  of  an  dnimal.  I. 
The  following  offences  also  are  mentioned  in 
the  Law  as  liable  to  the  punishment  of  death : 

I.  Striking,  or  even  reviling,  a  parent  (Ex.  xxi. 
15,  17).  2.  Blasphemy  (Lev.  xxiv.  14,  16,  23). 
3.  Sabbath-breaking  (Num.  xv.  32-36;  Ex. 
xxxi.  14,  XXXV.  2).  4.  Witchcraft,  and  false 
pretension  to  prophecy  (Ex.  xxii.  18;  Lev.  xx. 
27;  Deut.  xiii.  5,  xviii.  20).  5.  Adultery  (Lev. 
XX.  10;  Deut.  xxii.  22).  6.  Unchastity  (Deut. 
xxii.  21,  23;  Lev.  xxi.  9).  7.  Rape  (Deut.  xxii. 
25).  8.  Incestuous  and  unnatural  connections 
(Lev.  XX.  II,  14,  16;  Ex.  xxii.  19).  9.  Man- 
stealing  (Ex.  xxi.  16;  Deut.  xxiv.  7).  10. 
Idolatry,  actual  or  virtual,  in  any  shape  (Lev. 
xx.  2;  Deut.  xiii.  6,  10,  15,  xvii.  2-7:  see  Josh, 
vii.  and  xxii.  20,  and  Num.  xxv.  8).  11.  False 
witness  in  certain  cases  (Deut.  xix.  16,  19). 

II.  But  there  is  a  large  number  of  offences, 
some  of  them  included  in  this  list,  which  are 
named  in  the  Law  as  involving  the  penalty  of 
"cutting  off  from  the  people."  On  the  mean- 
ing of  this  expression  some  controversy  has 
arisen.  There  are  altogether  thirty-six  or 
thirty-seven  cases  in  the  Pentateuch  in  which 
this  formula  is  used.  We  may  perhaps  con- 
clude that  the  primary  meaning  of  "cutting 
off"  is  a  sentence  of  death  to  be  executed  in 


327 


PUNISHMENTS 


PURIM 


some  cases  without  remission,  but  in  others 
voidable:  (i.)  by  immediate  atonement  on 
the  offender's  part;  (2.)  by  direct  interposi- 
tion of  the  Ahnighty,  i.  e.  a  sentence  of  death 
always  "recorded,"  but  not  always  executed. 
III.  Punishments  are  twofold.  Capital  and 
Secondary.  I.  (A.)  Of  the  former  kind,  the 
following  only  are  prescribed  by  the  Law.  i. 
Stoning,  which  was  the  ordinary  mode  of 
execution  (Ex.  xvii.  4;  Luke  xx.  6;  John  x.  31 ; 
Acts  xiv.  5).  In  the  case  of  idolatry,  and  it 
may  be  presumed  in  other  cases  also,  the  wit- 
nesses, of  whom  there  were  to  be  at  least  two, 
were  required  to  cast  the  first  stone  (Deut. 
xiii.  9;  Acts  vii.  58).  2.  Hanging  is  mentioned 
as  a  distinct  punishment  (Num.  xxv.  4;  2 
Sam.  xxi.  6,  9).  3.  Burning,  in  pre-Mosaic 
times,  Avas  the  punishment  for  unchastity 
(Gen.  xxxviii.  24).  Under  the  Law  it  is 
ordered  in  the  case  of  a  "priest's  daughter 
(Lev.  xxi.  9).  4.  Death  by  the  sword  or  spear 
is  named  in  the  Law  (Ex.  xix.  13,  xxxii.  27; 
Num.  xxv.  7)  ;  and  it  occurs  frequently  in 
regal  and  post-Babylonian  times  (i  K.  ii.  25, 
34,  xix.  I ;  2  Chr.  xxi.  4,  &c.).  5.  Strangling  is 
said  by  the  Rabbins  to  have  been  regarded  as 
the  most  common  but  least  severe  of  the  capi- 
tal punishments,  and  to  have  been  performed 
by  immersing  the  convict  in  clay  or  mud,  and 
then  strangling  him  by  a  cloth  twisted  round 
the  neck.  (B.)  Besides  these  ordinary  capital 
punishments,  we  read  of  others,  either  of  for- 
eign introduction  or  of  an  irregular  kind. 
Among  the  former,  i.  Crucifixion  is  treated 
elsewhere.  2.  Drowning,  though  not  ordered 
under  the  Law,  was  practised  at  Rome,  and  is 
said  by  St.  Jerome  to  have  been  in  use  among 
the  Jews.  3.  Sawing  asunder  or  crushing  be- 
neath iron  instruments  (2  Sam.  xii.  31,  and 
perhaps  Prov.  xx.  26;  Heb.  xi.  37).  4.  Pound- 
ing in  a  mortar,  or  beating  to  death,  is  alluded 
to  in  Prov.  xxvii.  22,  but  not  as  a  legal  pun- 
ishment, and  cases  are  described  (2  Mace.  vi. 
28,  30).  5.  Precipitation,  attempted  in  the 
case  of  our  Lord  at  Nazareth,  and  carried  out 
in  that  of  captives  from  the  Edomites,  and  of 
St.  James,  who  is  said  to  have  been  cast  from 
"the  pinnacle"  of  the  Temple.  Criminals 
executed  by  law  were  buried  outside  the  city- 
gates,  and  heaps  of  stones  were  flung  upon 
their  graves  (Josh.  vii.  25,  26;  2  Sam.  xviii. 
17;  Jer.  xxii.  19).  II.  Of  secondary  punish- 
ments among  the  Jews  the  original  principles 
were,  i.  Retaliation,  "eye  for  eye,"  &c.  (Ex. 
xxi.  24,  25).  2.  Compensation,  identical  (resti- 
tution), or  analogous;'  payment  for  loss  of 
time  or  of  power  (Ex.  xxi.  18-36;  Lev.  xxiv. 
18-21  ;  Deut.  xix.  21).  Slander  against  a  wife's 
honor  was  to  be  compensated  to  her  parents 


by  a  fine  of  100  shekels,  and  the  traducer  him- 
self to  be  punished  with  stripes  (Deut.  xxii. 
18,  19).  3.  Stripes,  whose  number  was  not  to 
exceed  forty  (Deut.  xxv.  3)  ;  whence  the  Jews 
took  care  not  to  exceed  thirty-nine  (2  Cor.  xi. 
24).  4.  Scourging  with  thorns  is  mentioned 
(Judg.  viii.  16).  The  stocks  are  mentioned 
Jer.  XX.  2;  passing  through  fire,  2  Sam.  xii.  31  ; 
mutilation,  Judge  i.  6 ;  2  Mace.  vii.  4;  and  see 
2  Sam.  iv.  12;  plucking  out  hair.  Is.  1.  6;  in 
later  times,  imprisonment,  and  confiscation  or 
exile.  Ezr.  vii.  26;  Jer.  xxxvii.  15,  xxxviii.  6; 
Acts  iv.  3,  V.  18,  xii.  4. 

Purification,  in  its  legal  and  technical  sense, 
is  applied  to  the  ritual  observances  whereby 
an  Israelite  was  formally  absolved  from  the 
taint  of  uncleanness.  The  essence  of  purifi- 
cation, in  all  cases,  consisted  in  the  use  of 
water,  whether  by  way  of  ablution  or  asper- 
sion ;  but  in  the  majora  delicta  of  legal  un- 
cleanness, sacrifices  of  various  kinds  were 
added,  and  the  ceremonies  throughout  bore 
an  expiatory  character.  -  Ablution  of  the  per- 
son and  of  the  clothes  was  required  in  the 
cases  mentioned  in  Lev.  xv.  18,  xi.  25,  40,  xv. 
16,  17.  In  cases  of  childbirth  the  sacrifice  was 
increased  to  a  lamb  of  the  first  year,  with  a 
pigeon  or  turtle-dove  (Lev.  xii.  6).  The  cere- 
monies of  purification  required  in  cases  of  con- 
tact with  a  corpse  or  a  grave  are  detailed  in 
Num.  xix.  The  purification  of  the  leper  was  a 
yet  more  formal  proceeding,  and  indicated  the 
highest  pitch  of  uncleanness.  The  rites  are 
described  in  Lev.  xiv.  4-32.  The  necessity  of 
purification  was  extended  in  the  post-Baby- 
lonian period  to  a  variety  of  unauthorized 
cases.  Cups  and  pots,  brazen  vessels  and 
couches,  were  washed  as  a  matter  of  ritual 
observance  (Mark  vii.  4).  The  washing  cf  the 
hands  before  meals  was  conducted  in  a  formal 
manner  (Mark  vii.  3).  What  may  have  been 
the  specific  causes  of  uncleanness  in  those 
who  came  up  to  purify  themselves  before  the 
Passover  (John  xi.  55),  or  in  those  who  had 
taken  upon  themselves  the  Nazarite's  vow 
(Acts  xxi.  24,  26),  we  are  not  informed.  In 
conclusion  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  dis- 
tinctive feature  in  the  Mosaic  rites  of  purifica- 
tion is  their  expiatory  character.  The  idea  of 
uncleanness  was  not  peculiar  to  the  Jew.  But 
with  all  other  nations  simple  ablution  sufficed ; 
no  sacrifices  were  demanded.  The  Jew  alone 
was  taught  by  the  use  of  expiatory  offerings 
to  discen.  to  its  full  extent  the  connection  be- 
tween the  outward  sign  and  the  inward  fount 
of  impurity. 

Purim  (Lots),  the  annual  festival  instituted 
to  commemorate  the  preservation  of  the  Jews 
in  Persia  from  the  massacre  with  which  they 


328 


SUFFER  LITTLE  CHILDREN  TO  COME  UNTO  ME.     OTTILIE  KOEDERSTEIN. 


PURIM 

were  threatened  through  the  machinations  of 
Haman  (Esth.  ix.).  It  was  probably  called 
Purim  by  the  Jews  in  irony.  Their  great 
enemy  Haman  appears  to  have  been  very 
superstitious,  and  much  given  to  casting  lots 
(Esth.  iii.  7).  They  gave  the  name  Purim,  or 
"Lots,"  to  the  commemorative  festival,  be- 
cause he  had  thrown  lots  to  ascertain  what 
day  would  be  auspicious  for  him  to  carry  into 
effect  the  bloody  decree  which  the  king  had 
issued  at  his  instance  (Esth.  ix.  24).  The 
festival  lasted  two  days,  and  was  regularly 
observed  on  the  14th  and  15th  of  Adar.  Ac- 


i'uteoli,  Bay  of  Naples. 

cording  to  modern  custom,  as  soon  as  the 
stars  begin  to  appear,  when  the  14th  of  the 
month  has  commenced,  candles  are  lighted  up 
in  token  of  rejoicing,  and  the  people  assemble 
in  the  synagogue.  After  a  short  prayer  and 
thanksgiving,  the  reading  of  the  book  of 
Esther  commences.  The  book  is  written  in  a 
peculiar  manner,  on  a  roll  called  "the  Roll" 
(Megillah).  When  the  reader  comes  to  the 
name  of  Haman,  the  congregation  cry  out, 
"May  his  name  be  blotted  out,"  or,  "Let  the 
name  of  the  ungodly  perish."  When  the 
Megillah  is  read  through,  the  whole  congre- 
gation exclaim,  "Cursed  be  Haman;  blessed 
be  Mordecai ;  cursed  be  Zoresh  (the  wife  of 
Haman);  blessed  be  Esther;  cursed  be  all 
idolaters ;  1)lessed  be  all  Lsraelites,  and  blessed 
be  Harbonah  who  hanged  Haman."  In  the 
morning  service  in  the  synagogue,  on  the  14th, 


QUAILS 

after  the  prayers,  the  passage  is  read  from  the 
Law  (Ex.  xvii.  8-16)  which  relates  the  de- 
struction of  the  Amalekites,  the  people  of 
Agag  (i  Sam.  xv.  8),  the  supposed  ancestor  of 
Haman  (Esth.  iii.  i).  The  Megillah  is  then 
read  again  in  the  same  manner.  The  14th  of 
Adar,  as  the  very  day  of  the  deliverance  of 
the  Jews,  is  more  solemnly  kept  than  the  13th; 
but  when  the  ser\dce  in  the  synagogue  is  over, 
all  give  themselves  up  to  merry-making. 

Pute'oli,  the  great  landing-place  of  travel- 
lers to  Italy  from  the  Levant,  and  the  harbor 
to  which  the  Alexandrian  corn-ships  brought 
their  cargoes  (Acts  xxvii.  13).  The  celebrated 
bay  which  is  now  "the  bay  of  Naples,"  was 
then  called  "Sinus  Puteolanus."  The  city  was 
at  the  north-eastern  angle  of  the  bay.  The 
name  Puteoli  arose  from  the  strong  mineral 
springs  which  are  characteristic  of  the  place. 
It  is  now  a  fourth-rate  Italian  town,  still  re- 
taining the  name  of  Pozzuoli. 


Quails.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Hebrew  word  in  the  Pentateuch  (Ex.  xvi.  13; 
Num.  xi.  31,  32)  and  the  105th  Ps.  denotes  the 
common  quail.  The  expression  "as  it  were 
two  cubits  (high)  upon  the  face  of  the  earth" 
(Num.  xi.  31)  refers  probably  to  the  height  at 
which  the  quails  flew  above  the  ground,  in 


The  Quail.  . 

their  exhausted  condition  from  their  long 
fliglit.  As  to  the  enormous  quantities  which 
the  least  successful  Israelite  is  said  to  have 
taken,  viz.  "ten  homers,"  in  the  space  of  a 
night  and  two  days,  there  is  every  reason  for 
believing  that  the  "homers"  here  spoken  of 
do  not  denote  strictly  the  measure  of  that 
name,  but  simply  "a  heap."  The  Israelites 
would  have  had  little  difficulty  in  capturing 


329 


QUEEN 

large  quantities  of  these  birds,  as  they  are 
known  to  arrive  at  places  sometimes  so  com- 
pletely exhausted  by  their  flight  as  to  be 
readily  taken,  not  in  nets  only,  but  by  the 
hand.  They  "spread  the  quails  round  about 
the  camp ;"  this  was  for  the  purpose  of  drying 
them.  The  Egyptians  similarly  prepared  these 
birds.  The  expression  "quails  from  the  sea" 
(Num.  xi.  31)  must  not  be  restricted  to  denote 
that  the  birds  came  from  the  sea  as  their  start- 
ing-point, but  it  must  be  taken  to  show  the 
direction  from  which  they  were  coming.  The 
quails  were,  at  the  time  of  the  event  narrated 
in  the  sacred  writings,  on  their  spring  journey 
of  migration  northwards.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  the  time  specified;  "it  was  at  even"  that 
they  began  to  arrive ;  and  they  no  doubt  con- 
tinued to  come  all  the  night.  Many  observers 
have  recorded  that  the  quail  migrates  by 
night. 

Queen.   This  title  is  properly  applied  to  the 

queen-mother,  since  in  an  Oriental  household, 
it  is  not  the  wife  but  the  mother  of  the  master 
who  exercises  the  highest  authority.  Strange 
as  such  an  arrangement  at  first  sight  appears, 
it  is  one  of  the  inevitable  results  of  polygamy. 
The  extent  of  the  influence  of  the  queen- 
mother  is  well  illustrated  by  the  narrative  of 
the  interview  of  Solomon  and  Bathsheba,  as 
given  in  i  K.  ii.  19,  fi.  The  term  is  applied  to 
Maachah,  Asa's  mother,  who  was  deposed 
from  her  dignity  in  consequence  of  her  idola- 
try (i  "K.  XV.  13;  2  Chr.  XV.  16)  ;  to  Jezebel  as 
contrasted  with  Joram  (2  K.  x.  13,  "the  chil- 
dren of  the  king,  and  the  children  of  the 
queen")  ;  and  to  the  mother  of  Jehoiachin  or 
Jeconiah  (Jer.  xiii.  18;  compare  2  K.  xxiv.  12; 
Jer.  xxix.  2). 

Quicksands,  The,  more  properly  the  Syrtis 
(Acts  xxvii.  17),  the  broad  and  deep  bight  on 
the  North  African  coast  between  Carthage 
and  Cyrene.  The  name  is  derived  from  Sert, 
an  Arabic  word  for  a  desert.  For  two  reasons 
this  region  was  an  object  of  peculiar  dread  to 
the  ancient  navigators  of  the  Mediterranean, 
partly  because  of  the  drifting  sands  and  the 
heat  along  the  shore  itself,  but  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  the  shallows  and  the  uncertain  cur- 
rents of  water  in  the  bay.  There  were  prop- 
erly two  Syrtes :  the  eastern  or  larger,  now 
called  the  Gulf  of  Sidra ;  and  the  western  or 
smaller,  now  the  Gulf  of  Cabes.  It  is  the 
former  to  which  our  attention  is  directed  in 
this  passage  of  the  Acts. 

Quiver.  Two  distinct  Hebrew  terms  are 
represented  by  this  word  in  the  A.  V.  (i.) 
Theli. — This  occurs  only  in  Gen.  xxvii.  3.  It 
is  derived  from  a  root  which  has  the  force  of 
hanging.    It  may  therefore  signify  either  a 


RABBAH 

quiver  or  a  suspended  weapon — for  instance, 
such  a  sword  as  in  our  own  language  was  for- 
merly called  a  "hanger."  (2.)  Ashpah. — The 
root  of  this  word  is  uncertain.  It  is  connected 
with  arrows  only  in  Lam.  iii.  13.  Its  other 
occurrences  are  Job.  xxxix.  23,  Is.  xxii.  6,  and 


Assyrian  and  Egyptian  Quivers  and  Bows. 

Jer.  v.  16.  In  each  of  these  the  LXX.  translate 
it  by  "quiver,"  with  two  exceptions.  Job  xxxix. 
23,  and  Ps.  cxxvii.  5.  As  to  the  thing  itself, 
there  is  nothing  in  the  Bible  to  indicate  either 
its  form  or  material,  or  in  what  way  it  was 
carried. 


Raam'ses,  Ex.  i.  10.  [Rameses.] 
Rab'bah.    i.  A  very  strong  place  on  the  east 
of  the  Jordan,  and  chief  city  of  the  Ammon- 
ites.   In  five  passages  (Deut.  iii.  11 ;  2  Sam. 

xii.  26,  xvii.  27 ;  Jer.  xlix.  2 ;  Ez.  xxi.  20)  it  is 
styled  at  length  Rabbath  of  the  Ammonites, 
or  Children  of  Ammon ;  but  elsewhere  (Josh. 

xiii.  25;  2  Sam.  xi.  i,  xii.  27,  29;  i  Chr.  xx.  i ; 
Jer.  xlix.  3 ;  Ez.  xxv.  5 ;  Amos  i.  14)  simply 
Rabbah.  When  first  named  it  is  mentioned  as 
containing  the  bed  or  sarcophagus  of  the 
giant  Og  (Deut.  iii.  li).  David  sent  Joab  to 
besiege  Rabbah  (2  Sam.  xi.  i).  The  siege 
must  have  lasted  two  years.  The  sallies  of 
the  Ammonites  appear  to  have  formed  a  main 
feature  of  the  siege  (2  Sam.  xi.  17,  &c.).  In 
the  period  between  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, Rabbath-Ammon  appears  to  have  been 
a  place  of  much  importance,  and  the  scene  of 
many  contests.  From  Ptolemy  Philadelphus 
(B.  C.  285-247)  it  received  the  name  of  Phila- 


330 


RABBI 


RAHAB 


delphia.  It  was  one  of  the  cities  of  the 
Decapolis,  antl  became  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
bishop.  Its  ruins,  which  are  considerable,  are 
found  at  Amman,  about  22  miles  from  the 
Jordan.  It  lies  in  a  valley  which  is  a  branch, 
or  perhaps  the  main  course,  of  the  Wady 
Zerka,  usually  identified  with  the  Jabbok.  The 
public  buildings  are  said  to  be  Roman,  except 
the  citadel,  which  is  described  as  of  large 
square  stones  put  together  without  cement, 
and  which  is  probably  more  ancient  than  the 
rest.  2.  A  city  of  Judah,  named  with  Kirjath- 
jearim  in  Josh.  xv.  60  only.  No  trace  of  its 
existence  has  yet  been  discovered.  3.  In  one 
passage  (Josh.  xi.  8)  Zidort  is  mentioned  with 
the  affix  Rabbah — Zidon-rabbah.  This  is  pre- 
served in  the  margin  of  the  A.  V.,  though  in 
the  text  it  is  translated  "great  Zidon." 

Rab'bi,  a  title  of  respect,  signifying  Master, 
Teacher,  given  by  the  Jews  to  their  doctors 
and  teachers,  and  often  addressed  to  our  Lord 
(Matt,  xxiii.  7,  8,  xxvi.  25,  49;  Mark  ix.  5,  xi. 
21,  xiv.  45;  John  i.  39,  50,  iii.  2,  26,  iv.  31,  vi. 
25,  ix.  2,  xi.  8).  Another  form  of  the  title  was 
Rabboni  (Mark  x.  51;  John  xx.  16).  The  i 
which  is  added  to  these  titles  has  been  thought 
to  be  the  pronominal  affix  "My ;"  but  it  is  to 
be  noted  that  St.  John  does  not  translate 
either  of  these  by  "My  Master,"  but  simply 
"Master,"  so  that  the  i  would  seem  to  have 
lost  any  especial  significance  as  a  possessive 
pronoun  intimating  appropriation  or  endear- 
ment, and,  like  the  "my"  in  titles  of  respect 
among  ourselves,  or  in  such  terms  as  Mon- 
seigneur,  Monsieur,  to  be  merely  part  of  the 
formal  address.  The  title  Rabbi  is  not  known 
to  have  been  used  before  the  reign  of  Herod 
the  Great,  and  is  thought  to  have  taken  its 
rise  about  the  time  of  the  disputes  between 
the  rival  schools  of  Hillel  and  Shammai.  Rabbi 
was  considered  a  higher  title  than  Rab  and 
Rabban  higher  than  Rabbi. 

Race.  [Games.] 

Ra'chel  (ewe  or  sheep),  the  younger  of  the 
daughters  of  Laban,  the  wife  of  Jacob,  and 
mother  of  Joseph  and  Benjamin.  The  inci- 
dents of  her  life  may  be  found  in  Gen.  xxix.- 
xxxiii.,  xxxv.  The  story  of  Jacob  and  Rachel 
has  always  had  a  peculiar  interest.  The  beauty 
of  Rachel,  the  deep  love  with  which  she  was 
loved -by  Jacob  from  their  first  meeting  by 
the  well  of  Haran,  when  he  showed  to  her  the 
simple  courtesies  of  the  desert  life,  and  kissed 
her  and  told  her  he  was  Rebekah's  son ;  the 
long  servitude  with  which  he  patiently  served 
for  her,  in  which  the  seven  years  "seemed  to 
him  but  a  few  days,  for  the  love  he  had  to 
her;"  their  marriage  at  last;  and  the  death  of 
Rachel  at  the  very  time  when  in  giving  birth 


to  another  son  her  own  long-delayed  hopes 
were  accomplished,  and  she  had  become  still 
more  endeared  to  her  husband;  his  deep  grief 
and  ^ever-living  regrets  for  her  loss  (Gen. 
xlviii.  7)  :  these  things  made  up  a  touching 
tale  of  personal  and  domestic  history  which 
has  kept  alive  the  memory  of  Rachel.  Yet 
from  what  is  related  to  us  concerning  her 
character  there  docs  not  seem  much  to  claim 
any  high  degree  of  admiration  and  esteem. 
The  discontent  and  fretful  impatience  shown 
in  her  grief  at  being  for  a  time  childless, 
moved  even  her  fond  husband  to  anger  (Gen. 
XXX.  I,  2).  She  appears  moreover  to  have 
shared  all  the  duplicity  and  falsehood  of  her 
family.  See,  for  instance,  Rachel's  stealing 
her  father's  images,  and  the  ready  dexterity 
and  presence  of  mind  with  which  she  con- 
cealed her  theft  (Gen.  xxxi.).  From  this  inci- 
dent we  may  also  infer  that  she  was  not  alto- 
gether free  from  the  superstitions  and  idolatry 
which  prevailed  in  the  land  whence  Abraham 
had  been  called  (Josh.  xxiv.  2,  14).  Rachel's 
tomb. — "Rachel  died  and  was  buried  in  the 
way  to  Ephrath,  which  is  Bethlehem.  And 
Jacob  set  a  pillar  upon  her  grave ;  that  is  the 
pillar  of  Rachel's  grave  unto  this  day"  (Gen. 
xxxv.  19,  20).  The  site  of  Rachel's  tomb,  "on 
the  way  to  IBethlehem,"  "a  little  way  to  come 
to  Ephrath,"  "in  the  border  of  Benjamin,"  has 
never  been  questioned.  It  is  about  two  miles 
S.  of  Jerusalem,  and  one  mile  N.  of  Bethlehem. 

Ra'hab,  or  Ra'chab  (wide),  a  celebrated 
woman  of  Jericho,  who  received  the  spies  sent 
by  Joshua  to  spy  out  the  land,  hid  them  in 
her  house  from  the  pursuit  of  her  countrymen, 
was  saved  with  all  her  family  when  the  Israel- 
ites sacked  the  city,  and  became  the  wife  of 
Salmon,  and  the  ancestress  of  the  Messiah 
(Josh.  ii.  i;  Matt.  i.  5).  She  was  a  "harlot," 
and  probably  combined  the  trade  of  lodging- 
keeper  for  wayfaring  men.  Her  reception 
of  the  spies,  the  artifice  by  which  she 
concealed  them  from  the  king,  their  escape, 
and  the  saving  of  Rahab  and  her  family  at  the 
capture  of  the  city,  in  accordance  with  their 
promise,  are  all  told  in  the  narrative  of  Josh, 
ii.  The  narrator  adds,  "and  she  dwelleth  in 
Israel  unto  this  day,"  not  necessarily  imply- 
ing that  she  was  alive  at  the  time  he  wrote, 
but  that  the  family  of  strangers  of  which  she 
was  reckoned  the  head,  continued  to  dwell 
among  the  children  of  Israel.  As  regards 
Rahab  herself,  we  learn  from  Matt.  i.  5,  that 
she  became  the  wife  of  Salmon  the  son  of 
Naassoo,  and  the  mother  of  Boaz,  Jesse's 
grandfather.  The  suspicion  naturally  arises 
that  Salmon  may  have  been  one  of  the  spies 
whose  life  she  saved,  and  that  gratitude  for 


331 


RAIN 


RAM,  BATTERING 


so  great  a  benefit  led  in  his  case  to  a  more 
tender  passion,  and  obliterated  the  memory  of 
any  past  disgrace  attaching  to  her  name.  But, 
however  this  may  be,  it  is  certain,  on  the 
authority  of  St.  Matthew,  that  Rahab  became 
the  mother  of  the  line  from  which  sprung 
David,  and  eventually  Christ;  for  that  the 
Rachab  mentioned  by  St.  Matthew  is  Rahab 
the  harlot,  is  as  certain  as  that  David  in  the 
genealogy  is  the  same  person  as  David  in  the 
Books  of  Samuel. 

Rain.  In  the  Bible  Early  Rain  signifies  the 
rains  of  the  autumn  (Deut.  xi.  14;  Jer.  v.  24)  ; 
also  moreh  (Joel  ii.  23)  ;  and  Latter  Rain,  the 
rain  of  spring  (Prov.  xvi.  15 ;  Job  xxix.  23 ;  Jer. 
iii.  3;  Hos.  vi.  3;  Joel  ii.  23;  Zech.  x.  i).  The 
early  and  latter  rains  are  mentioned  together 
(Deut.  xi.  14;  Jer.  v.  24;  Joel  ii.  23;  Hos.  vi.  3; 
James  v.  7).  In  a  country  comprising  so 
many  varieties  of  elevation  as  Palestine,  there 
must  of  necessity  occur  corresponding  varie- 
ties of  climate.  For  six  months  in  the  year  no 
rain  falls,  and  the  harvests  are  gathered  in 
without  any  of  the  anxiety  with  which  we  are 
so  familiar  lest  the  work  be  interrupted  by  un- 
seasonable storms.  There  are,  however,  very 
considerable,  and  perhaps  more  than  compen- 
sating, disadvantages  occasioned  by  this  long 
absence  of  rain :  the  whole  land  becomes  dry, 
parched  and  brown,  the  cisterns  are  empty, 
the  springs  and  fountains  fail,  and  the 
autumnal  rains  are  eagerly  looked  for,  to  pre- 
pare the  earth  for  the  reception  of  the  seed. 
These,  the  early  rains,  commence  about  the 
latter  end  of  October  or  beginning  of  Novem- 
ber, in  Lebanon  a  month  earlier ;  not  sud- 
denly, but  by  degrees ;  the  husbandman  has 
thus  the  opportunity  of  sowing  his  fields  of 
wheat  and  barley.  The  rains  come  mostly 
from  the  west  or  southwest  (Luke  xii.  54), 
continuing  for  two  or  three  days  at  a  time, 
and  falling  chiefly  during  the  night;  the  wind 
then  shifts  round  to  the  north  or  east,  and 
several  days  of  fine  weather  succeed  (Prov. 
XXV.  23).  During  the  months  .of  November 
and  December  the  rains  continue  to  fall  heav- 
ily, but  at  intervals ;  afterwards  they  return, 
only  at  longer  intervals,  and  are  less  heavy ; 
but  at  no  period  during  the  winter  do  they 
entirely  cease.  January  and  February  are  the 
coldest  months,  and  snow  falls,  sometimes  to 
the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more,  at  Jerusalem, 
but  it  does  not  lie  long-;  it  is  very  seldom  seen 
along  the  coast  and  in  the  low  plains.  Rain 
continues  to  fall  more  or  less  during  the 
month  of  March ;  it  is  very  rare  in  April,  and 
even  in  Lebanon  the  showers  that  occur  are 
generally  light.  In  the  valley  of  the  Jordan 
the  barley  harvest  begins  as  early  as  the  mid- 


dle of  April,  and  the  wheat  a  fortnight  later; 
in  Lebanon  the  grain  is  seldom  ripe  before  the 
middle  of  June.  With  respect  to  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  early  and  the  latter  rains, 
Robinson  observes  that  there  are  not,  at  the 
present  day,  "any  particular  periods  of  rain 
or  succession  of  showers,  which  might  be  re- 
garded as  distinct  rainy  seasons.  The  whole 
period  from  October  to  March  now  consti- 
tutes only  one  continued  season  of  rain,  with- 
out any  regularly  intervening  term  of  pro- 
longed fine  weather.  Unless,  therefore,  there 
has  been  some  change  in  the  climate,  the  early 
and  the  latter  rains  for  which  the  husband- 
man waited  with  longing,  seem  rather  to  have 
implied  the  first  showers  of  autumn  which  re- 
vived the  parched  and  thirsty  soil,  and  pre- 
pared it  for  the  seed ;  and  the  later  showers 
of  spring,  which  continued  to  refresh  and  for- 
ward both  the  ripening  crops  and  the  vernal 
products  of  the  fields  (James  v.  7;  Prov. 
xvi.  15)." 

Rainbow,  the  token  of  the  covenant  which 
God  made  with  Noah  when  he  came  forth 
from  the  ark,  that  the  waters  should  no  more 
become  a  flood  to  destroy  all  flesh.  The  right 
interpretation  of  Gen.  ix.  13  seems  to  be,  that 
God  took  the  rainbow,  which  had  hitherto 
been  but  a  beautiful  object  shining  in  the 
heavens  when  the  sun's  rays  fell  on  falling 
rain,  and  consecrated  it  as  the  sign  of  His  love 
and  the  witness  of  His  promise  (Ecclus.  xliii. 
11).  The  figurative  and  symbolical  use  of  the 
rainbow  as  an  emblem  of  God's  mercy  and 
faithfulness  must  not  be  passed  over.  In  the 
wondrous  vision  shown  to  St.  John  in  the 
Apocalypse  (Rev.  iv.  3),  it  is  said  that  "there 
was  a  rainbow  round  about  the  throne,  in 
sight  like  unto  an  emerald:"  amidst  the  awful 
vision  of  surpassing  glory  is  seen  the  symbol 
of  Hope,  the  bright  emblem  of  Mercy  and  of 
Love. 

Raisins.  [Vine.] 

Ram,  Battering,  is  mentioned  in  Ez.  iv.  2, 
xxi.  22;  and  both  references  are  to  the  batter- 
ing-rams in  use  among  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians.  In  attacking  the  walls  of  a  fort 
or  city,  the  first  step  appears  to  have  been  to 
form  an  inclined  plane  or  bank  of  earth  (comp. 
Ez.  iv.  2,  "cast  a  mount  against  it"),  by  which 
the  besiegers  could  bring  their  battering-rams 
and  other  engines  to  the  foot  of  the  walls. 
"The  battering-rams,"  says  Mr.  Layard,  "were 
of  several  J<inds.  Some  were  joined  to  mova- 
ble towers  which  held  warriors  and  armed 
The  whole    then    formed    one  great 


men. 


temporary  building,  the  top  of  which  is  repre- 
sented in  sculptures  as  on  a  level  with  the 
walls,  and  even  turrets,  of  the  besieged  city. 


332 


I 


RAMESES 


RAVEN 


In  some  bas-reliefs  the  battering-ram  is  with- 
out wheels :  it  was  then  perhaps  constructed 
upon  tfie  spot,  and  was  not  intended  to  be 
moved." 


Datterint'-ram.    A  Besieged  City.     (Xinecah  Sculptures.) 


Rame'ses,  or  Raam'ses,  a  city  and  district 
of  Lower  Eg}-pt,  is  first  mentioned  in  the  nar- 
rative of  the  settling  by  Joseph  of  his  father 
■and  brethren  in  Egypt,  where  it  is  related  that 
a  possession  was  given  them  "in  the  land  of 
Rameses"  (Gen.  xlvii.  ii).  This  land  of 
Rameses  either  corresponds  to  the  land  of 
Goshen,  or  was  a  district  of  it,  more  probably 
the  former,  as  appears  from  a  comparison 
with  a  parallel  passage  (6).  The  name  next 
occurs  as  that  of  one  of  the  two  store-cities 
built  for  the  Pharaoh  who  first  oppressed  the 
children  of  Israel  (Ex.  i.  ii).  In  the  narrative 
of  the  Exodus  it  is  the  starting-point  of  the 
journey  (Ex.  xii.  37;  see  also  Num.  xxxiii.  3, 
5).  Rameses  seems  to  correspond  to  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  land  of  Goshen,  since  two  full 
marches,  and  part  at  least  of  a  third,  brought 
the  Israelites  from  this  town  to  the  Red  Sea ; 
and  the  narrative  appears  to  indicate  a  route 
for  the  chief  part  directly  towards  the  sea.  It 
was  probably  built  or  enlarged  by  Rameses 
II.,  who  made  it  his  capital. 

Ra'moth-gil'ead,  the  "heights  of  Gilcad," 
one  of  the  great  fastnesses  on  the  east  of 
Jordan,  and  the  key  to  an  important  district, 
as  is  evident  not  only  from  the  direct  state- 
ment of  I  K.  iv.  13,  that  it  commanded  the 
regions  of  Argob  and  of  the  towns  of  Jair,  but 
also  from  the  obstinacy  with  which  it  was  at- 
tacked and  defended  by  the  Syrians  and  Jews 
in  the  reigns  of  Ahab  and  Joram.  It  seems 
probable  that  it  was  identical  with  Ramath- 
Mizpeh  (Josh.  xiii.  26),  which,  again,  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  occupied  the  spot  on 
which  Jacob  had  made  his  covenant  with 
Laban.  It  was  the  city  of  refuge  for  the  tribe 
of  Gad  (Deut.  iv.  43:  Josh.  xx.  8,  xxi.  38).  We 
next  encounter  it  as  the  residence  of  one  of 


Solomon's  commissariat  oflicers  (l  K.  iv.. 
13).  In  the  second  Syrian  war  Ramoth-Gilead 
played  a  conspicuous  part.  During  the  in- 
vasion related  in  i  K.  xv.  20,  or  some  subse- 
quent incursion,  this  important  place  had  been 
seized  by  Benhadad  I.  from  Omri.  The  inci- 
dents of  Ahab's  expedition  are  well  known. 
[Ahab.]  During  Ahaziah's  short  reign  we 
hear  nothing  of  it :  it  probably  remained  in 
possession  of  the  Syrians  till  the  suppression 
of  the  Aloabite  rebellion  gave  Joram  time  to 
renew  the  siege.  He  was  more  fortunate  than 
Ahab.  The  town  was  taken  by  Israel,  and 
held  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  Hazael  (who 
was  now  on  the  throne  of  Damascus)  to  re- 
gain it  (2  K.  ix.  14).  Henceforward  Ramoth- 
Gilead  disappears  from  our  view.  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  specify  the  position  of  Ramoth  as 
15  miles  from  Philadelphia.  It  may  corre- 
spond to  the  site  bearing  the  name  of  Jel'ad, 
exactly  identical  with  the  ancient  Hebrew 
Gilead,  which  is  four  or  five  miles  north  of 
es-Salt. 

Rams'  Horns.    [Cornet;  Jubilee.] 

Rams'  Skins  dyed  red  formed  part  of  the 
materials  that  the  Israelites  were  ordered  to 
present  as  offerings  for  the  making  of  the 
Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxv.  5)  ;  of  which  they  served 
as  one  of  the  inner  coverings.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  A.  V.,  following  the  LXX.  and 
Vulgate,  and  the  Jewish  interpreters,  is  cor- 
rect. The  original  words,  it  is  true,  admit  of 
being  rendered  thus — "skins  of  red  rams." 

Ra'phael.  "One  of  the  seven  holy  angels 
which  ...  go  in  and  out  before  the  glory 
of  the  Holy  One"  (Tob.  xii.  15).  According 
to  another  Jewish  tradition,  Raphael  was  one 
of  the  four  angels  which  stood  round  the 
throne  of  God  (Michael,  Uriel,  Gabriel, 
Raphael).  In  Tobit  he  appears  as  the  guide 
and  counsellor  of  Tobias. 

Raven,  from  a  root  signifying  "to  be  black." 
A  raven  was  sent  out  by  Noah  from  the  ark 
to  see  whether  the  waters  were  abated  (Gen. 
viii.  7).  This  bird  was  not  allowed  as  food 
by  the  Mosaic  law  (Lev.  xi.  15).  Ravens  were 
the  means,  under  the  Divine  command,  of  sup- 
porting the  prophet  Elijah  at  the  brook 
Cherith  (i  K.  xvii.  4,  6).  They  are  expressly 
mentioned  as  instances  of  God's  protecting 
love  and  goodness  (Job.  xxxviii.  41,  Luke  xii. 
24,  Ps.  cxlvii.  9).  They  are  enumerated  with 
the  owl,  the  bittern,  &c.,  as  marking  the  deso- 
lation of  Edom  (Is.  xxxiv.  11).  "The  locks  of 
the  beloved"  are  compared  to  the  glossy  black- 
ness of  the  raven's  plumage  (Cant.  v.  11). 
The  raven's  carnivorous  habits,  and  especially 
his  readiness  to  attack  the  eye,  are  alluded  to 
in  Prov.  xxx.  17.    To  the  fact  of  the  raven 


333 


RAZOR 


RED  SEA 


being  a  common  bird  in  Palestine,  and  to  its 
habit  of  flying  restlessly  about  in  constant 
search  for  food  to  satisfy  its  voracious  ap- 
petite, may  perhaps  be  traced  the  reason  for 


Raven. 


its  being  selected  by  our  Lord  and  the  inspired 
writers  as  the  especial  object  of  God's  provid- 
ing care. 

Razor.  Besides  other  usages,  the  practice 
of  shaving  the  head  after  the  completion  of  a 
vow,  must  have  created  among  the  Jews  a 
necessity  for  the  special  trade  of  a  barber 
(Num.  vi.  9,  i8,  viii.  7;  Lev.  xiv.  8;  Judg.  xiii. 
5;  Is.  vii.  20;  Ez.  V.  i;  Acts  xviii.  18).  The 
instruments  of  his  work  were  probably,  as  in 
modern  times,  the  razor,  the  basin,  the  mirror, 
and  perhaps  also  the  scissors  (see  2  Sam.  xiv. 
26).  Like  the  Levites,  the  Egyptian  priests 
were  accustomed  to  shave  their  whole  bodies. 

Rebek'ah,  daughter  of  Bethuel  (Gen.  xxii. 
23)  and  sister  of  Laban,  married  to  Isaac,  her 
father's  cousin.  She  is  first  presented  to  us 
in  the  account  of  the  mission  of  Eliezer  to 
Padan-aram  (Gen.  xxiv.),  in  which  his  inter- 
view with  Rebekah,  her  consent  and  marriage, 
are  related.  For  nineteen  years  she  was  child- 
less :  then,  after  the  prayers  of  Isaac  and  her 
journey  to  inquire  of  the  Lord,  Esau  and 
Jacob  were  born;  and  while  the  younger  was 
more  particularly  the  companion  and  favorite 
of  his  mother  (xxv.  19-28),  the  elder  became 
a  grief  of  mind  to  her  (xxvi.  35).  When  Isaac 
was  driven  by  a  famine  into  the  lawless  coun- 
try of  the  Philistines,  Rebekah's  beauty  be- 
came, as  was  apprehended,  a  source  of  danger 
to  her  husband.  It  was  probably  a  considera- 
ble time  afterwards  when  Rebekah  suggested 
the  deceit  that  was  practised  by  Jacob  on  his 
blind  father.    She  directed  and  aided  him  in 


carrying  it  out,  foresaw  the  probable  conse- 
quence of  Esau's  anger,  and  prevented  it  by 
moving  Isaac  to  send  Jacob  away  to  Padan- 
aram  (xxvii.)  to  her  own  kindred  (xxix.  12). 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  she  died  during, 
Jacob's  sojourn  in  Padan-aram.  St.  Paul 
(Rom.  ix.  10)  refers  to  her  as  being  made  ac- 
quainted with  the  purpose  of  God  regarding 
her  children  before  they  were  born. 

Recorder,  an  officer  of  high  rank  in  the 
Jewish  state,  exercising  the  functions,  not  sim- 
ply of  an  annalist,  but  of  chancellor  or  presji- 
dent  of  the  privy  council.  In  David's  court 
the  recorder  appears  among  the  high  officers 
of  his  household  (2  Sam.  viii.  16,  xx.  24;  i 
Chr.  xviii.  15).  In  Solomon's,  he  is  coupled 
with  <he  three  secretaries,  and  is  mentioned 
last,  probably  as  being  their  president  (i  K. 
iv.  3;  comp.  2  K.  xviii.  18,  37;  2  Chr.  xxxiv.  8). 

Red  Sea.  The  sea  known  to  us  as  the  Red 
Sea  was  by  the  Israelites  called  "the  sea"  (Ex. 
xiv.  2,  9,  16,  21,  28,  XV.  I,  4,  8,  ID,  19;  Josh, 
xxiv.  6,  7;  and  many  other  passages);  and 
specially  "the  sea  of  suph"  (Ex.  x.  19,  xiii.  18, 
XV.  4,  22,  xxiii.  31;  Num.  xiv.  25;  &c.).    It  is 


also  perhaps  written  sfiphah  in  Num.  xxi.  14, 
rendered  "Red  Sea"  in  A.  V. ;  and  in  like  man- 
ner in  Deut.  i.  i,  stiph.  This  word  signifies  a 
sea-weed  resembling  wool,  and  such  sea-weed 
is  thrown  up  abundantly  on  the  shores  of  the 
Red  Sea.  The  color  of  the  water  is  not  red, 
but  blue  green.    It  is  most  probably  named 


334 


^  0^  m 


RED  SEA 


RED  SEA 


either  from  its  red  banks  or  from  the  people 
who  were  called  Red  Men.  The  most  im- 
portant change  in  the  Red  Sea  has  been  the 
drying  up  of  its-  northern  extremity,  "the 
tongue  of  the  Egyptian  Sea."  The  land  about 
the  head  of  the  gulf  has  risen,  and  that  near 
the  ^Mediterranean  become  depressed.  The 
head  of  the  gulf  has  consequently  retired 
gradually  since  the  Christian  era.  Thus  the 
prophecy  of  Isaiah  has  been  fulfilled  (xi.  15, 
xix.  5)  ;  the  tongue  of  the  Red  Sea  has  dried 
up  for  a  distance  of  at  least  50  miles  from  its 
ancient  head.  An  ancient  canal  conveyed  the 
waters  of  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea  flowing 
through  the  Wadi-t-Tumeylat,  and  irrigating 
with  its  system  of  water-channels  a  large  ex- 
tent of  country.  The  drying  up  of  the  head 
of  the  gulf  appears  to  have  been  one  of  tlie 
chief  causes  of  the  neglect  and  ruin  of  this 
canal.  In  extreme  length  the  Red  Sea  stretches 
from  the  straits  of  Bab  el-]\Iendeb  (or  rather 
Ras  Bab  el-Mendeb)  in  lat.  12°  40'  N.,  to  the 
modern  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  lat.  30°  N. 
Its  greatest  width  may  be  stated  roughly  at 
about  200  geographical  miles :  this  is  about 
lat.  16°  30',  but  the  navigable  channel  is  here 
really  narrower  than  in  some  other  portions. 
At  Ras  Mohammad,  the  Red  Sea  is  split  by 
the  gfranitic  peninsula  of  Sinai  into  two  gulfs ; 
the  westernmost,  or  Gulf  of  Suez,  is  now 
about  130  geographical  miles  in  length,  with 
an  average  width  of  about  18,  though  it  con- 
tracts to  less  than  10  miles ;  the  easternmost, 
or  Gulf  of  El-'Akabeh,  is  only  about  90  miles 
long,  from  the  Straits  of  Tiran,  to  the  'Akabeh, 
and  of  proportionate  narrowness.  Journeying 
southwards  from  Suez,  on  our  left  is  the  pen- 
insula of  Sinai ;  on  the  right,  is  the  desert 
coast  of  Egypt,  of  limestone  formation  like 
the  greater  part  of  the  Nile  valley  in  Egypt, 
the  clif¥s  on  the  sea-margin  stretching  land- 
wards in  a  great  rocky  plateau,  while  more 
inland  a  chain  of  volcanic  mountains  (begin- 
ning about  lat.  28°  4'  and  running  south)  rear 
their  lofty  peaks  at  intervals  above  the  lime- 
stone, generally  about  15  miles  distant.  The 
sea,  from  its  dangers  and  sterile  shores,  is  en- 
tirely destitute  of  boats.  The  coral  of  the 
Red  Sea  is  remarkably  abundant,  and  beauti- 
fully colored  and  variegated.  The  earliest 
navigation  of  the  Red  Sea  (passing  by  the  pre- 
historical  Phoenicians)  is  mentioned  by 
Herodotus.  "Sesostris  (Ramescs  II.)  was  the 
first  who,  passing  the  Arabian  Gulf  in  a  fleet 
of  long  vessels,  reduced  under  his  authority 
the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  bordering  the 
Erythraean  Sea."  Three  centuries  later,  Solo- 
mon's navy  was  built  "in  Eziongeber,  which 
is  beside  Eloth,  on  the  shore  of  the  Red  Sea 


(Yam  Stiph),  in  the  land  of  Edom"  (i  K. 
ix.  26).  The  Red  Sea,  as  it  possessed  for 
many  centuries  the  most  important  sea-trade 
of  the  East,  contained  ports  of  celebrity.  Of 
these,  Elath  and  Eziongeber  alone  appear  to 
be  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  Heroopolite 
Gulf  is  of  the  chief  interest ;  it  was  near  to 
Goshen ;  it  was  the  scene  of  the  passage  of  the 
Red  Sea ;  and  it  was  the  "tongue  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Sea."  It  was  also  the  seat  of  the  Egyptian 
trade  in  this  sea  and  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea  was  the  crisis  of  the 
Exodus.  It  is  necessary  to  endeavor  to  ascer- 
tain the  route  of  the  Israelites  before  we  can 
attempt  to  discover  where  they  crossed  the 
Sea.  The  point  from  which  they  started  was 
Rameses,  a  place  certainly  in  the  Land  of 
Goshen,  which  we  identify  with  the  Wadi-t- 
Tumeylat.  After  the  mention  that  the  people 
journeyed  from  Rameses  to  Succoth,  and  be- 
fore the  account  of  their  departure  from  Suc- 
coth, a  passage  occurs  which  appears  to  show 
the  first  direction  of  the  journey,  and  not  a 
change  in  the  route  (Ex.  xiii.  17,  18).  At  the 
end  of  the  second  day's  journey  the  camping- 
place  was  at  Etham,  "in  the  edge  of  the  wilder- 
ness" (Ex.  xiii.  20;  Num.  xxxiii.  6).  Here  the 
Wadi-t-Tumeylat  was  probably  left,  as  it  is 
cultivable  and  terminates  in  the  desert.  At 
the  end  of  the  third  day's  march, — for  each 
camping-place  seems  to  mark  the  close  of  a 
day's  journey, — the  Israelites  encamped  by 
the  sea.  The  place  of  this  last  encampment, 
and  that  of  the  passage,  would  be  not  very  far 
from  the  Persepolitan  monument  at  Pi- 
hahiroth.  It  appears  that  Migdol  was  behind 
Pi-hahiroth,  and  on  the  other  hand  Baal- 
zephon  and  the  sea.  These  neighboring  places 
have  not  been  identified.  From  Pi-hahiroth 
the  Israelites  crossed  the  sea.  The  only  points 
bearing  on  geography  in  the  account  of  this 
event  are,  that  the  sea  was  divided  by  an  east 
wind,  whence  we  may  reasonably  infer  that  it 
was  crossed  from  west  to  east,  and  that  the 
whole  Egyptian  army  perished,  which  shows 
that  it  must  have  been  some  miles  broad.  On 
the  whole  we  may  reasonably  suppose  about 
twelve  miles  as  the  smallest  breadth  of  the 
sea.  When  the  Israelites  had  departed,  Pha- 
raoh repented  that  he  had  let  them  go.  The 
strength  of  Pharaoh's  army  is  not  further 
specified  than  by  the  statement  that  "he  took 
six  hundred  chosen  chariots,  and  [or  'even'] 
all  the  chariots  of  Egypt,  and  captains  over 
every  one  of  them"  (Ex.  xiv.  7).  With  this 
army,  which,  even  if  a  small  one,  was  mighty 
in  comparison  to  the  Israeli,te  multitude,  en- 
cumbered with  women,  chiklren,  and  cattle, 
Pharaoh  overtook  the  people  "encamping  by 


335 


REED 


REHOBOAM 


the  sea"  (9).  When  the  Israelites  saw  the  op- 
pressor's army  they  were  terrified  and  mur- 
mured against  Moses.  Then  Moses  encour- 
aged them,  bidding  them  see  how  God  would 
save  them.  That  night  the  two  armies,  the 
fugitives  and  the  pursuers,  were  encamped 
near  together.  Between  them  was  the  pillar 
of  the  cloud,  darkness  to  the  Egyptians  and  a 
light  to  the  Israelites.  The  time  was  now 
come  for  the  great  decisive  miracle  of  the 
Exodus.  "And  Moses  stretched  out  his  hand 
over  the  sea :  and  the  Lord  caused  the  sea  to 
go  [back]  by  a  strong  east  wind  all  that  night, 
and  made  the  sea  dry  [land],  and  the  waters 
were  divided.  And  the  children  of  Israel  went 
through  the  midst  of  the  sea  upon  the  dry 
[ground]  :  and  the  waters  [were]  a  wall  unto 
them  on  their  right  hand  and  on  their  left" 
(21,  22,  comp.  29).  The  narrative  distinctly 
states  that  a  path  was  made  through  the  sea, 
and  that  •  the  waters  were  a  wall  on  either 
hand.  The  term  "wall"  does  not  appear  to 
oblige  us  to  suppose,  as  many  have  done,  that 
the  sea  stood  up  like  a  clif¥  on  either  side,  but 
should  rather  be  considered  to  mean  a  barrier, 
as  the  former  idea  implies  a  seemingly  need- 
less addition  to  the  miracle,  while  the  latter 
seems  to  be  not  discordant  with  the  language 
of  the  narrative.  It  was  during  the  night  that 
the  Israelites  crossed,  and  the  Egyptians  fol- 
lowed. In  the  morning  watch,  the  last  third 
or  fourth  of  the  night,  or  the  period  before 
sunrise,  Pharaoh's  army  was  in  full  pursuit 
in  the  divided  sea,  and  was  there  miraculously 
troubled,  so  that  the  Egyptians  sought  to  flee 
(23-25).  Then  was  Moses  commanded  again 
to  stretch  out  his  hand,  and  the  sea  returned 
to  its  strength,  and  overwhelmed  the  Egyp- 
tians, of  whom  not  one  remained  alive  (26-28). 

Reed.  Under  this  name  may  be  noticed  the 
following  Hebrew  words:  i.  Agmon  occurs 
Job.  xl.  26  (A.  V.  xli.  2,  "hook"),  xl.  12  (A.  V. 
xli.  20,  "caldron")  ;  Is.  ix.  14  (A.  V.  "rush"). 
The  agmon  is  mentioned  also  as  an  Egyptian 
plant,  in  a  sentence  similar  to  the  last,  in  Is. 
xix.  15;  while  from  Iviii.  5  we  learn  that  it  had 
a  pendulous  panicle.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  denotes  some  aquatic  reed-like  plant. 
2.  Gome,  translated  "rush"  and  "bulrush"  by 
the  A.  v.,  without  doubt  denotes  the  cele- 
brated paper-reed  of  the  ancients,  which 
formerly  was  common  in  some  parts  of  Egypt. 
The  Hebrew  word  is  found  four  times  in  the 
Bible  (Ex.  ii.  3;  Is.  xviii.  2,  xxxv.  7;  Job  viii. 
11).  The  papyrus  reed  is  not  now  found  in 
Egypt ;  it  grows,  however,  in  Syria.  The 
papyrus  plant  has  an  angular  stem  from  3  to 
6  feet  high,  though  occasionally  it  grows  to 
the  height  of  14  feet ;  it  has  no  leaves ;  the 


flowers  are  in  very  small  spikelets,  which 
grow  on  the  thread-like  flowering  branchlets 
which  form  a  bushy  crown  to  each  stem. — 3. 
'Aroth  is  translated  "paper-reed"  in  Is.  xix.  7; 
l)ut  there  is  not  the  slightest  authority  for  this 


Papyrus  Reed. 

rendering  of  the  A-  V.  It  probably  denotes 
the  open  grassv  land  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile. 

Refiner.  The  refiner's  art  was  essential  to 
the  working  of  the  precious  metals.  It  con- 
sisted in  the  separation  of  the  dross  from  the 
pure  ore,  Avhich  was  effected  by  reducing  the 
metal  to  a  fluid  state  by  the  application  of 
heat,  and  by  the  aid  of  solvents,  such  as  alkali 
(Is.  i;  25)  or  lead  (Jer.  vi.  29),  which,  amalga- 
mating with  the  dross,  permitted  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  unadulterated  metal.  The  instru- 
ments required  by  the  refiner  were  a  crucible 
or  furnace,  and  a  bellows  or  blow-pipe.  The 
workman  sat  at  his  work  (Mai.  iii.  3)  :  he  was 
thus  better  enabled  to  watch  the  process,  and 
let  the  metal  run  off  at  the  proper  moment. 
Refuge,  Cities  of.  [Cities  of  Refuge.] 
Rehobo'am,  son  of  Solomon,  by  the  Am- 
monite princess  Naamah  (i  K.  xiv.  21,  31), 
and  his  successor  (i  K.  xi.  43).  From  the 
earliest  period  of  Jewish  history  we  perceive 
symptoms  that  the  confederation  of  the  tribes 
was  but  imperfectlv  cemented.  The  powerful 
Eph  raim  could  never  brook  a  position  of  -in- 
feriority.   When  Solomon's  strong  hand  was 


.336 


REHOBOAM 


REUBEN 


vu. (drawn  the  crisis  came.  Rehoboam  se 
lected  Shechem  as  the  place  of  his  coronation, 
probably  as  an  act  of  concession  to  the  Eph- 
raimites.  The  people  demanded  a  remission 
of  the  severe  burdens  imposed  by  Solomon, 
and  Rehoboam  promised  them  an  answer  in 
three  days,  during  which  time  he  consulted 
first  his  father's  counsellors,  and  then  the 
^•oung  men  '"that  were  grown  up  with  him, 
and  which  stood  before  him."  Rejecting  the 
advice  of  the  elders  to  conciliate  the  people 
at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  he  returned  as 
his  reply  the  frantic  bravado  of  his  contem 
poraries.  Thereupon  rose  the  formidable  song 
of  insurrection,  heard  once  before,  when  the 
tribes  quarrelled  after  David's  return  from 
the  war  with  Absalom.  Rehoboam  sent  Adoram 
or  Adoniram  (i  K.  iv.  6;  2  Sam.  xx.  24)  to 
reduce  the  rebels  to  reason,  but  he  was  stoned 
to  death  by  them ;  whereupon  the  king  and 
his  attendants  fled  to  Jerusalem.  Jeroboam 
was  made  king  of  the  northern  tribes.  [Jero 


Rehobonm  from  Scripture  at  Karnak. 


boam.]  On  Rehoboam's  return  to  Jerusalem 
he  assembled  an  army  of  180,000  men  from 
the  two  faithful  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
in  the  hope  of  reconquering  Israel.  The  ex- 
pedition, however,  was  forbidden  by  the 
prophet  Shemaiah  (i  K.  xii.  24)  :  still  during 
Rehoboam's  lifetime  peaceful  relations  between 
Israel  and  Judah  were  never  restored  (2  Chr. 
xii.  1-5;  I  K.  xiv.  30).  Reheboam  now  occu- 
pied himself  in  strengthening  the  territories 
which  remained  to  him,  by  building  a  number 
of  fortresses  (2  Chr.  xi.  6-10).  The  pure  wor- 
ship of  God  was  maintained  in  Judah.  But 
Rehoboam  did  not  check  the  introduction  of 
heathen  abominations  into  his  capital;  the 
lascivious  worship  of  Ashtoreth  was  allowed 
to 'exist  by  the  side  of  the  true  religion, 
"images"  were  set  up,  and  the  worst  immor- 
alities were  tolerated  (i  K.  xiv.  22-24).  These 
evils  were  punished  and  put  down  by  the  ter- 

337 


rible  calamity  of  an  Egyptian  invasion.  In 
the  5th  year  of  Rehoboam's  reign  the  country 
was  invaded  by  a  host  of  Egyptians  and  other 
African  nations  under  Shishak,  numbering 
1,200  chariots,  60,000  cavalry,  and  a  miscel- 
laneous multitude  of  infantry.  The  line  of 
fortresses  which  protected  Jerusalem  to  the 
W.  and  S.  was  forced,  Jerusalem  itself  was 
taken,  and  Reheboam  had  to  purchase  an 
ignominious  peace  by  delivering  up  all  the 
treasures  with  which  Solomon  had  adorned 
the  temple  and  palace,  including  his  golden 
shields,  200  of  the  larger,  and  300  of  the 
smaller  size  (i  K.  x.  16,  17).  After  this  great 
humiliation  the  moral  condition  of  Judah 
seems  to  have  improved  (2  Chr.  xii.  12),  and 
the  rest  of  Rehoboam's  life  to  have  been  un- 
marked by  any  events  of  importance.  He 
died  B.  C.  958,  after  a  reign  of  17  years,  hav- 
ing ascended  the  throne  B.  C.  975,  at  the  age 
of  41  (i  K.  xiv.  21;  2  Chr.  xii.  13).  He  had 
18  wives,  60  concubines,  28  sons,  an-d  60 
daughters. 

Reph'aim,  The  Valley  of,  2  Sam.  v.  18.  22, 
xxiii.  13;  I  Chr.  xi.  15,  xiv.  9;  Is.  xvii.  5.  Also 
in  Josh.  XV.  8,  and  xviii.  16,  where  it  is  trans- 
lated in  the  A.  V.  "the  valley  of  the  giants." 
A  spot  which  was  the  scene  of  some  of  David's 
most  remarkable  adventures.  He  twice  en- 
countered the  Philistines  there,  and  inflicted 
a  destruction  on  them  and  on  their  idols  so 
signal  that  it  gave  the  place  a  new  name.  It 
was  probably  during  the  former  of  these  two 
contests  that  the  incident  of  the  water  of 
Bethlehem  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  13,  &c.)  occurred. 
The  "hold"  (ver.  14)  in  which  David  found 
himself,  seems  (though  it  is  not  clear)  to 
have  been  the  cave  of  Adullam.  This  nar- 
rative seems  to  imply  ,  that  the  valley  of  Rep- 
haim  was  near  Bethlehem.  Josephus  mentions 
it  as  "the  valley  which  extends  (from  Jeru- 
salem) to  the  city  of  Bethlehem."  Since  the 
latter  part  of  the  i6th  century  the  name  has 
been  attached  to  the  upland  plain  which 
stretches  south  of  Jerusalem,  and  is  crossed 
by  the  road  to  Bethlehem — the  el  Bnk'ah  of 
the  modern  Arabs.  [Giants.] 

Reu'ben  (Behold  a  son).  Jacob's  first  born 
child  (Gen.  xxix.  32),  the  son  of  Leah.  The 
notices  of  the  patriarch  Reuben  in  the  Book 
of  Genesis  and  the  early  Jewish  traditional 
literature  are  unusually  frequent,  and  on  the 
whole  give  a  favorable  view  of  his  disposition. 
To  him,  and  him  alone,  the  preservation  of 
Joseph's  life  appears  to  have  been  due.  Of 
the  repulsive  crime  which  mars  his  history, 
and  which  turned  the  blessing  of  his  dying 
father  into  a  curse — his  adulterous  connection 
with  Bilhah — we  know  from  the  Scriptures 


REUBEN 

only  the  fact  (Gen.  xxxv.  22).  These  traits 
are  those  of  an  ardent,  impetuous,  unbalanced, 
but  not  ungenerous  nature ;  not  crafty  and 
cruel,  as  were  Simeon  and  Levi,  but  rather, 
to  use  the  metaphor  of  the  dying  patriarch, 
boiling  up  like  a  vessel  of  water  over  the  rapid 
wood-fire  of  the  nomad  tent,  and  as  quickly 
subsiding  into  apathy  when  the  fuel  was  with- 
drawn. At  the  time  of  the  migration  into 
Egypt,  Reuben's  sons  were  four  (Gen.  xlvi.  9; 
I  Chr.  V.  3).  The  census  at  Mount  Sinai 
(Num.  i.  20,  21,  ii.  11)  shows  that  at  the  Ex- 
odus the  numbers  of  the  tribe  were  46,500  men 
above  twenty  years  of  age,  and  fit  for  active 
war-like  service.  The  Reubenites,  like  their 
relatives  and  neighbors  on  -  the  journey,  the 
Gadites,  had  maintained,  through  the  march 
to  Canaan,  the  ancient  calling  of  their  fore- 
fathers. Their  cattle  accompanied  them  in  their 
flight  from  Egypt  (Ex.  xii.  38).  It  followed 
naturally  that  when  the  nation  arrived  on  the 
open  downs  east  of  the  Jordan,  the  three 
tribes  of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half  of  Man- 
asseh,  should  prefer  a  request  to  their  leader 
to  be  allowed  to  remain  in  a  place  so  perfectly 
suited  to  their  requirements.  Accordingly, 
when  the  Reubenites  and  their  fellows  ap- 
proach Moses  with  their  request,  his  main 
objection  is  that  by  what  they  propose  they 
will  discourage  the  hearts  of  the  children  of 
Israel  from  going  over  Jordan  into  the  land 
which  Jehovah  had  given  them  (Num.  xxxii. 
7).  It  is  only  on  their  undertaking  to  fulfil 
their  part  in  the  conquest  of  the  western  coun- 
try, the  land  of  Canaan  proper,  that  Moses 
will  consent  to  their  proposal.  From  this  time 
it  seems  as  if  a  bar,  not  only  the  material  one 
of  distance,  and  of  the  intervening  river  and 
mountain  wall,  but  also  of  difference  in  feel- 
ing and  habits,  gradually  grew  up  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  tribes.  No  judge,  no 
prophet,  no  hero  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  is 
handed  down  to  us.  In  the  dire  extremity  of 
their  brethren  in  the  north  under  Deborah 
and  Barak,  they  contented  themselves  with 
debating  the  news  amongst  the  streams  of  the 
Mishor;  the  distant  distress  of  his  brethren 
could  not  move  Reuben ;  he  lingered  among 
his  sheepfolds,  and  preferred  the  shepherd's 
pipe  and  the  bleating  of  the  flocks  to  the 
clamor  of  the  trumpet  and  the  turmoil  of  bat- 
tic.  His  individuality  fades  more  rapidly  than 
Gad's.  No  person,  no  incident,  is  recorded, 
to  place  Reuben  before  us  in  any  distincter 
form  than  as  a  member  of  the  community  (if 
community  it  can  be  called)  of  "the  Reuben- 
ites, the  Gadites,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Man- 
asseh"  (i  Chr.  xii.  37).  Being  remote  from 
the  central  seat  of  the  national  government 


REVELATION  OF  ST  JOHN 

and  of  the  national  religion,  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  Reuben  relinquished  the 
faith  of  Jehovah.  The  last  historical  notice 
which  we  possess  of  them,  while  it  record.s 
this  fact,  records  also  as  its  natural  conse- 
quence that  the  Reubenites  and  Gadites,  and 
the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  were  carried  off. 
by  Pul  and  Tiglath-Pileser  (i  Chr.  v.  26). 

Revelation  of  St.  John,  the  last  book  of  the 
N.  T.  It  is  often  called  the  Apocalypse,  which 
is  its  title  in  Greek,  signifying  "Revelation." 
The  question  as  to  the  canonical  authority  of 
the  Revelation  resolves  itself  into  a  question 
of  authorship.  Was  St.  John  the  Apostle  and 
Evangelist  the  writer  of  the  Revelation?  The 
evidence  adduced  in  support  of  his  being  the 
authQr  consists  of  (i)  the  assertions  of  the 
author,  and  (2)  historical  tradition.  The 
author's  description  of  himself  in  the  ist  and 
22d  chapters  is  certainly  equivalent  to  an  as- 
sertion that  he  is  the  Apostle.  He  names 
himself  simply  John,  without  prefix  or  addi- 
tion. He  is  also  described  as  a  servant  of 
Christ,  one  who  had  borne  testimony  as  an 
eye-witness  of  the  word  of  God  and  of  the 
testimony  of  Christ — terms  which  were  surely 
designed  to  identify  him  with  the  wj-iter  of  the 
verses  John  xix.  35,  i.  14,  and  i  John  i.  2.  He 
is  in  Patmos  for  the  word  of  God  and  the 
testimony  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  is  also  a  fel- 
low-sufferer with  those  whom  he  addresses, 
and  the  authorized  channel  of  the  most  direct 
and  important  communication  that  was  ever 
made  to  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  of  which 
churches  John  the  Apostle  was  at  that  time 
the  spiritual  governor  and  teacher.  Lastly, 
the  writer  was  a  fellow-servant  of  angels  and 
a  brother  of  prophets.  All  these  marks  are 
found  united  together  in  the  Apostle  John, 
and  in  him  alone  of  all  historical  persons.  A 
long  series  of  writers  testifies  to  St.  John's 
authorship.  Justin  Martyr  sa3'S :  "A  man 
among  us  whose  name  was  John,  one  of  the 
Apostles  of  Christ,  in  a  revelation  which  was 
made  to  him,  prophesied  that  the  believers  in 
our  Christ  shall  live  a  thousand  years  in  Jeru- 
salem." Irenaeus  apparently  never  having 
heard  a  suggestion  of  any  other  author  than 
the  Apostle,  often  quotes  the  Revelation  as 
the  work  of  John.  The  testimony  of  Irenaeus 
as  to  the  authorship  of  Revelation  is  perhaps 
more  important  than  that  of  any  other  writer. 
Apollonius  of  Ephesus,  in  controversy  with 
the  IMontanists  of  Phrygia,  quoted  passages 
out  of  the  Revelation  of  John,  and  narrated  a 
miracle  wrought  by  John  at  Ephesus.  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  quotes  the  book  as  the 
Revelation  of  John,  and  as  the  work  of  an 
Apostle.     Tertullian,  in  at  least  one  place, 


338 


THE  IIBBARY 
OF  THE 


RE\  ELATIOX  OF  ST  JOHN 


RIDDLE 


quotes  by  name  "the  Apostle  John  in  the 
Apocalypse."  Origen,  in  his  Commentary  on 
St.  John,  quoted  by  Eusebius,  says  of  the 
Apostle,  "He  wrote  also  the  Revelation."  The 
testimonies  of  later  writers,  in  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries,  in  favor  of  St.  John's  author- 
ship of  the  Revelation,  are  equally  distinct, 
and  far  more  numerous.  The  date  of  the 
Revelation  is  given  by  the  great  majority  of 
critics  as  A.  D.  95-97.  Irenaeus  says:  "It 
(i.  e.  the  Revelation)  was  seen  no  very  long 
time  ago,  but  almost  in  our  own  generation,  at 
the  close  of  Domitian's  reign."  Eusebius  also 
records  that,  in  the  persecution  under  Dom- 
itian,  John  the  Apostle  and  Evangelist  was 
banished  to  the  island  Patmos  for  his  testi- 
mony of  the  divine  word.  It  has  been  inferred 
from  i.  2,  9,  10,  that  the  Revelation  was  writ- 
ten in  Ephesus,  immediately  after  the  Apos- 
tle's return  from  Patmos.  But  the  style  in 
which  the  passages  tp  the  Seven  Churches 
are  delivered  rather  suggests  the  notion  that 
the  book  was  written  in  Patmos.  A  short 
account  of  the  different  directions  in  which 
attempts  have  been  made  to  interpret  the 
Revelation,  is  all  that  can  be  given  in  this 
place.  In  the  interval  between  the  Apostolic 
age  and  that  of  Constantine  the  visions  of  St. 
John  were  chiefly  regarded  as  representations 
of  general  Christian  truths,  scarcely  yet  em- 
bodied in  actual  facts,  for  the  most  part  to 
be  e.xemplified  or  fulfilled  in  the  reign  of  Anti- 
christ, the  coming  of  Christ,  the  millennium, 
and  the  day  of  judgment.  Immediately  after 
the  triumph  of  Constantine,  the  Christians, 
emancipated  from  oppression  and  persecution, 
and  dominant  and  prosperous  in  their  turn, 
began  to  lose  their  vivid  expectation  of  our 
Lord's  speedy  Advent,  and  their  spiritual  con- 
ception of  His  kingdom,  and  to  look  upon  the 
temporal  supremacy  of  Christianity  as  a  ful- 
filment of  the  promised  reign  of  Christ  on 
earth.  The  Roman  empire  become  Christian 
was  regarded  no  longer  as  the  object  of  pro- 
phetic denunciation,  but  as  the  scene  of  the 
millennial  development.  This  view,  however, 
was  soon  met  by  the  figurative  interpretation 
of  the  millennium  as  the  reign  of  Christ  in  the 
hearts  of  all  true  believers.  As  the  barbarous 
and  heretical  invaders  of  the  falling  empire 
appeared,  they  were  regarded  by  the  suffering 
Christians  as  fulfilling  the  woes  denounced  in 
the  Revelation.  IModern  interpreters  are  gen- 
erally placed  in  three  great  divisions,  a.  The 
Historical  or  Continuous  expositors,  in  who.se 
opinion  the  Revelation  is  a  progressive  history 
of  the  fortunes  of  the  Church  from  the  first 
century  to  the  end  of  time.  b.  The  Praeterist 
expositors,  who  are  of  opinion  that  the  Reve- 


lation has  been  almost,  or  altogether,  fulfilled 
in  the  time  which  has  passed  since  it  was 
written ;  that  it  refers  principally  to  the  tri- 
umph of  Christianity  over  Judaism  and  Pagan- 
ism, signalized  in  the  downfall  of  Jerusalem 
and  of  Rome.  c.  The  Futurist  expositors, 
whose  views  show  a  strong  reaction  against 
some  extravagances  of  the  two  preceding 
schools.  They  believe  that  the  whole  book, 
excepting  perhaps  the  first  three  chapters, 
refers  principally,  if  not  exclusively,  to  events 
which  are  yet  to  come. 

Rhodes.  The  history  of  this  island  is  so 
illustrious  that  it  is  interesting  to  see  it  con- 
nected, even  in  a  small  degree,  with  the  life 
of  St.  Paul.  He  touched  at  this  island  on  his 
return  voyage  to  Syria  from  the  third  mission-" 
ary  journey  (Acts  xxi.  i).  Rhodes  -is  imme- 
diately opposite  the  high  Carian  and  Lycian 
headlands  at  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Asia  Minor.  Its  position  has  had 
much  to  do  with  its  history.  Its  real  eminence 
began  (about  400  B.  C.)  with  the  founding 
of  that  city  at  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  the 
island,  which  still  continues  to  be  the  capital. 


Didrachm  of  Rhodes. 


After  Alexander's  death  it  entered  on  a  glori- 
ous period,  its  material  prosperity  being  large- 
ly cleveloped,  and  its  institutions  deserving 
and  obtaining  general  esteem.  As  we  ap- 
proach the  time  of  the  consolidation  of  the 
Roman  power  in  the  Levant,  we  have  a  notice 
of  the  Jewish  residents  in  Rhodes  (i  Mace. 
XV.  23).  The  Romans,  after  the  defeat  of 
Antiochus,  assigned,  during  some  time,  to 
Rhodes  certain  districts  on  the  mainland.  Its 
Byzantine  history  is  again  eminent.  Under 
Constantine  it  was  the  metropolis  of  the 
"Province  of  the  Islands."  It  was  the  last 
place  where  the  Christians  of  the  East  held 
out  against  the  advancing  Saracens ;  and  sub- 
sequently it  was  once  more  famous  as  the 
home  and  fortress  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John. 

Riddle.  The  Hebrew  word  is  derived  from 
an  Arabic  root  meaning  "to  bend  off,"  "to 
twTst"  (Judg.  xiv.  12-19),  and  is  used  for  arti- 
fice (Dan.  viii.  23),  a  proverb  (Prov.  i.  6),  a 
song  (Ps.  xlix.  4,  Ixxviii.  2),  an  oracle  (Num. 
xii.  8),  a  parable  (Ez.  xvii.  2),  and  in  general 
any  wise  or  intricate  sentence  (Ps.  xciv.  4; 
Hab.  ii,  6,  &c.).  The  riddles  which  the  queen  of 


339 


RING 


RIZPAH 


Sheba  came  to  ask  of  Solomon  (i  K.  x.  i ;  2 
Chr.  ix.  i)  were  rather  "hard  questions"  refer- 
ring to  profound  inquiries.  Solomon  is  said, 
however,  to  have  been  very  fond  of  riddles. 
We  know  that  all  ancient  nations,  and  espe- 
cially Orientals,  have  been  fond  of  riddles. 
We  find  traces  of  the  custom  among  the 
Arabs  (Koran  xxv.  35),  and  indeed  several 
Arabic  books  of  riddles  exist ;  but  these  are 
rather  emblems  and  devices  than  what  we  call 
riddles,  although  they'  are  very  ingenious. 
They  were  also  known  to  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, and  were  especially  used  in  banquets 
both  by  Greeks  and  Romans.  Riddles  were 
generally  proposed  in  verse,  like  the  celebrated 
riddle  of  Samson,  which;  however,  was  prop- 
-erly  no  riddle  at  all,  because  the  Philistines 
did  not  possess  the  only  clew  on  which  the 
solution  could  depend. 

Ring.  The  ring  was  fegarded  as  an  indis- 
pensable article  of  a  Hebrew's  attire,  inas- 
much as  it  contained  his  signet.  It  was  hence 
the  symbol  of  authority,  and  as  such  was  pre- 
sented by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  .42), 
and  by  Ahasuerus  to  Haman  (Esth.  iii.  10). 
Such  rings  were  worn  not  only  by  men,  but 
by  women  (Is.  iii.  21),  and  are  enumerated 


Rings  and  Signets. 


among  the  articles  presented  by  men  and 
women  for  the  service  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex. 
XXXV.  22).  The  signet-ring  was  worn  on  the 
right  hand  (Jer.  xxii.  24).  We  may  conclude 
from  Ex.  xxviii.  li  that  the  rings  contained 
a  stone  engraven  with  a  device,  or  with  the 
owner's  name.  The  custom  appears  also  to 
have  prevailed  among  the  Jews  of  the  Apos- 
tolic age ;  for  in  James  ii.  2,  a  rich  man  is  de- 
scribed as  not  simply  "with  a  gold  ring,"  as 
in  the  A.  V.,  but  "golden-ringed." 

River,  In  the  sense  in  which  wc  employ 
the  word,  viz.  for  a  perennial  stream  of  con- 


siderable size,  a  river  is  a  much  rarer  object 
in  the  East  than  in  the  West.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Jordan  and  the  Litany,  the 
streams  of  the  Holy  Land  are  either  entirely 
dried  up  in  the  summer  months,  and  con- 
verted into  hot  lanes  of  glaring  stones,  or  else 
reduced  to  very  small  streamlets,  deeply  sunk 
in  a  narrow  bed,  and  concealed  from  view  by 
a  dense  growth  of  shrubs.  The  perennial  river 
is  called  Nahar  by  the  Hebrews.  With  the 
definite  article,  "the  river,"  it  signifies  in- 
variably the  Euphrates  (Gen.  xxxi.  21 ;  Ex. 
xxiii.  31;  Num.  xxiv.  6;  2  Sam.  x.  16,  &c., 


Egyptian  Weighing  Kings  for  Money.    (See  Money.) 

&c.).  It  is  never  applied  to  the  fleeting  fugi- 
tive torrents  of  Palestine.  The  term  for  these 
is  nachal,  for  which  our  translators  have  used 
promiscuously,  and  sometimes  almost  altern- 
ately, "valley,"  "brook,"  and  "river."  No  one 
of  these  words  expresses  the  thing  intended ; 
but  the  term  "brook"  is  peculiarly  unhappy. 
Many  of  the  waidys  of  Palestine  are  deep, 
abrupt  chasms  or  rents  in  the  solid  rock  of 
the  hills,  and  have  a  savage,  gloomy  aspect, 
far  removed  from  that  of  an  American  brook. 
Unfortunately  our  language  does  not  contain 
any  single  word  which  has  both  the  meanings 
of  the  Hebrew  Nachal  and  its  Arabic  equiva- 
lent Avady,  which  can  be  used  at  once  for  a 
dry  valley  and  for  the  stream  which  occasion- 
ally flows  through  it. 

Riz'pah,  concubine  to  king  Saul,  and  mother 
of  his  tvv'O  sons  Armoni  and  Mephibosheth. 
After  the  death  of  Saul  and  occupation  of  the 
coitntry  west  of  the  Jordan  by  the  Philistines, 
Rizpah  accompanied  the  other  members  of  the 
royal  family  to  their  new  residence  at  Mahan- 
aim  (2  Sam.  iii.  7).  W^e  hear  nothing  more  of 
Rizpah  till  the  tragic  story  which  has  made 
her  one  of  the  most  familiar  objects  in  the 
whole  Bible  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8-1 1).  Every  one 
can  appreciate  the  love  and  endurance  with 
Avhich  the  mother  watched  over  the  bodies  of 


340 


THE  IIPRABy 


ROBBERY 


ROMAN  EMPIRE 


her  two  sons  and  her  five  relatives,  to  save 
them  from  an  indignity  peculiarly  painful  to 
the  whole  of  the  ancient  world  (see  Ps.  Ixxix. 
2).  But  it  is  questionable  whether  the  ordi- 
nary conception  of  the  scene  is  accurate.  The 
seven  victims  were  not,  as  the  A.  V.  implies, 
"hung;"  they  were  crucified.  The  seven 
crosses  were  planted  in  the  rock  on  the  top 
of  the  sacred  hill  of  Gibeah.  The  victims  were 
sacrificed  at  the  beginning  of  barley  harvest, 
— the  sacred  and  festal  time  of  the  Passover, — 
and  in  the  full  blaze  of  the  summer  sun  they 
hung  till  the  fall  of  the  periodical  rain  in 
October.  During  the  whole  of  that  time  Riz- 
pah  remained  at  the  foot  of  the  crosses  on 
which  the  bodies  of  her  sons  were  exposed ; 
the  Mater  dolorosa,  if  the  expression  may  be 
allowed,  of  the  ancient  dispensation. 

Robbery.  A\'hether  in  the  larger  sense  of 
plunder,  or  the  more  limited  sense  of  theft, 
systematically  organized,  robbery  has  ever 
been  one  of  the  principal  employments  of  the 
nomad  tribes  of  the  East.  From  the  time  of 
Ishmael  to  the  present  day  the  Bedouin  has 
been  a  "wild  man,"  and  a .  robber  by  trade 
(Gen.  xvi.  12).  The  ^Mosaic  law  on  the  sub- 
ject of  theft  is  contained  in  Ex.  xxii.  There 
seems  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  law 
underwent  any  alteration  in  Solomon's  time. 
Man-stealing  was  punishable  with  death  (Ex. 
xxi.  16;  Deut.  xxiv.  7).  Invasion  of  right  in 
land  was  strictly  forbidden  (Deut.  xxvii.  17 ; 
Is.  V.  8;  Mic.  ii.  2). 

Roe,  Roebuck.  The  Hebrew  words  thus 
translated  denote  some  species  of  antelope. 
The  gazelle  was  allowed  as  food  (Deut.  xii. 


The  wild  Koe. 

15,  22,  &c.) ;  it  is  mentioned  as  very  fleet  of 
foot  (2  Sam.  ii.  18;  i  Chr.  xii.  8);  it  was 
hunted  (Is.  xiii.  14;  Prov.  vi.  5)  ;  it  was  cele- 
brated for  its  loveliness  (Cant.  ii.  9,  17,  viii. 
H). 

Roll.  A  book  in  ancient  times  consisted  of 
a  single  long  strip  of  paper  or  parchment. 


which  was  usually  kept  rolled  up  on  a  stick, 
and  was  unrolled  when  a  person  wished  to 
read  it.  The  roll  was  usually  written  on  one 
side  only,  and  hence  the  particular  notice  of 
one  that  was  "written  within  and  without" 
(Ez.  ii.  10).   The  writing  was  arranged  in  col- 


RoU. 


umns.  We  may  here  add  that  the  term  in  Is. 
viii.  I,  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "roll,"  more  cor- 
rectly means  tablet. 

Roman  Empire.  The  first  historic  mention 
of  Rome  in  the  Bible  is  in  I  Mace.  i.  10. 
About  the  year  161  B.  C.  Judas  Maccabaeus 
heard  of  the  Romans  as  the  conquerors  of 
Philip,  Perseus,  and  Antiochus  (i  Mace.  viii. 
5,  6).  In  order  to  strengthen  himself  against 
Demetrius  king  of  Syria  he  sent  ambassadors 
to  Rome  (viii.  17),  and  concluded  a  defensive 
alliance  with  the  senate  (viii.  22-32).  This 
was  renewed  by  Jonathan  (xii.  i)  and  by 
Simon  (jcv.  17).  In  the  year  65  B.  C.,  when 
Syria  was  made  a  Roman  province  by  Pom- 
pey,  the  Jews  were  still  governed  by  one  of 
the  Asmonaean  princes.  Aristobulus  had 
lately  driven  his  brother  Hyrcanus  from  the 
chief  priesthood,  and  was  now  in  his  turn  at- 
tacked by  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia  Petraea,  the 
ally  of  Hyrcanus.  Pompey's  lieutenant,  M. 
Aemilius  Scaurus,  interfered  in  the  contest 
B.  C.  64,  and  the  next  year  Pompey  himself 
marched  an  army  into  Judaea  and  took  Jeru- 
salem. From  this  time  the  Jews  were  prac- 
tically under  the  government  of  Rome.  Hyr- 
canus retained  the  high-priesthood  and  a  titu- 
lar sovereignty,  subject  to  the  watchful  con- 
trol of  his  minister  Antipater,  an  active  parti- 
san of  the  Roman  interests.  Finally,  Anti- 
pater's  son,  Herod  the  Great,  was  made  king 
by  Antony's  interest,  B.  C.  40,  and  confirmed 
in  the  kingdom  by  Augustus,  B.  C.  30.  The 
Jews,  however,  were  all  this  time  tributaries 
of  Rome,  and  their  princes  in  reality  were 
mcje  Roman  procurators.   On  the  banishment 


341 


ROMAN  EMPIRE 


ROMANS,  EPISTLE  OF  THE 


of  Archelaus,  A,  D,  6,  Judaea  became  a  mere 
apjjenclage  of  the  province  of  Syria,  and  was 
governed  by  a  Roman  procurator,  who  resided 
at  Caesarea.  Such  were  the  rchitions  of  the 
Jewish  people  to  the  Roman  government  at 
the  time  when  the  N.  T.  history  begins. 
Cicero's  description  of  the  Greek  states  and 
colonies  as  a  "fringe  on  the  skirts  of  barbar- 
ism," has  been  well  applied  to  the  Roman 
dominions  before  the  conquests  of  Pompey 
and  Caesar.  The  Roman  Empire  was  still 
confined  to  a  narrow  strip  encircling  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  Pompey  added  Asia  Minor 
and  Syria.  Caesar  added  Gaul.  The  generals 
of  7\ugustus  overran  the  N.  W.  portion  of 
Spain,  and  the  country  between  the  Alps  and 
the  Danube.  The  boundaries  of  the  Empire 
were,  now,  the  Atlantic  on  the  W.,  the  Eu- 
phrates on  the  E.,  the  deserts  of  Africa,  the 
cataracts  of  the  Nile,  and  the  Arabian  deserts 
on  the  S.,  the  British  Channel,  the  Rhine,  the 
Danube,  and  the  Black  Sea  on  the  N.  The 
only  subsequent  conquests  of  importance  were 
those  of  Britain  by  Claudius  and  of  Dacia  by 
Trajan.  The  only  independent  powers  of  im- 
portance were  the  Parthians  on  the  E.  and  the 
Germans  on  the  N.  The  population  of  the 
Empire  in  the  time  of  Augustus  has  been  cal- 
culated at  85,000,000.  The  provinces  were 
heavil}'  taxed  for  the  benefit  of  Rome  and  her 
citizens.  They  are  said  to  have  been  better 
governed  under  the  Empire  than  under  the 
Commonwealth,  arid  those  of  the  Emp,eror 
better  than  those  of  the  Senate.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  Roman  Empire  at  the  time  when 
Christianity  appeared  has  often  been  dwelt 
upon,  as  afl:ording  obvious  illustrations  of  St. 
Paul's  expression,  that  the  "fulness  of  time 
had  come"  (Gal.  iv.  4).  The  general  peace 
within  the  limits  of  the  Empire,  the  forma- 
tion of  military  roads,  the  suppression  of 
piracy,  the  march  of  the  legions,  the  voyages 
of  the  corn  fleets,  the  general  increase  of 
traffic,  the  spread  of  the  Latin  language  in 
the  West  as  Greek  had  already  spread  in  the 
East,  the  external  unity  of  the  Empire,  offered 
facilities  hitherto  unknown  for  the  spread  of 
a  world-wide  religion.  The  tendency,  too,  of 
a  despotism  like  that  of  the  Roman  Empire 
to  reduce  all  its  subjects  to  a  dead  level,  was 
a  powerful  instrument  in  breaking  down  the 
pride  of  the  privileged  races  and  national  reli- 
gions, and  familiarizing  men  with  the  truth 
that  "God  had  made  of  one  blood  all  nations 
on  the  face  of  the  earth"  (Acts  xvii.  24,  26). 
But  still  more  striking  than  this  outward 
l^reparation  for  the  diffusion  of  the  Gospel  was 
the  appearance  of  a  deep  and  wide-spread  cor- 
ruption, which  seemed  to  defy  any  human 


remedy.  The  chief  prophetic  notices  of  the 
Roman  Empire ,  are  found  in  the  Book  of 
Daniel.  According  to  some  interpreters  the 
Romans  are  intended  in  Deut.  xxviii.  49-57. 

Romans,  Epistle  to  the.  The  date  of  this 
Epistle  is  fixed  at  the  time  of  the  visit  re- 
corded in  Acts  XX.  3.  The  place  of  writing 
was  Corinth.  The  Origin  of  the  Roman 
Church  is  involved  in  obscurity.  If  it  had 
been  founded  by  St.  Peter,  according  to  a 
later  tradition,  the  absence  of  any  allusion  to 
him  both  in  this  Epistle  and  in  the  letters 
written  by  St.  Paul  from  Rome  would  admit 
of  no  explanation.  It  is  equally  clear  that  no 
other  Apostle  was  the  Founder.  The  state- 
ment in  the  Clementines  that  the  first  tidings 
of  the  Gospel  reached  Rome  during  the.  life- 
time of  our  Lord,  is  evidently  a  fiction  for  the 
purposes  of  romance.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
clear  that  the  foundation  of  this  Church  dates 
very  far  back.  It  may  be  that  scime  of  these 
Romans,  "both  Jews  and  proselytes,"  present 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  10),  carried 
back  the  earliest  tidings  of  the  new  doctrine, 
or  the  Gospel  may  have  first  reached  the  im- 
perial city  through  those  who  were  scattered 
abroad  to  escape  the  persecution  which  fol- 
lowed on  the  death  of  Stephen  (Acts  viii.  4, 
xi.  19).  At  first  we  may  suppose  that  the 
Gospel  was  preached  there  in  a  confused  and 
imperfect  form,  scarcely  more  than  a  phase  of 
Judaism,  as  in  the  case  of  Apollos  at  Corinth 
(Acts  xviii.  25),  or  the  disciples  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  xix.  1-3).  As  time  advanced  and  better 
instructed  teachers  arrived,  the  clouds  would 
gradually  clear  away,  till  at  length  the  pres- 
ence of  the  great  Apostle  himself  at  Rome 
dispersed  the  mists  of  Judaism  which  still 
hung  about  the  Roman  Church.  A  question 
next  arises  as  to  the  composition  of  the  Ro- 
man Church,  at  the  time  when  St.  Paul  wrote. 
It  is  more  probable  that  St.  Paul  addressed 
a  mixed  Church  of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  the 
latter  perhaps  being  the  more  numerous. 
These  Gentile  converts,  however,  were  not  for 
the  most  part  native  Romans.  Strange  as  the 
paradox  appears,  nothing  is  more  certain  than 
that  the  Church  of  Rome  was  at  this  time  a 
Greek  and  not  a  Latin  Church.  All  the  lit- 
erature of  the  early  Roman  Church  was  writ- 
ten in  the  Greek  tongue.  The  names  of  the 
bishops  of  Rome  during  the  first  two  cen- 
turies are,  with  but  few  exceptions,  Greek. 
And  we  find  that  a  very  large  proportion  of 
the  names  in  the  salutations  of  this  Epistle 
are  Greek  names.  The  heterogeneous  composi- 
tion of  this  Church  explains  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  In  an 
assemblage  so  various,  we  should  expect  to 


342 


ROME 


ROME 


find,  not  the  exclusive  predominance  of  a 
single  form  of  error,  but  the  coincidence  of 
different  and  opposing  forms.  It  was  there- 
fore the  business  of  the  Christian  teacher  to 
reconcile  the  opposing  difficulties  and  to  hold 
out  a  meeting  point  in  the  Gospel.  This  is 
exactly  what  St.  Paul  does  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans.  While  this  Epistle  contains  the 
fullest  and  most  systematic  exposition  of  the 
zApostle's  teaching,  it  is  at  the  same  time  a 
very  striking  expression  of  his  character.  No- 
where do  his  earnest  and  affectionate  nature 
and  his  tact  and  delicacy  in  handling  unwel- 
come topics  appear  more  strongly  than  when 
he  is  dealing  with  the  rejection  of  his  fellow- 
countrymen  the  Jews.  Internal  evidence  is 
so  strongly  in  favor  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  that  it  has  never 
been  seriously  questioned.  But  while  the 
Epistle  bears  in  itself  the  strongest  proofs  of 
its  Pauline  authorship,  the  external  testimony 
in  its  favor  is  not  inconsiderable.  It  is  not 
the  practice  of  the  Apostolic  fathers  to  cite 
the  N.  T.  writers  by  name,  but  marked  pass- 
ages from  the  Romans  are  found  embedded 
in  the  Epistles  of  Clement  and  Polycarp.  It 
seems  also  to  have  been  directly  cited  by  the 
elder  quoted  in  Irenaeus,  and  is  alluded  to  by 
the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  Diognetus,  and 
by  Justin  Martyr.  It  has  a  place  moreover 
in  the  Muratorian  Canon  and  in  the  Syriac 
and  Old  Latin  Versions.  Nor  have  we  the 
testimony  of  orthodox  writers  alone.  The 
Epistle  was  commonly  quoted  as  an  authority 
by  the  heretics  of  the  subapostolic  age,  by  the 
Ophites,  by  Basilides,  by  Valentinus,  by  the 
Valentinians  Heracleon  and  Ptolemaeus,  and 
perhaps  also  by  Tatian,  besides  being  included 
in  Marcion's  Canon.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
second  century  the  evidence  in  its  favor  is 
still  fuller. 

Rome,  the  famous  capital  of  the  ancient 
world,  is  situated  on  the  Tiber  at  a  distance 
of  about  15  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  "seven 
hills"  (Rev.  xvii.  9)  which  formed  the  nucleus 
of  the  ancient  city  stand  on  tJie  left  bank.  On 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river  rises  the  far 
higher  side  of  the  Janiculum.  Here  from  very 
early  times  was  a  fortress  with  a  suburb  be- 
neath it  extending  to  the  river.  Modern  Rome 
lies  to  the  N.  of  the  ancient  city,  covering 
with  its  principal  portion  the  plain  to  the  N. 
of  the  seven  hills,  once  known  as  the  Campus 
Martins,  and  on  the  opposite  bank  extending 
over  the  low  ground  beneath  the  Vatican  to 
the  N.  of  the  ancient  Janiculum.  Rome  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  l)ible  except  in  the  books 
of  Maccabees  and  in  three  books  of  the  N. 
T.,  viz.,  the  Acts,  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 


and  the  2d  Epistle  to  Timothy.  The  con- 
quests of  Pompey  seem  to  have-  given  rise  to 
the  first  settlement  of  Jews  at  Rome.  The 
Jewish  king  Aristobulus  and  his  son  formed 
part  of  Pompey 's  triumph,  and  many  Jewish 
captives  and  emigrants  were  brought  to  Rome 
at  that  time.  A  special  district  was  assigned 
to  them,  not  on  the  site  of  the  modern 
"Ghetto,"  between  the  Capitol  and  the  island 
of  the  Tiber,  but  across  the  Tiber.  Many  of 
these  Jews  were  made  freedmen.  Julius 
Caesar  showed  them  some  kindness ;.  they 
were  favored  also  by  Augustus,  and  by  Ti- 
berius during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign.  At 


Ruins  of  Forum  at  Rome. 

an  earlier  period  apparently  he  banished  a 
great  number  of  them  to  Sardinia.  Claudius 
"commanded  all  Jews  to  depart  from  Rome" 
(Acts  xviii.  2),  on  account  of  tumults  con- 
nected, possibly,  with  the  preaching  of  Chris- 
tianity at  Rome.  This  banishment  cannot 
have  been  of  long  duration,  for  we  find  Jews 
residing  at  Rome  apparently  in  considerable 
numbers  at  the  time  of  St.  Paul's  visit  (Acts 
xxviii.  17).  It  is  chiefly  in  connection  with 
St.  Paul's  history  that  Rome  comes  before  us 
in  the  Bible.  In  illustration  of  that  history  it 
may  be  useful  to  give  some  account  of  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Nero,  the  "Caesar"  to  whom 
St.  Paul  appealed,  and  in  whose  reign  he  suf- 
fered martyrdom,  i.  The  city  at  that  time 
must  be  imagined  as  a  large  and  irregular 
mass  of  buildings  unprotected  by  an  outer 
wall.  It  had  long  outgrown  the  old  Servian 
wall ;  but  the  limits  of  the  suburbs  cannot  be 
exactly  defined.  Neither  the  nature  of  the 
buildings  nor  the  configuration  of  the  ground 
was  such  as  to  give  a  striking  appearance  to 
the  city  viewed  from  without.  "Ancient  Rome 
had  neither  cupola  nor  campanile,"  and  the 
hills,  never  lofty  or  imposing,  would  present, 


343 


i 


ROME 


ROOF 


when  covered  with  the  buildings  and  streets 
of  a  huge  city,  a  confused  appearance  like  the 
hills  of  modern  London,  to  which  they  have 
sometimes  been  compared.  The  visit  of  St. 
Paul  lies  between  two  famous  epochs  in  the 
history  of  the  city,  viz.  its  restoration  by  Au- 
gustus and  its  restoration  by  Nero.  The 
boast  of  Augustus  is  well  known,  "that  he 


found  the^  city  of  brick,  and  left  it  of  marble." 
Some  parts  of  the  city,  especially  the  Forum 
and  Campus  Martins,  must  now  have  present- 
ed a  magnificent  appearance ;  but  many  of  the 
prirtcipal  buildings  which  attract  the  attention 
of  modern  travellers  in  ancient  Rome  were  not 
yet  built.  The  streets  were  generally  narrow 
and  winding,  flanked  by  densely  crowded 
lodging-houses  of  enormous  height.  Augustus 
found  it  necessary  to  limit  their  height  to  70 
feet.  St.  Paul's  first  visit  to  Rome  took  place 
before  the  Neronian  conflagration ;  but  even 
after  the  restoration  of  the  city,  which  fol- 
lowed upon  that  event,  many  of  the  old  evils 
continued.  The  population  of  the  city  has 
been  variously  estimated.  Probably  Gibbon's 
estimate  of  one  million  two  hundred  thousand 
is  nearest  to  the  truth.  One  half  of  the  popu- 
lation consisted,  in  all  probability,  of  slaves. 
The  larger  part  of  the  remainder  consisted  of 
pauper  citizens  supported  in  idleness  by  the 
miserable  system  of  public  gratuities.  There 
appears  to  have  been  no  middle  class,  and  no 
free  industrial  population.  Side  by  side  with 
the  wretched  classes  just  mentioned  was  the 
comparatively  small  body  of  the  wealthy  no- 
bility, of  whose  luxury  and  profligacy  we  hear 
so  much  in  the  heathen  writers  of  the  time. — 
Such  was  the  population  which  St.  Paul  would 
find  at  Rome  at  the  time  of  his  visit.  We 
learn  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  that  he 
was  detained  at  Rome  for  "two  whole  years," 
"dwelling  in  his  own  hired  house  with  a  sol- 
dier that  kept  him"  (Acts  xxviii.  16,  30),  to 
whom,  apparently,  according  to  Roman  cus- 


tom, he  was  bound  with  a  chain  (Acts  xxviii, 
20;  Eph.  vi.  20;  Phil.  i.  13).  Here  he  preached 
to  all  that  came  to  him,  no  man  forbidding 
him  (Acts  xxviii.  30,  31).  It  is  generally  be-., 
lieved  that  on  his  "appeal  to  Caesar"  he  was 
acquitted,  and  after  some  time  spent  in  free- 
dom, was  a  second  time  imprisoned  at  Rome. 
Five  of  his  Epistles,  viz.  those  to  the  Colos- 
sians,  Ephesians,  Philippians,  that  to  Phile- 
mon, and  the  2d  Epistle  to  Timothy,  were  in 
all  probability,  written  from  Rome,  the  latter 
shortly  before  his  death  (2  Tim.  iv.  6),  the 
others  during  his. first  imprisonment.^  It  is 
universally  believed  that  he  suffered  martyr- 
dom at  home.  The  Catacombs. — These  sub- 
terranean galleries,  commonly  from  8  to  10 
feet  in  height,  and  from  4  to  6  in  width,  and 
extending  for  miles,  especially  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  old  Appian  and  Nomentan 
Ways,  were  unquestionably  used  as  places  of 
refuge,  of  worship,  and  of  burial  by  the  early 
Christians.  The  earliest  dated  inscription  in 
the  catacombs  is  A.  D.  71.  Nothing  is  known 
of  the  first  founder  of  the  Christian  Church  at 
Rome.    Christianity  may,  perhaps,  have  been 


Appian  Way  restored.     (Fifth  mile  out  of  Rome.) 


introduced  into  the  city  not  long  after  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day.  of 
Pentecost  by  the  "strangers  of  Rome,"  who 
were  then  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  ii.  10).  It  is 
clear  that  there  were  many  Christians  at 
Rome  before  St.  Paul  visited  the  city  (Rom. 
i.  8,  13,  15,  XV.  20).  Rome  seems  to  be  de- 
scribed under  the  name  of  Babylon  in  Rev. 
xiv.  8,  xvi.  19,  xvii.  5,  xviii.  2,  21 ;  and  again 
as  the  city  of  the  seven  hills  (Rev.  xvii.  9,  of. 
xii.  3,  xiii.  i). 
Roof.  [House.] 


The  Appian  Way  at  Rome. 


344 


THE  IIB^ARY 

OF  T:  " 


ROSE 


RUTH,  BOOK  OF 


Rose  occurs  twice  only,  viz.  in  Cant.  ii.  i ; 
Is.  xx\\  I.  There  is  much  difference  of  opin- 
ion as  to  what  particular  flower  is  here  de- 
noted ;  but  it  appears  to  us  most  probable  that 
the  narcissus  is  intended.  The  narcissus  and 
the  lily  would  be  in  blossom  together  in  the 
early  spring.  Though  the  rose  is  apparently 
not  mentioned  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  it  is  re- 
ferred to  in  Ecclus.  xxiv.  14  (comp.  also  ch. 
1.  8;  xxxix.  13;  Wisd.  ii.  8).  Roses  are  greatly 
prized  in  the  East,  more  especially  for  the 
sake  of  the  rose-water,  which  is  in  much  re- 
quest. 

Rosin.  Properly  "naphtha,"  as  it  is  both  in 
the  LXX.  and  \'ulg.  as  well  as  the  Peshito- 
Syriac.  In  the  Song  of  the  Three  Children 
(23),  the  servants  of  the  king  of  Babylon  are 
said  to  have  "ceased  not  to  make  the  oven  hot 
with  rosin,  pitch,  tow,  and  small  wood."  Pliny 
mentions  naphtha  as  a  product  of  Babylonia, 
similar  in  appearance  to  liquid  bitumen,  and 
having  a  remarkable  affinity  to  fire.  To  this 
natural  product  (known  also  as  Persian  naph- 
tha, petroleum,  rock  oil,  Rangoon  tar,  Bur- 
mese naphtha,  &c.)  reference  is  made  in  the 
passage  in  question. 

Rubies.  Concerning  the  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  words  translated  "rubies"  there  is 
much  difference  of  opinion  (Job  xxviii.  18; 
see  also  Prov.  iii.  15,  viii.  11,  xxxi.  10).  In 
Lam.  iv.  7  it  is  said,  "the  Xazarites'  were 
purer  than  snow,  they  were  whiter  than  milk, 
they  were  more  ruddy  in  body  than  rubies." 
Some  suppose  "coral"  to  be  intended.  Others 
contend  that  the  Hebrew  term  denotes  pearls, 
and  explain  the  "ruddiness,"  alluded  to  above, 
by  supposing  that  the  original  word  signifies 
merely  "bright  in  color,"  or  "color  of  a  red- 
dish tinge." 

Rue  occurs  only  in  Luke  xi.  42.  The  rue 
here  spoken  of  is  doubtless  the  common  Ruta 
graveolens,  a  shrubby  plant  about  2  feet  high, 
of  strong  medicinal  virtues.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  Mediterranean  coasts,  and  has  been  found 
by  Hasselquist  on  Mount  Tabor.  The  Tal- 
mud enumerates  rue  amongst  kitchen-herbs, 
and  regards  it  as  free  of  tithe,  as  being  a  plant 
not  cultivated  in  gardens.  In  our  Lord's  time, 
however,  rue  was  doubtless  a  garden-plant, 
and  therefore  tithable. 

Ruth,  a  Moabitish  woman,  the  wife,  first, 
of  Mahlon,  secondly  of  Boaz,  the  ancestress 
of  David  and  of  Christ,  and  one  of  the  four 
women  who  are  named  by  St.  Matthew  in 
the  genealogy  of  Christ.  A  severe  famine  in 
the  land  of  Judah  induced  Elimelech,  a  native 
of  Bethlehem  Ephrath,  to  emigrate  into  the 
land  of  Moab,  with  his  wife  Naomi,  and  his 
two  sons,  Mahlon  and  Chilion.    At  the  end 


of  ten  years,  Naomi,  now  left  a  widow  and 
childless,  having  heard  that  there  was  plenty 
again  in  Judah,  resolved  to  return  to  Bethle- 
hem, and  her  daughter-in-law,  Ruth,  returned 
with  her.  -  They  arrived  at  Bethlehem  just  at 
the  beginning  of  barley  harvest,  and  Ruth, 
going  out  to  glean,  chanced  to  go  into  the 
field  of  Boaz,  a  wealthy  man,  and  near  kins- 
man of  her  father-in-law  Elimelech.  Upon 
learning  who  the  stranger  was,  Boaz  treated 
her  with  the  utmost  kindness  and  respect,  and 


Itue. 


sent  her  home  laden  with  corn  which  she  had 
gleaned.  Encouraged  by  this  incident,  Naomi 
instructed  Ruth  to  claim  at  the  hand  of  Boaz 
that  he  should  perform  the  part  of  her  hus- 
band's near  kinsman,  by  purchasing  the  in- 
heritance of  Elimelech,  and  taking  her  to  be 
his  wife.  But  there  was  a  nearer  kinsman 
than  Boaz,  and  it  was  necessary  that  he 
should  have  the  option  of  redeeming  the  in- 
heritance for  himself.  He,  however,  declined, 
fearing  to  mar  his  own  inheritance.  Upon 
which,  with  all  due  solemnity,  Boaz  took  Ruth 
to  be  his  wife,  amidst  the  blessings  and  con- 
gratulations of  their  neighbors.  Their  son, 
Obed,  was  the  father  of  Jesse,  who  was  the 
father  of  David. 

Ruth,  Book  of,  contains  the  history  of  Ruth, 
as  narrated  in  the  preceding  article.  The 
main  object  of  the  writer  is  evidently  to  give 
an  account  of  David's  ancestors ;  and  the  book 
was  avowedly  composed  long  after  the  time  of 
the  heroine.  (See  Ruth  i.  i,  iv.  7,  17).  Its  date 
and  author  are  quite  uncertain.  It  is  probable 
that  the  books  of  Judges,  Ruth,  Samuel,  and 
Kings  originally  formed  but  one  work.  The 

345 


RYE 

book  of  Ruth  clearly  forms  part  of  those  of 
Samuel,  supplying  as  it  does  the  essential 
point  of  David's  genealogy  and  early  family 
history,  and  is  no  less  clearly  connected  with 
the  book  of  Judges  by  its  opening  verse,  and 
the  epoch  to  which  the  whole  book  relates. 

Rye  occurs  in  Ex.  ix.  32 ;  Is.  xxviii.  25 :  in 
the  latter  the  margin  reads  "spelt."  In  Ez. 
iv.  9  the  text  has  "fitches,"  and  the  margin 
"rie."  It  is  probable  that  by  cussemeth 
"spelt"  is  intended.  Spelt  is  grown  in  some 
parts  of  the  south  of  Germany ;  it  differs  but 
slightly  from  our  common  wheat. 


Sabbath  (shabbath,  "a  day  of  rest,"  from 
shabath,  "to  cease  to  do,"  "to  rest").  The 
name  is  applied  to  divers  great  festivals,  but 
principally  and  usually  to  the  seventh  day  of 
the  week,  the  strict  observance  of  which  is  en- 
forced not  merely  in  the  general  Mosaic  code, 
but  in  the  Decalogue  itself.  The  consecration 
of  the  Sabbath  was  coeval  with  the  Creation. 
The  first  Scriptural  notice  of  it,  though  it  is 
not  mentioned  by  name,  is  to  be  found  in  Gen. 
ii.  3,  at  the  close  of  the  record  of  the  six  days' 
creation.  There  are  not  wanting  indirect  evi- 
dences of  its  observance,  as  the  intervals  be- 
tween Noah's  sending  forth  the  birds  out  of 
the  ark,,  an  act  naturally  associated  with  the 
weekly  service  (Gen.  viii.  7-12),  and  in  the 
week  of  a  wedding  celebration  (Gen.  xxix.  27, 
28)  ;  but  when  a  special  occasion  arises,  in 
connection  with  the  prohibition  against  gath- 
ering manna  on  the  Sabbath,  the  institution 
is  mentioned  as  one  already  known  (Ex.  xvi. 
23-30).  And  that  this  was  especially  one  of 
the  institutions  adopted  by  Moses  from  the 
ancient  patriarchal  usage  is  implied  in  the  very 
words  of  the  law,  "Remember  the  Sabbath 
day,  to  keep  it  holy."  But  even  if  such  evi- 
dence were  wanting,  the  reason  of  the  institu- 
tion would  be  a  sufficient  proof.  It  was  to  be 
a  joyful  celebration  of  God's  completion  of 
His  creation.  It  has  indeed  been  said  that 
Moses  gives  quite  a  different  reason  for  the 
institution  of  the  Sabbath,  as  a  memorial  of 
the  deliverance  from  Egyptian  bondage  (Deut. 
v.  15).  As  if  Moses,  in  his  repetition  of  the 
law,  had  forgotten  the  reason  given  by  God 
himself  from  Sinai  (Ex.  xx.  11).  The  words 
added  in  Deuteronomy  are  a  special  motive  for 
the  joy  with  which  the  Sabbath  should  be 
celebrated,  and  for  the  kindness  which  ex- 
tended its  blessings  to  the  slave  and  beast  of 
burden  as  well  as  the  master:  "that  thy  man- 
servant and  thy  maidservant  may  rest  as  well 
as  thou"  (Deut.  v.  14).    These  attempts  to 


SABBATH 

limit  the  ordinance  proceed  from  an  entire 
misconception  of  its  spirit,  as  if  it  were  a  sea- 
son of  stern  privation  rather  than  a  special 
privilege.  But,  in  truth,  the  prohibition  of 
work  is  only  subsidiary  to  the  positive  idea  of 
joyful  rest  and  recreation,  in  communion  with 
Jehovah,  who  himself  "rested  and  was  re- 
freshed" (Ex.  xxxi.  17:  comp.  xxiii.  12).  It  is 
in  Ex.  xvi.  23-29  that  we  find  the  first  incon- 
trovertible institution  of  the  day,  as  one  given 
to,  and  to  be  kept  by,  the  children  of  Israel. 
Shortly  afterwards  it  was  re-enacted  in  the 
Fourth  Commandment.  The  beneficent  char- 
acter of  the  Fourth  Commandment  is  very  ap- 
parent in  the  version  of  it  which  we  find  in 
Deuteronomy  (Deut.  v.  12-15).  It  is  most 
important  to  remember  that  the  Fourth  Com- 
mandment is  not  limited  to  a  mere  enactment 
respecting  one  day,  but  prescribes  the  due 
distribution  of  a  week,  and  enforces  the  six 
days'  work  as  much  as  the  seventh  day's  rest. 
This  higher  ground  of  observance  was  felt  to 
invest  the  Sabbath  with  a  theological  char- 
acter, and  rendered  it  the  'great  witness  for 
faith  in  a  personal  and  creating  God.  It  was 
to  be  a  sacred  pause  in  the  ordinary  labor  by 
which  man  earns  his  bread ;  the  curse  of  the 
fall  was  to  be  suspended  for  one  day ;  and, 
having  spent  that  day  in  joyful  remembrance 
of  God's  mercies,  man  had  a  fresh  start  in  his 
course  of  labor.  When  we  come  to  the  N.  T. 
we  find  the  most  marked  stress  laid  on  the 
Sabbath.  In  whatever  ways  the  Jew  might 
err  respecting  it,  he  had  altogether  ceased  to 
neglect  it.  On  the  contrary,  wherever  he  went 
its  observance  became  the  most  visible  badge 
of  his  nationality.  Our  Lord's  mode  of  ob- 
serving the  Sabbath  was  one  of  the  main  fea- 
tures of  His  life,  which  His  Pharisaic  adver- 
saries most  eagerly  watched  and  criticised. 
They  had  invented  many  prohibitions  respect- 
ing the  Sabbath  t)f  which  we  find  nothing  in 
the  original  institution.  Some  of  these  prohi- 
bitions were  fantastic  and  arbftrary,  in  the 
number  of  those  "heavy  burdens  and  grievous 
to  be  borne"  which  the  latter  expounders  of 
the  Law  "laid  on  men's  shoulders"  (comp. 
Matt.  xii.  1-13;  John  v.  10).  That  this  perver- 
sion of  the  Sabbath  had  become  very  general 
in  our  Saviour's  time  is  apparent  both  from 
the  recorded  objections  to  acts  of  His  on  that 
day,  and  from  His  marked  conduct  on  occa- 
sions to  which  those  objections  were  sure  to 
be  urged  (Matt.  xii.  1-15;  Mark  iii.  2;  Luke 
vi.  I,  5,  xiii.  10-17;  John  v.  2-18,  vii.  23,  ix. 
1-34).  The  Epistle,  it  must  be  admitted,  with 
the  exception  of  one  place,  and  perhaps  an- 
other (Heb.  iv.  9),  are  silent  on  the  subject 
of  the  Sabbath.    No  rules  for  its  observance 


346 


SACKCLOTH 


SACRIFICE 


are  ever  given  by  the  Apostles — its  violation 
is  never  denounced  by  them  ;  Sabbath-break- 
ers are  never  included  in  any  list  of  offenders. 
Col.  ii.  l6,  17,  seems  a  far  stronger  argument 
for  the  abolition  of  the  Sabbath  in  the  Chris- 
tian dispensation  than  is  furnished  by  Heb. 
iv.  9  for  its  continuance ;  and  while  the  first 
day  of  the  week  is  more  than  once  referred  to 
as  one  of  religious  observance,  it  is  never 
identified  with  the  Sabbath.  When  we  turn 
to  the  monuments,  which  we  possess  of  the 
early  Church,  we  find  ourselves  on  the  whole 
carried  in  the  same  direction.  Again,  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Lord's  Day  as  a  Sabbath 
would  have  been  well  nigh  impossible  to  the 
majority  of  Christians  in  the  first  ages.  When 
the  early  Fathers  speak  of  the  Lord's  Day, 
they  sometimes,  perhaps  by  comparing,  con- 
nect it  with  the  Sabbath ;  but  we  have  never 
found  a  passage,  previous  to  the  conversion 
of  Constantine,  prohibitory  of  any  work  or 
occupation  on  the  former,  and  any  such,  did 
it  exist,  would  have  been  in  a  great  measure 
nugatory,  for  the  reasons  just  alleged.  After 
Constantine  things  become  different  at  once. 
His  celebrated  edict  prohibitory  of  judicial 
proceedings  on  the  Lord's  Day  was  probably 
dictated  by  a  wish  to  give  the  great  Christian 
festival  as  much  honor  as  was  enjoyed  by 
those  of  the  heathen,  rather  than  by  any  refer- 
ence to  the  Sabbath  or  the  Fourth  Command- 
ment ;  but  it  was  followed  by  several  which 
extended  the  prohibition  to  many  other  occu- 
pations, and  to  many  forms  of  pleasure  held 
innocent  on  ordinary  days.  But  it  was  surely 
impossible  both  to  observe  the  Lord's  Day,  as 
was  done  by  Christians  after  Constantine,  and 
to  read  the  Fourth  Commandment,  without 
connecting  the  two;  and,  seeing  that  such  was 
to  be  the  practice  of  the  developed  Church, 
we  can  understand  how  the  silence  of  the  N. 
T.  Epistles,  and  even  the  strong  words  of  St. 
Paul  (Col.  ii.  16,  17),  do  not  impair  the  human 
and  universal  scope  of  the  Fourth  Command- 
ment, exhibited  so  strongly  in  the  very  nature 
of  the  Law,  and  in  the  teaching  respecting  it 
of  Him  who  came  not  to  destroy  the  Law,  but 
to  fulfil. — Among  the  Christians  the  "Lord's 
Day" — the  first  day  of  the  week — gradually 
took  the  place  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  [Lord's 
Day.] 

Sackcloth,  a  coarse  texture,  of  a  dark  color, 
made  of  goats'-hair  (Is.  1.  3;  Rev.  vi.  12),  and 
resembling  the  cilicium  of  the  Romans.  It 
was  used  for  making  sacks  (Gen.  xlii.  25 ;  Lev. 
xi.  32;  Josh.  ix.  4),  and  for  making  the  rough 
garments  used  by  mourners,  which  were  in 
extreme  cases  worn  next  the  skin  (i  K.  xxi. 
27;  2  K.  vi.  30;  Job  xvi.  15;  Is.  xxxii.  11), 


and  this  even  by  females  (Joel  i.  8;  2  Mace, 
iii.  19),  but  at  other  times  were  worn  over 
the  coat  (Jon.  iii.  6)  in  lieu  of  the  outer  gar- 
ment. 


Sitting  in  Saclsclotli. 

Sacrifice.  The  universal  prevalence  of  sacri- 
fice shows  it  to  have  been  primeval,  and  deep- 
ly rooted  in  the  instincts  of  humanity. 
Whether  it  was  first  enjoined  by  an  external 
command,  or  whether  it  was  based  on  that 
sense  of  sin  and  lost  communion  with  God 
which  is  stamped  by  His  hand  on  the  heart 
of  man,  is  an  historical  question,  perhaps  in- 
soluble. The  sacrifice  of  Cain  and  Abel  is 
called  minchah,  although  in  the  case  of  the 
latter  it  was  a  bloody  sacrifice.  In  the  case 
of  both  it  would  appear  to  have  been  eucha- 
ristic.  The  sacrifice  of  Noah  after  the  flood 
(Gen.  viii.  20)  is  called  burnt-offering.  This 
sacrifice  is  expressly  connected  with  the  insti- 
tution of  the  Covenant  which  follows,  in  ix. 
8-17.  The  sacrifice  of  Jacob  at  Mispah  also 
marks  a  covenant  with  Laban,  to  which  God 
is  called  to  be  a  witness  and  a  party.  In  the 
burnt-offerings  of  Job  for  his  children  (Job  i. 
5)  and  for  his  three  friends  (xlii.  8),  we  for 
the  first  time  find  the  expression  of  the  desire 
of  expiation  for  sin.  The  same  is  the  case  in 
the  words  of  Moses  to  Pharaoh  (Ex.  x.  25). 
The  sacrifices  of  the  Mosaic  Period  are  in- 
augurated by  the  offering  of  the  Passover  and 
the  sacrifice  of  Ex.  xxiv.  The  Passover  indeed 
is  unique  in  its  character;  butitisclear  that  the 
idea  of  salvation  from  death  by  means  of  sacri- 
fice is  brought  out  in  it  with  a  distinctness 
before  unknown.  The  sacrifice  of  Ex.  xxiv., 
offered  as  a  solemn  inauguration  of  the  Cove- 
nant of  Sinai,  has  a  similarly  comprehensive 
character.  The  Law  of  Leviticus  now  unfolds 
distinctly  the  various  forms  of  sacrifice,  (a.) 
The  burnt-offering.  Self-dedicatory,  (b.)  The 
meat-offering  (unbloody)  ;  the  peace-offering 
(bloody).  Eucharistic.  (c.)  The  sin-offering ; 
the  trespass-offering.  Explanatory. — To  these 
may  be  added,  (d.)  The  incense  offered  after 


347 


SACRIFICE 


SACRIFICE 


sacrifice  in  the  Holy  Place,  and  (on  the  Day 
of  Atonement)  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  the 
symbol  of  the  intercession  of  the  priest  (as  a 
type  of  the  Great  High  Priest),  accompanying 
and  making  efficacious  the  prayer  of  the  peo- 
ple. In  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his 
sons  (Lev.  viii.)  we  find  these  offered  in  what 
became  ever  afterwards  the  appointed  order: 
first  came  the  sin-offering,  to  prepare  access 
to  God ;  next,  the  burnt-olfering,  to  mark  their 
dedication  to  his  service ;  and  thirdly,  the 
meat-offering  of  "thanksgiving.  Henceforth  the 
sacrificial  system  was  fixed  in  all  its  parts, 
until  He  should  come  whom  it  typified.  The 
nature  and  meaning  of  the  various  kinds  of 
sacrifice  are  partly  gathered  from  the  form 
of  their  institution  and  ceremonial,  partly  from 
the  teaching  of  the  Prophets,  and  partly  from 
the  N.  T.,  especially  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews. All  had  relation,  under  different 
aspects,  to  a  Covenant  between  God  and  man. 
The  Sin-Offering  represented  that  Covenant 
as  broken  by  man,  and  as  knit  together  again, 
by  God's  appointment,  through  the  "shedding 
of  blood."  The  shedding  of  the  blood,  the 
symbol  of  life,  signified  that  the  death  of  the 
offender  was  deserved  for  sin,  but  that  the 
death  of  the  victim  was  accepted  for  his  death 
by  the  ordinance  of  God's  mercy.  Beyond  all 
doubt  the  sin-offering  distinctly  witnessed 
that  sin  existed  in  man,  that  the  "wages  of 
that  sin  was  death,"  and  that  God  had  pro- 
vided an  Atonement  by  the  vicarious  suffer- 
ing of  an  appointed  victim.  The  ceremonial 
and  meaning  of  the  Burnt-Offering  were  very 
different.  The  idea  of  expiation  seems  not 
to  have  been  absent  from  it,  for  the  blood 
was  sprinkled  round  about  the  altar  of  sacri- 
fice ;  but  the  main  idea  is  the  offering  of  the 
whole  victim  to  God,  representing  (as  the  lay- 
ing of  the  hand  on  its  head  shows)  the  devo- 
tion of  the  sacrificer,  body  and  soul,  to  Him 
(Rom.  xii.  i).  The  death  of  the  victim  was, 
so  to  speak,  an  incidental  feature.  The  Meat- 
offerings, the  peace  or  thank-offering,  the 
first-fruits,  &c.,  were  simply  offerings  to  God 
of  His  own  best  gifts,  as  a  sign  of  thankful 
homage,  and  as  a  means  of  maintaining  His 
service  and  His  servants.  The  characteristic 
ceremony  in  the  peace-offering  was  the  eating 
of  the  Ifesh  by  the  sacrificer.  It  betokened 
the  enjoyment  of  communion  with  God.  It  is 
clear  from  this  that  the  idea  of  sacrifice  is  a 
complex  idea,  involving  the  propitiatory,  the 
dedicatory,  and  the  eucharistic  elements.  Any 
one  of  these,  taken  by  itself,  would  lead  to 
error  and  superstition.  All  three  probably 
were  more  or  less  implied  in  each  sacrifice, 
each  element  predominating  in  its  turn.  The 


Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  contains  the  key  of 
the  whole  sacrifical  doctrine.  The  object  of 
the  Epistle  is  to  show  the  typical  and  proba- 
tionary character  of  sacrifices,  and  to  assert 
that  in  virtue  of  it  alone  they  had  a  spiritual 
meaning.  Our  Lord  is  declared  (see  i  Pet.  i. 
20)  "to  have  been  foreordained"  as  a  sacrifice 
"before  the  foundation  of  the  world,"  or  (as  it 
is  more  strikingly  expressed  in  Rev.  xiii.  8) 
"slain  from  the  foundation  of  the  world."  The 
material  sacrifices  represented  this  Great 
Atonement  as  already  made  and  accepted  in 
God's  foreknowledge ;  and  to  those  who 
grasped  the  ideas  of  sin,  pardon,  and  self- 
dedication  symbolized  in  them,  they  were 
means  of  entering  into  the  blessings  which  the 
One  True  Sacrifice  alone  procured.  They 
could  convey  nothing  in  themselves ;  yet,  as 
types,  they  might,  if  accepted  by  a  true, 
though  necessarily  imperfect,  faith,  be  means 
of  conveying  in  some  degree  the  blessings  of 
the  Antitype.  It  is  clear  that  the  Atonement, 
in  this  Epistle,  as  in  the  N.  T.  generally,  is 
viewed  in  a  twofold  light.  On  the  one  hand, 
it  is  set  forth  distinctly  as  a  vicarious  sacrifice, 
which  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  sin  of 
man,  and  m  which  the  Lord  "bare  the  sins  of 
many."  It  is  its  essential  characteristic  that 
in  it  He  stands  absolutely  alone,  offering  His 
sacrifice  without  any  reference  to  the  faith  or 
the  conversion  of  men.  In  it  He  stands  out 
alone  as  the  Mediator  between  God  and  man ; 
and  His  sacrifice  is  offered  once  for  all,  never 
to  be  imitated  or  repeated.  Now,  this  view, 
of  the  Atonement  is  set  forth  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  as  typified  by  the  sin-offering. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  is 
set  forth  to  us,  as  the  completion  of  that  per- 
fect obedience  to  the  will  of  the  Father,  which 
is  the  natural  duty  of  sinless  man,  in  which 
He  is  the  representative  of  all  men,  and  in 
which  He  calls  upon  us,  when  reconciled  to 
God,  to  "take  up  the  Cross  and  follow  Him." 
In  this  view  His  death  is  not  the  principal 
object;  we  dwell  rather  on  His  lowly  incarna- 
tion, and  His  life  of  humility,  temptation,  and 
suffering,  to  which  that  death  was  but  a  fit- 
ting close.  The  main  idea  of  this  view  of  the 
Atonement  is  representative  rather  than 
vicarious.  It  is  typified  by  the  burnt-offering, 
in  respect  of  which  the  N.  T.  merely  quotes 
and  enforces  the  language  already  cited  from 
the  O.  T.,  and  especially  (see  Heb.  x.  6-9)  the 
words  of  Ps.  xl.  6,  &c.,  which  contrast  with 
material  sacrifice  the  "doing  the  will  of  God." 
As,  without  the  sin-offering  of  the  Cross,  this, 
our  burnt-offering,  would  be  impossible,  so 
also  without  the  burnt-ofYering  the  sin-offer- 


ing will  to  us  be  unavailing.  AYith  these  views 


348 


THf  M"-5flY 


SADDuCEES 


SAEERUX 


of  our  Lord's  sacrifice  on  earth,  as  typified  in 
the  Levitical  sacrifices  on  the  outer  altar,  is 
also  to  be  connected  the  offering  of  His  inter- 
cession for  us  in  heaven,  which  was  repre- 
sented by  the  incense.  The  typical  sense  of 
the  meat-offering,  or  peace-offering,  is  less 
connected  with  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  Himself, 
than  with  those  sacrifices  of  praise,  thanks- 
giving, charity,  and  devotion,  which  we,  as 
Christians,  offer  to  God,  and  "with  which  He 
is  well  pleased"  (Eleb.  xiii.  15,  16,  as  with  "an 
odor  of  sweet  smell,  a  sacrifice  acceptable  to 
God"  (Phil.  iv.  18). 

Sadducees  (Matt.  iii.  7,  xvi.  i,  6,  11,  12,  xxii. 
23,  34;  !Mark  xii.  18;  Luke  xx.  27;  Acts  iv.  I, 
V.  17,  xxiii.  6,  7,  8),  a  religious  party  or  school 
among  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ,  who 
denied  that  the  oral  law  was  a  revelation  of 
God  to  the  Israelites,  and  who  deemed  the 
written  law  alone  to  be  obligatory  on  the  na- 
tion, as  of  divine  authority.  Except  on  one 
occasion,  when  they  united  with  the  Pharisees 
in  insidiously  asking  for  a  sign  from  heaven 
(Matt.  xiv.  I,  4,  6),  Christ  never  assailed  the 
Sadducees  Avith  the  same  bitter  denunciations 
which  he  uttered  against  the  Pharisees ;  and 
they  do  not,  like  the  Pharisees,  seem  to  have 
taken  active  measures  for  causing  Him  to  be 
put  to  death.  The  origin  of  their  name  is  in- 
volved in  great  difificulties.  The  ordinary  Jew- 
ish statement  is,  that  they  are  named  from  a 
certain  Zadoc,  a  disciple  of  the  Antigonus  of 
Socho,  who  is  mentioned  in  the  Mishna  as 
having  received  the  oral  law  from  Simon  the 
Just,  the  last  of  the  men  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue. The  leading  tenet  of  the  Sadducees 
was  the  negation  of  the  leading  tenet  of  their 
opponents.  As  the  Pharisees  asserted,  so  the 
Sadducees  denied,  that  the  Israelites  were  in 
possession  of  an  Oral  Law  transmitted  to 
them  by  IMoses.  [Pharisees.]  In  opposition  to 
the  Pharisees,  they  maintained  that  the  writ- 
ten law  alone  was  obligatory  on  the  nation,  as 
of  divine  authority.  The  second  distinguish- 
ing doctrine  of  the  Sadducees,  the  denial  of 
man's  resurrection  after  death.  In  connection 
with  the  disbelief  of  a  resurrection  by  the 
Sadducees,  it  is  proper  to  notice  the  state- 
ment (Acts  xxiii.  8)  that  they  likewise  denied 
there  was  "angel  or  spirit."  Josephus  states 
that  the  Sadducees  believed  in  the  freedom 
of  the  will,  which  the  Pharisees  denied.  Pos- 
sibly the  great  stress  laid  by  the  Sadducees  on 
the  freedom  of  the  will  may  have  had  some 
connection  with  their  forming  such  a  large 
portion  of  that  class  from  which  criminal 
judges  were  selected.  Those  Jews  who  were 
almost  exclusively  religious  teachers  would 
naturally  insist  on  the  inability  of  man  to  do 


anything  good  if  God's  Holy  Spirit  were  taken 
away  from  him  (Ps.  i.  11,  12),  and  would  en- 
large on  the  perils  which  surrounded  man 
from  the  temptations  of  Satan  and  evil  angels 
or  spirits  (i  Chr.  xxi.  i  ;  Tob.  iii.  17).  But  it 
is  likely  that  the  tendencies  of  the  judicial 
class  would  be  more  practical  and  direct.  An 
important  fact  in  the  history  of  the  Sadducees 
is  their  rapid  disappearance  from  history  after 
the  first  century,  and  the  subsequent  pre- 
dominance among  the  Jews  of  the  opinions  of 
the  Pharisees.  Two  circumstances,  indirectly 
but  powerfully,  contributed  to  produce  this 
result:  ist.  The  state  of  the  Jews  after  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus ;  and  2dly.  The 
growth  of  the  Christian  religion.  As  to  the 
first  point,  it  is  difficult  to  over-estimate  the 
consternation  and 'dismay  which  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  occasioned  in  the  minds  of 
sincerely  religious  Jews.  In  this  their  hour 
of  darkness  and  anguish,  they  naturally 
turned  to  the  consolations  and  hopes  of  a 
future  state ;  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Sad- 
ducees, that  there  was  nothing  beyond  the 
present  life,  would  have  appeared  to  them 
cold,  heartless,  and  hateful.  Again,  while 
they  were  sunk  in  the  lowest  depths  of  de- 
pression, a  new  religion,  which  they  despised 
as  a  heresy  and  a  superstition,  was  gradually 
making  its  way  among  the  subjects  of  their 
detested  conquerors,  the  Romans.  One  of  the 
causes  of  its  success  was  undoubtedly  the 
vivid  belief  in  the  resurrection  of  Jesus,  and 
a  consequent  resurrection  of  all  mankind, 
which  was  accepted  by  its  heathen  converts 
with  a  passionate  earnestness,  of  which  those 
who  at  the  present  day  are  familiar  from  in- 
fancy with  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead  can  form  only  a  faint  idea.  To  at- 
tempt to  check  the  progress  of  this  new  re- 
ligion among  the  Jews  by  an  appeal  to  the 
temporary  rewards  and  punishments  of  the 
Pentateuch,  would  have  been  as  idle  as  an 
endeavor  to  check  an  explosive  power  by 
ordinary  mechanical  restraints.  Consciously, 
therefore,  or  unconsciously,  many  circum- 
stances combined  to  induce  the  Jews  who 
were  not  Pharisees,  but  who  resisted  the 
new  heresy,  to  rally  round  the  standard 
of  the  Oral  Law,  and  to  assert  that  their 
holy  legislator,  Moses,  had  transmitted  to 
his  faithful  people  by  word  of  mouth, 
although  not  in  writing,  the  revelation 
of  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments. 

Saffron  (Cant.  iv.  14).  Saffron  has  from 
the  earliest  times  been  in  high  esteem  as  a 
perfume.  "It  was  used,"  says  Rosenmiiller, 
"for  the  same  purposes  as  the  modern  pot- 


349 


SAL  AM  IS 


SALT 


pourri."  Tfee  word  saffron  is  derived  from 
the  Arabic  Zafran,  "yellow." 

Saramis,  a  city  at  the  east  end  of  the  island 
of  Cyprus,  and  the  first  place  visited  by  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  on  the  first  missionary  journey, 
after  leaving  the  mainland  at  Seleucia.  Here 
alone,  among  all  the  Greek  cities  visited  by 
St.  Paul,  we  read  expressly  of  "synagogues" 
in  the  plural  (Acts  xiii.  5).  Hence  we  con- 
clude that  there  were  many  Jews  in  Cyprus. 
And  this  is  in  harmony  with  what  we  read 
elsewhere.  Salamis  was  not  far  from  the  mod- 
ern Famagousta.  It  was  situated  near  a  river 
called  the  Pediaeus,  on  low  ground,  which  is 
in  fact  a  continuation  of  the  plain  running  up 
into  the  interior  towards  the  place  where 
Nicosia,  the  present  capital  of  Cyprus,  stands. 

Sal'cah,  a  city  named  in  the  early  records 
of  Israel  as  the  extreme  limit  of  Bashan 
(Deut.  iii.  10;  Josh.  xiii.  11),  and  of  the  tribe 


Salcab  in  Bashan. 

of  Gad  (i  Chr.  v.  11).  On  another  occasion 
the  name  seems  to  denote  a  district  rather 
than  a  town  (John  xii.  5).  It  is  identical  with 
the  town  of  Sulkhad. 

Sa'lem  (peace),  i.  The  place  of  which 
Melchizedek  was  king  (Gen.  xiv.  18;  Heb.  vii. 
I,  2).  No  satisfactory  identification  of  it  is 
perhaps  possible.  Two  main  opinions  have 
been  current  from  the  earliest  ages  of  in- 
terpretation. I.  That  of  the  Jewish  com- 
mentators, who  affirm  that  Salem  is  Jeru- 
salem, on  the  ground  that  Jerusalem  is  so 
called  in  Ps.  Ixxvi.  2.  2.  Jerome  himself,  how- 
ever, is  not  of  the  same  opinion.  He  states 
without  hesitation,  that  the  Salem  of  Mel- 
chizedek was  not  Jerusalem,  but  a  town  near 
Scythopolis,  which  in  his  day  was  still  called 
Salem.  2.  Ps.  Ixxvi.  2.  It  is  agreed  on  all 
hands  that  Salem  is  here  employed  for  Jeru- 
salem, but  whether  as  a  mere  abbreviation  to 
suit  some  exigency  of  the  poetry,  and  point 
the  allusion  to  the  peace  (salem)  which  the 


city  enjoyed  through  the  protection  of  God, 
or  whether,  after  a  well-known  habit  of  poets, 
it  is  an  antique  name  preferred  to  the  more 
modern  and  familiar  one,  is  a  question  not  yet 
decided. 

Salo'me.  The  wife  of  Zebedee,  as  appears 
from  comparing  Matt,  xxvii.  56  with  Mark  xv. 
40.  It  is  further  the  opinion  of  many  modern 
critics  that  she  was  the  sister  of  Mary,  the 
mother  of  Jesus,  to  whom  reference  is  made 
in  John  xix.  25.  The  only  events  recorded  of 
Salome  are,  that  she  preferred  a  request  on 
behalf  of  her  two  sons  for  seats  of  honor  in 
the  kingdom  of  heaven  (Matt.  xx.  20),  that 
she  attended  at  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  (Mark 
XV.  40),  and  that  she  visited  his  sepulchre 
(Mark  xvi.  i).  She  is  mentioned  by  name 
only  on  the  two  later  occasions. 

Salt.  Indispensable  as  salt  is'to  ourselves, 
it  was  even  more  so  to  the  Hebrews,  being  to 
them  not  only  an  appetizing  condiment  in  the 
food  both  of  man  (Job  xi.  6)  and  beast  (Is. 
XXX.  24,  see  margin),  and  a  most  valuable 
antidote  to  the  effects  of  the  heat  of  climate 
on  animal  food,  but  also  entering  largely  into 
their  religious  services  as  an  accompaniment 
to  the  various  offerings  presented  on  the  altar 
(Lev.  ii.  13).  They  possessed  an  inexhausti- 
ble and  ready  supply  of  it  on  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  [Sea,  the  Salt.]  The 
Jews  appear  to  have  distinguished  between 
rock-salt  and  that  which  was  gained  by 
evaporation,  as  the  Talmudists  particularize 
one  species  (probably  the  latter)  as  the  "salt 
of  Sodom."  The  salt-pits  formed  an  important 
source  of  revenue  to  the  rulers  of  the  country, 
and  Antiochus  conferred  a  valuable  boon  on 
Jerusalem  by  presenting  the  city  with  375 
bushels  of  salt  for  the  Temple  service.  In 
addition  to  the  uses  of  salt  already  specified, 
the  inferior  sorts  were  applied  as  a  manure  to 
the  soil,  or  to  hasten  the  decomposition  of 
dung  (Matt.  v.  13;  Luke  xiv.  35).  Too  large 
an  admixture,  however,  was  held  to  produce 
sterility ;  and  hence  also  arose  the  custom  of 
sowing  with  salt  the  foundations  of  a  de- 
stroyed city  (Judg.  ix.  45),  as  a  token  of  its 
irretrievable  ruin.  The  associations  connected 
with  salt  in  Eastern  countries  are  important. 
As  one  of  the  most  essential  articles  of  diet,  it 
symbolized  hospitality ;  as  an  antiseptic,  dura- 
bility, fidelity,  and  purity.  Hence  the  expres- 
sion "covenant  of  salt"  (Lev.  ii.  13;  Num. 
xviii.  19;  2  Chr.  xiii.  5),  as  betokening  an  in- 
dissoluble alliance  between  friends ;  and  again 
the  expression,  "salted  with  the  salt  of  the 
palace"  (Ezr.  iv.  14),  not  necessarily  meaning 
that  they  had  "maintenance  from  the  palace," 
as  the  A.  V.  has  it,  but  that  they  were  bound 


350 


SALT  SEA 

by  sacred  obligations  of  fidelity  to  the  king. 
So  in  the  present  day,  "to  eat  bread  and  salt 
together"  is  an  expression  for  a  league  of 
mutual  amity.  It  was  probably  with  a  view 
to  keep  this  idea  prominently  before  the 
minds  of  the  Jews  that  the  use  of  salt  was  en- 
joined on  the  Israelites  in  their  offerings  to 
God. 

Salt  Sea,  or  Dead  Sea.  [Sea,  the  Salt.] 
Salutation.  Salutations  may  be  classed 
under  the  two  heads  of  conversational  and 
epistolary.  The  salutation  at  meeting  con- 
sisted in  early  times  of  various  expressions  of 
blessing,  such  as  "God  be  gracious  unto  thee" 
(Gen.  xliii.  29)  ;  "Blessed  be  thou  of  the 
Lord"  (Ruth  iii.  10;  i  Sam.  xv.  13);  "The 
Lord  be  with  you,"  "The  Lord  bless  thee" 
(Ruth  ii.  4)  ;  "The  blessing  of  the  Lord  be 
upon  you  ;  we  bless  you  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord"  (Ps.  cxxix.  8).    Hence  the  term  "bless" 


Modes  of  Salutation  in  the  East. 

received  the  secondary  sense  of  "salute."  The 
Hebrew  term  used  in  these  instances  (shalom) 
has  no  special  reference  to  "peace,"  as  stated 
in  the  marginal  translation,  but  to  general 
well-being,  and  strictly  answers  to  our  "wel- 
fare." The  salutation  at  parting  consisted 
originally  of  a  simple  blessing  (Gen.  xxiv.  60, 
xxviii.  I,  xlvii.  10;  Josh.  xxii.  6),  but  in  later 
times  the  term  shalom  was  introduced  here 
also  in  the  form  "Go  in  peace,"  or  rather 
"Farewell"  (i  Sam.  i.  17,  xx.  42;  2  Sam. 
XV.  9). 

Sama'ria.  In  the  territory  originally  be- 
longing to  the  tribe  of  Joseph,  about  six  miles 
to  the  northwest  of  Shechem,  there  is  a  wide 
basin-shaped  valley,  encircled  with  high  hills, 
almost  on  the  edge  of  tlie  great  plain  which 
borders  upon  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  centre 
of  this  basin,  which  is  on  a  lower  level  than 
the  valley  of  Shechem,  rises  a  less  elevated 
oblong  hill,  with  steep  yet  accessible  sides, 
and  a  long  flat  top.  This  hill  was  chosen  by 
Omri  as  the  site  of  the  capital  of  the  kingdom 


SAMARIA 

of  Israel.  He  "bought  the  hill  of  Samaria  of 
Shemer  for  two  talents  of  silver,  and  built  on 
the  hill,  and  called  the  name  of  the  city  which 
he  built,  after  the  name  of  the  owner  of  the 
hill,  Samaria"  (i  K.  xvi.  23,  24).  From  the 
date  of  Omri's  purchase,  B.  C.  925,  Samaria 
retained  its  dignity  as  the  capital  of  the  ten 
tribes,  and  the  name  is  given  to  the  northern 
kingdom  as  well  as  to  the  city.  Ahab  built  a 
temple  to  Baal  there  (i  K.  xvi.  32,  33)  ;  and 
from  this  circumstance  a  portion  of  the  city, 
possibly  fortified  by  a  separate  wall,  was 
called  "the  city  of  the  house  of  Baal"  (2  K.  x. 
25).  Samaria  must  have  been  a  place  of  great 
strength.  It  was  twice  besieged  by  the 
Syrians,  in  B.  C.  901  (l  K.  xx.  i),  and  in  B.  C. 
892  (2  K.  vi.  24,  vii.  20)  ;  but  on  both  occa- 
sions the  siege  was  ineffectual.  The  pos- 
sessor of  Samaria  was  considered  de  facto 
king  of  Israel  (2  K.  xv.  13,  14)  ;  and  woes  de- 
nounced against  the  nation  were  directed 
against  it  by  name  (Is.  vii.  9,  &c.).  In  B.  C. 
721,  Samaria  was  taken,  after  a  siege  of  three 
years,  by  Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria  (2  K. 
xviii.  9,  10),  and  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes 
was  put  an  end  to.  Some  years  afterwards 
the  district  of  which  Samaria  was  the  centre 
was  repeopled  by  Esarhaddon ;  but  we  do  not 
hear  especially  of  the  city  until  the  days  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  That  conqueror  took 
the  city,  which  seems  to  have  somewhat  re- 
covered itself,  killed  a  large  portion  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  suffered  the  remainder  to 
settle  at  Shechem.  He  replaced  them  by  a 
colony  of  Syro-Macedonians.  These  Syro- 
Macedonians  occupied  the  city  until  the  time 
of  John  Hyrcanus,  who  took  it  after  a  year's 
siege,  and  did  his  best  to  deinolish  it  entirely. 
After  this  disaster  (which  occurred  in  B.  C. 
109),  the  Jews  inhabited  what  remained  of  the 
city;  at  least  we  find  it  in  their  possession  in 
the  time  of  Alexander  Jannaeus,  and  until 
Pompey  gave  it  back  to  the  descendants  of  its 
original  inhabitants.  By  directions  of  Gabin- 
ius,  Samaria  and  other  demolished  cities  were 
rebuilt.  But  its  more  ef¥ectual  rebuilding  was 
undertaken  by  Herod  the  Great.  He  called  it 
Sebaste=Augusta,  after  the  name  of  his 
patron.  How  long  Samaria  maintained  its 
splendor  after  Herod's  improvements  we  are 
not  informed.  In  the  N.  T.  the  city  itself  does 
not  appear  to  be  mentioned,  but  rather  a  por- 
tion of  the  district  to  which,  even  in  older 
times,  it  had  extended  its  name  (Matt.  x.  5; 
John  iv.  4,  5).  At  this  day  the  city  is  repre- 
sented by  a  small  village  retaining  few 
vestiges  of  the  past  except  its  name,  Sebus 
tiyeh,  an  Arabic  corruption  of  Sebaste.  Some 
architectural  remains  it  has,  partly  of  Chris- 

351 


SAMARITANS 


SAMARITANS 


tian  construction  or  adaptation,  as  the  ruined 
church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  partly,  per- 
haps, traces  of  Iduniacan  magnificence.  St. 
Jerome,  whose  acquaintance  with  Palestine 
imparts  a  sort  of  probability  to  the  tradition 
which  prevailed  so  strongly  in  later  days,  as- 


Ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Manasseh,  Samaria. 


serts  that  Sebaste,  which  he  invariably  identi- 
fies with  Samaria,  was  the  place  in  which  St. 
John  the  Baptist 'was  imprisoned  and  suffered 
death.  He  also  makes  it  the  burial-place  of 
the  prophets  Elisha  and  Obadidh. 

Samar'itans.  In  the  strictest  sense  of  the 
term,  a  Samaritan  would  be  an  inhabitant  of 
the  city  of  Samaria.  But  it  is  not  found  at  all 
in  this  sense,  exclusively  at  any  rate,  in  the 
O.  T.  Samaria  at  first  included  all  the  tribes 
over  which  Jeroboam  made  himself  king, 
whether  east  or  west  of  the  river  Jordan  (i 
K.  xiii.  32).  In  other  places  in  the  historical 
books  of  the  O.  T.  (with  the  exception  of  2  K. 

xvii.  24,  26,  28,  29)  Samaria  seems  to  denote 
the  city  exclusively.  But  the  prophets  use  the 
word  in  a  greatly  extended  sense.  Hence  the 
word  Samaritan  must  have  denoted  every  one 
subject  to  the  king  of  the  northern  capital. 
But  whatever  extent  the  word  might  have 
acquired,  it  necessarily  became  contracted  as 
the  limits  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  became 
contracted.  We  may  conclude  that  the  cities 
of  Samaria  were  not  merely  partially,  but 
wholly,  evacuated  of  their  inhabitants  in  B.  C. 
721,  and  that  they  remained  in  this  desolated 
state  until,  in  the  words  of  2  K,  xvii.  24,  "the 
king  of  Assyria  brought  men  from  Babylon, 
and  from  Cuthah,  and  from  Ava  (Ivah,  2  K. 

xviii.  34),  and  from  Hamath,  and  from  Seph- 
arvaim,  and  placed  them  in  the  cities  of 
Samaria  instead  of  the  children  of  Israel :  and 
they  possessed  Samaria,  and  dwelt  in  the  cities 
thereof."  Thus  the  new  Samaritans  were  As- 
syrians  by  birth  or  subjugation/   These  colon- 


ists were  of  course  idolaters,  and  worshipped 
a  strange  medley  of  divinities.  God's  dis- 
pleasure was  kindled,  and  they  were  infested 
by  beasts  of  prey,  which  had  probably  in- 
creased to  a  great  extent  before  their  entrance 
upon  it.  On  their  explaining  their  miserable 
condition  to  the  king  of  Assyria,  he  despatched 
one  of  the  captive  priests  to  teach  them  "how 
they  should  fear  the  Lord."  The  priest  came 
accordingly,  and  henceforth,  in  the  language 
of  the  sacred  historian,  they  "feared  the  Lord 
and  served  their  graven  images,  both  their 
children  and  their  children's  children:  as  did 
their  fathers,  so  do  they  unto  this  day"  (2  K. 
xvii.  41).  A  gap  occurs  in  their  history  until 
Judah  has  returned  from  captivity.  They  then 
desire  to  be  allowed  to  participate  in  the  re- 
building of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  But 
they  do  not  call  it  a  national  undertaking.  On 
being  refused  the  Samaritans  throw  ofif  the 
mask,  and  become  open  enemies,  frustrate  the 
operations  of  the  Jews  through  the  reigns  of 
two  Persian  kings,  and  are  only  efTectually 
silenced  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hysta^pis,  B. 
C.  519.  The  feud,  thus  unhappily  begun,  grew 
year  by  year  more  inveterate.  They  are  said 
to  have  done  everything  in  their  power  to  an- 
noy the  Jews'.  Their  own  temple  on  Gerizim 
they  considered  to  be  much  superior  to  that 
at  Jerusalem.  There  they  sacrificed  a  pass- 
over.  Towards  the  mountain,  even  after  the 
temple  on  it  had  fallen,  wherever  they  were, 
they  directed  their  worship.  To  their  copy  of 
the  Law  they  arrogated  an  antiquity  and 
authority  greater  than  attached  to  any  copy 
in  the  possession  of  the  Jews.  The  Law  (i.  e. 
the  five  books  of  Moses)  was  their  sole  code ; 
for  th-ey  rejected  every  other  book  in  the  Jew- 
ish canon.  The  Jews,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
not  more  conciliatory  in  their  treatment  of  the 
Samaritans.  The  copy  of  the  Law  possessed 
by  that  people  they  declared  to  be  the  legacy 
of  an  apostate  (Manasseh),  and  cast  grave 
suspicions  upon  its  genuineness.  Certain 
other  Jewish  renegades  had  from  time  to  time 
taken  refuge  with  the  Samaritans.  Hence,  by 
degrees  the  Samaritans  claimed  to  partake  of 
Jewish  blood,  especially  if  doing  so  happened 
to  suit  their  interest.  Very  far  were  the  Jews 
from  admitting  this  claim  to  consanguinity  on 
the  part  of  these  people.  They  were  ever  re- 
minding them  that  they  were,  after  all,  mere 
Cuthaeans,  mere  strangers  from  Assyria.  The 
traditional  hatred  in  whidi  the  Jew  held  the 
Samaritan  is  expressed  in  Ecclus.  1.  25,  26. 
Such  were  the  Samaritans  of  our  Lord's  day ; 
a  people  distinct  from  the  Jews,  though  lying 
in  the  very  midst  of  the  Jews ;  a  people  pre- 
serving their  identity,  though  seven  centuries 


352 


SAMOS 


SAMSON 


Iiad  rolled  away  since  they  had  been  brought 
from  Assyria  by  Esarhaddon,  and  though  they 
had  abandoned  their  polytheism  for  a  sort  of 
ultra  Mosaicism ;  a  people,  who — though  their 
limits  had  gradually  contracted,  and  the  rally- 
ing-place  of  their  religion  on  Mount  Gerizim 
had  been  destroyed  one  hundred  and  sixty 
years  before  by  John  Hyrcanus  (B.  C.  130), 
and  though  Samaria  (the  city)  had  been  again 
and  again  destroyed — still  preserved  their 
nationality,  still  worshipped  from  Shechem 
and  their  impoverished  settlements  towards 
their  sacred  hill ;  still  retained  their  nation- 
ality, and  could  not  coalesce  with  the  Jews. 

Sa'mos,  a  Greek  island  off  that  part  of  Asia 
j\linor  where  Ionia  touches  Caria.  Samos 
comes  before  our  notice  in  the  detailed  ac- 
count of  St.  Paul's  return  from  his  third  niis- 
sionar}'  journey  (Acts  xx.  15). 

Samothra'cia.  Mention  is  made  of  this  is- 
land in  the  account  of  St.  Paul's  first  voyage 
to  Europe  (Acts  xvi.  11).  Being  a  very  lofty 
and  conspicuous  island,  it  is  an  excellent  land- 
mark for  sailors,  and  must  have  been  full  in 
view,  if  the  weather  was  clear,  throughout 
that  voyage  from  Troas  to  Ncapolis. 

Sam'son  (properly  Sham-sun,  i.  e.,  "little 
sun,"  or  "sun-like,"  from  shemesh,  the  sun), 
son  of  Manoah,  a  man  of  the  town  of  Zorah, 
in  the  tribe  of  Dan,  on  the  border  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  33.  xix.  41).  The  miraculous  cir- 
cumstances of  his  birth  are  recorded  in  Judg. 
xiii. ;  and  the  three  following  chapters  are  de- 
voted to  the  history  of  his  life  and  exploits. 
The  divine  inspiration,  which  Samson  shared 
with  Othniel,  Gideon,  and  Jephthah,  assumed 
in  him  the  unique  form  of  vast  personal 
strength,  animated  by  undaunted  bravery.  It 
was  inseparably  connected  with  the  observ- 
ance of  his  vow  as  a  Nazarite ;  "his  strength 
was  in  his  hair."  Conscious  of  his  power,  he 
began  to  seek  a  quarrel  with  the  Philistines ; 
and  with  this  view  he  asked  the  hand  of  a 
Philistine  woman  whom  he  had  seen  at  Tim- 
nath.  One  day,  as  he  passed  by  the  vineyards 
of  the  city  on  a  visit  to  his  intended  bride,  a 
young  lion  rushed  out  upon  him  ;  the  spirit  of 
Jehovah  came  on  Samson,  and  without  a 
weapon  he  tore  the  lion  as  he  would  have  torn 
a  kid,  but  he  told  no  one  of  the  exploit.  As 
he  passed  that  way  again,  he  saw  a  swarm  of 
bees  in  the  carcass  of  the  lion ;  and  he  ate  of 
the  honey ,^but  still  he  told  no  one.  He  availed 
himself  of  this  circumstance,  and  of  the  cus- 
tom of  proposing  riddles  at  marriage-feasts,  to 
lay  a  snare  for  the  Philistines.  But  Samson 
told  the  riddle  to  his  wife,  and  she  told  it  to 
the  men  of  the  city.  The  spirit  of  Jehovah 
came  again  upon  him ;  and  going   down  to 


Askelon,  he  slew  thirty  men  of  the  city,  and 
gave  their  spoil  to  their  fellow-countrymen  of 
Timnath.  He  then  returned  to  his  own  house. 
His  wife  was  given  to  one  of  the  groomsmen, 
and  on  Samson's  visiting  her  soon  after,  her 
father  refused  to  let  him  see  her.  .Samson  re- 
venged himself  by  taking  300  foxes  (or  rather 
jackals)  and  tying  them  together  two  by  two 
by  the  tails,  with  a  firebrand  between  every 
pair  of  tails,  and  so  he  let  them  loose  into  the 
standing  corn  of  the  Philistines,  which  was 
ready  for  harvest.  The  Philistines  took 
vengeance  by  burning  Samson's  wife  and  her 
father ;  but  he  fell  upon  them  in  return,  and 
smote  them  "hip  and  thigh  v/ith  a  great 
slaughter,"  after  which  he  took  refuge  on  the 
top  of  the  rock  of  Etam,  in  the  territory  of 
Judah.  The  Philistines  gathered  an  army  and 
marched  against  the  men  of  Judah,  who 
hastened  to  make  their  peace  by  giving  up 
Samson.  Three  thousand  of  them  went  up  to 
the  rock  of  Etam  to  bind  him,  and  he  sub- 
mitted on  their  promise  not  to  fall  upon  him 
themselves.  Bound  with  two  new  cords,  he 
was  brought  down  to  the  camp  of  the  Philis- 
tines, who  received  him  with  a  shout  of 
triumph;  but  the  spirit  of  Jehovah  came  upon 
him :  he  broke  the  cords  like  burnt  flax,  and 
finding  a  jawbone  of  an  ass  at  hand,  he  slew 
with  it  a  thousand  of  the  Philistines.  This 
achievement  raised  Samson  to  the  position  of 
a  judge,  which  he  held  for  twenty  years. 
After  a  time  he  began  to  fall  into  the  tempta- 
tions which  addressed  themselves  to  his  strong 
animal  nature ;  but  he  broke  through  every 
snare  in  which  he  was  caught  so  long  as  he 
kept  his  Nazarite's  vow.  While  he  was  visit- 
ing a  harlot  in  Gaza,  the  Philistines  shut  the 
gates  of  the  city,  intending  to  kill  him  in  the 
morning;  but  at  midnight  he  went  out  and 
tore  away  the  gates,  with  the  posts  and  bar, 
and  carried  them  to  the  top  of  a  hill  looking 
towards  Hebron.  Next  he  formed  his  fatal 
connection  with  Delilah,  a  woman  who  lived 
in  the  valley  of  Sorek.  She  was  bribed  by 
the  lords  of  the  Philistines  to  entice  Samson 
to  tell  her  the  secret  of  his  strength ;  and 
though  not  at  once  betraying  it,  he  played 
with  the  temptation.  Thrice  he  suffered  him- 
self to  be  bound  with  green  withes,  with  new 
ropes,  and  by  weaving  the  seven  locks  of  his 
hair  to  the  beam  of  a  loom ;  and  each  time, 
when  Delilah  gave  the  signal,  "The  Philistines 
are  upon  thee,  Samson,"  he  burst  the  withes 
and  ropes,  and  tore  away  the  beam  with  its 
pin.  Instead  of  resenting  Delilah's  evident 
treachery,  he  seems  to  have  enjoyed  the  cer- 
tainty of  triumph  over  each  new  snare,  till  he 
was  betrayed  into,  the  presumption  that  per- 


353 


SAMUEI 


SAMUEL,  BOOKS  OF 


haps  his  strength  might  survive  the  loss  of  his 
Nazarite's  locks.  Wearied  out  with  her  im- 
portunity, he  at  last  "told  her  all  his  heart," 
and,  while  he  was  asleep,  she  had  him  shaven 
of  his  seven  locks  of  hair.  For  the  last  time 
he  was  awakened  by  her  cry,  "The  Philistines 
are  upon  thee,  Samson,"  and  thought  he  had 
only  to  go  out  and  shake  himself,  as  at  the 
other  times,  for  "he  wist  not  that  Jehovah 
was  departed  from  him."  They  put  out  his 
eyes,  and  led  him  down  to  Gaza,  .bound  in 
brazen  fetters,  and  made  him  grind  in  the 
prison.  As  his  hair  grew,  his  strength  re- 
turned; but  his  infatuated  foes  only  saw  in 
this  the  means  of  their  diversion.  The  lords 
and  chief  people  of  the  Philistines  held  a  great 
festival  in  the  temple  of  Dagon,  to  celebrate 
their  victory  over  Samson.  They  brought 
forth  the  blind  champion  to  make  sport  for 
them  ;  and,  after  he  had  shown  his  feats  of 
strength,  they  placed  him  between  the  two 
chief  pillars  which  supported  the  roof  that 
surrounded  the  court,  which,  as  well  as  the 
court  itself,  was  crowded  with  spectators,  to 
the  number  of  3000.  Samson  asked  the  lad 
who  gtiided  him  to  let  him  feel  the  pillars,  to 
lean  upon  them.  Then,  with  a  fervent  prayer 
that  God  would  strengthen  him  only  this  once, 
to  be  avenged  on  the  Philistines,  he  bore  with 
all  his  might  upon  the  two  pillars ;  they 
yielded,  and  the  house  fell  upon  the  lords  and 
all  the  people.  "So  the  dead  which  he  slew 
at  his  death  were  more  than  they  which  he 
slew  in  his  life."  His  name  is  enrolled  among 
the  worthies  of  the  Jewish  church  in  Heb. 
xi.  32. 

Sam'uel  was  the  son  of  Elkanah,  an  Eph- 
rathite  or  Ephraimite,  and  Hannah  or  Anna, 
and  was  born  at  Ramathaim-Zophim.  It  is  on 
the  mother  of  Samuel  that  our  chief  attention 
is  fixed  in  the  account  of  his  birth.  She  had 
before  his  birth  dedicated  him  to  the  office  of 
a  Nazarite.  As  soon  as  lie  was  weaned,  she 
herself  with  her  husband  brought  him  to  the 
Tabernacle  at  Shiloh,  where  she  had  received 
the  first  intimation  of  his  birth,  and  there 
solemnly  consecrated  him.  The  hymn  which 
followed  on  this  consecration  is  the  first  of 
the  kind  in  the  sacred  volume.  He  next  ap- 
pears, probably  twenty  years  afterwards,  sud- 
denly amongst  the  people,  warning  them 
against  their  idolatroits  practices  (vii.  3,  4). 
He  convened  an  assembly  at  Mizpeh,  probably 
the  place  in  Benjamin.  It  was  at  the  moment 
that  he  was  of¥ering  up  a  sacrifice  that  the 
Philistine  host  suddenly  burst  upon  them.  A 
violent  thunderstorm  came  to  the  timely  as- 
sistance of  Israel.  The  Philistines  fled,  and, 
exactly  at  the  spot  where  twenty  years  before 


they  had  obtained  their  great  victory,  they 
were  totally  routed.  A  stone  was  set  up, 
which  long  remained  as  a  memorial  of  Sam- 
uel's triumph,  and  gave  to  the  place  its  name 
of  Eben-ezer,  "the  Stone  of  Help"  (i  Sam.  vii. 
12).  This  was  Samuel's  first,  and,  as  far  as 
we  know,  his  only  military  achievement.  But 
it  was  apparently  this  which  raised  him  to  the 
ofiice  of  "Judge."  (comp.  i  Sam.  xiii.  11  and 
Ecclus.  xlvi.  15-18).  He  visited,  in  discharge 
of  his  duties  as  ruler,  the  three  chief  sanctu- 
aries on  the  west  of  Jordan — Bethel,  Gilgal, 
and  Mizpeh  (i  Sam.  vii.  16).  His  own  resi- 
dence was  still  his  native  city,  Ramah  or 
Ramathaim,  which  he  further  consecrated  by 
an  altar  (vii.  17).  Here  he  married,  and  two 
sons  grew  up  to  repeat  under  his  eyes  the 
same  perversion  of  high  office  that  he  had 
himself  witnessed  in  his  childhood  in  the  case 
of  the  two  sons  of  Eli.  In  his  old  age  he 
shared  his  power  with  them  (i  Sam.  viii.  1-4), 
but  the  people  dissatisfied  demanded  a  king 
and  Saul  was  finally  annointed  under  God's 
direction  and  Samuel  surrendered  to  him  his 
authority  i  Sam.  xii.,  though  still  remaining 
Judge,  ch.  vii.,  15.  He  was  consulted  far  and 
near  on  the  small  affairs  of  life  (i  Sam.  ix.  7, 
8).  Froiii  this  faculty,  combined  with  his 
office  of  ruler,  an  awful  reverence  grew  up 
around  him.  No  sacrificial  feast  was  thought 
complete  without  his  blessing  (ib.  ix.  13).  A 
peculiar  virtue  was  believed  to  reside  in  his 
intercession.  After  Saul  was  rejected  by  God 
Samuel  anointed  David  at  the  house  of  Jesse. 
He  there  becomes  the  spiritual  father  of  the 
Psalmist  king.  He  is  also  the  Founder  of  the 
first  regular  institutions  of  religious  instruc- 
tion, and  communities  for  the  purposes  of  edu- 
cation. The  death  of  Samuel  is  described  as 
taking  place  in  the  year  of  the  close  of  David's 
wanderings. 

Samuel,  Books  of,  are  not  separated  from 
each  other  in  the  Hebrew  MSS.,  and,  from  a 
critical  point  of  view,  must  be  regarded  as  one 
book.  The  present  division  was  first  made  in 
the  Septuagint  translation,  and  was  adopted 
in  the  Vulgate  from  the  Septuagint.  The  book 
was  called  by  the  Hebrews  "Samuel,"  proba- 
bly because  the  birth  and  life  of  Samuel  were 
the  subjects  treated  of  in  the  beginning  of  the 
work. — The  books  of  Samuel  commence  with 
the  history  of  Eli  and  Samuel,  and  contain  an 
account  of  the  establishment  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchy  and  of  the  reigns  of  Saul  and  David, 
with  the  exception  of  the  last  days  of  the  lat- 
ter monarch,  which  are  related  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  books  of  Kings,  of  which  those  of 
Samuel  form  the  previous  portion.  [Kings, 
Books  of.]    Authorship  and  Date  of  the  Book. 


354 


SANDAL 


SANDAL 


— I.  As  to  the  authorship.  In  common  with 
all  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
except  the  beginning  of  Nehemiah,  the  Book 
of  Samuel  contains  no  mention  in  the  text  of 
the  name  of  its  author.  It  is  indisputable  that 
the  title  "Samuel"  does  not  imply  that  the 
prophet  was  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Samuel 
as  a  whole ;  for  the  death  of  Samuel  is  re- 
corded in  the  beginning  of  the  25th  chapter. 
Again,  in  reference  to  the  Book  of  Samuel,  the 
absence  of  the  historian's  name  from  both  the 
text  and  the  title  is  not  supplied  by  any  state- 
.ment  of  any  other  writer,  made  within  a 
reasonable  period  from  the  time  when  the  book 
may  be  supposed  to  have  been  written.  In 
our  own  time  the  most  prevalent  idea  in  the 
Anglican  Church  seems  to  have  been  that  the 
first  twenty-four  chapters  of  the  Book  of 
Samuel  were  written  by  the  prophet  himself, 
and  the  rest  of  the  chapters  by  the  prophets 
Xathan  and  Gad.  2.  But  although  the  author- 
ship cannot  be  ascertained  with  certainty,  it 
appears  clear  that,  in  its  present  form,  it  must 
have  been  composed  subsequent  to  the  seces- 
sion of  the  Ten  Tribes  (B.  C.  975).  This  re- 
sults from  the  passage  in  i  Sam.  xxvii.  6, 
wherein  it  is  said  of  David,  "Then  Achish 
gave  him  Ziklag  that  day:  wherefore  Ziklag 
pcrtain^th  unto  the  kings  of  Judah  to  this 
day :"  for  neither  Saul,  David,  nor  Solomon 
is  in  a  single  instance  called  king  of  Judah 
simply.  Before  the  secession,  the  designation 
of  the  kings  was  that  they  were  kings  of  Israel 
(i  Sam.  xiii.  I,  xv.  i,  xvi.  i;  2  Sam.  v,  17,  viii. 
15;  I  K.  ii.  II,  iv.  I,  vi.  i,  xi.  42).  On  the 
other  hand,  it  would  hardly  have  been  written 
later  than  the  reformation  of  Josiah,  since  it 
seems  to  have  been  composed  at  a  time  when 
the  Pentateuch  was  not  acted  on  as  the  rule 
of  religious  observances.  All,  therefore,  that 
can  be  asserted  with  any  certainty  is,  that  the 
book,  as  a  whole,  can  scarcely  have  been  com- 
posed later  than  the  reformation  of  Josiah, 
and  that  it  could  not  have  existed  in  its  present 
form  earlier  than  the  reign  of  Rehoboam. 

Sandal  was  the  article  ordinarily  used  by  the 
Hebrews  for  protecting  the  feet.  It  consisted 
simply  of  a  sole  attached  to  the  foot  by 
thongs.^  We  have  express  notice  of  the  thong 
(A.  V.  "shoe-latchet")  in  several  passages 
(Gen.  xiv.  23;  Is.  v.  27;  Mark  i.  7).  In  As- 
syria the  heel  and  the  side  of  the  foot  were 
encased,  and  sometimes  the  sandal  consisted 
of  little  else  than  this.  Sandals  were  worn  by 
all  classes  of  society  in  Palestine,  even  by  the 
very  poor  (Am.  viii.  6),  and  both  the  sandal 
and  the  thong  or  shoe-latchet  were  so  cheap 
and  common,  that  they  passed  into  a  proverb 
for  the  most  insignificant  thing  (Gen.  xiv.  23 ; 


Ecclus.  xlvi.  19).  They  were  not,  however, 
worn  at  all  periods ;  they  were  dispensed  with 
in-doors,  and  were  only  put  on  by  persons 
about  to  undertake  some  business  away  from 
their  homes;  such  as  a  military  expedition  (Is. 
V.  27;  Eph.  vi.  15),  or  a  journey  (Ex.  xii.  11; 
Josh.  ix.  5,  13 ;  Acts  xii.  8)  :  on  such  occasions 
persons  carried  an  extra  pair.  During  meal- 
times the  feet  were  undoubtedly  uncovered, 


Sandals. 

as  implied  in  Luke  vii.  38;  John  xiii.  5,  6.  It 
was  a  mark  of  reverence  to  cast  off  the  shoes 
in  approaching  a  place  or  person  of  eminent 
sanctity  (Ex.  iii.  5;  Josh.  v.  15).  It  was  also 
an  indication-of  violent  emotion,  or  of  mourn- 
ing, if  a  person  appeared  barefoot  in  public  (2 
Sam.  XV.  30;  Is.  XX.  2;  Ez.  xxiv.  17,' 23).  To 
carry  or  to  unloose  a  person's  sandal  was  a 


355 


SANilEDRiN 


SARAH 


menial  office  betokening  great  inferiority  on 
the  part  of  the  person  performing  it  (Matt, 
iii.  II  ;  Mark  i.  7;  John  i.  27;  Acts  xiii.  25). 
The  expression  in  Ps.  Ix.  8,  cviii.  9,  "over 
F.clom  I  cast  out  my  shoe,"  evidently  signifies 
the  subjection  of  that  country,  but  the  exact 
point  of  the  comparison  is  obscure.  The  use 
of  the  shoe  in  the  transfer  of  property  is 
noticed  in  Ruth  iv.  7,  8. 

San'hedrim,  the  supreme  council  of  the  Jew- 
ish people  in  the  time  of  .Christ  and  earlier. 
I.  The  origin  of  this  assembly  is  traced  in  the 
Mishna  to  the  seventy  elders  whom  Moses 
was  directed  (Num.  xi.  16,  17)  to  associate 
with  him  in  the  government  of  the  Israelites ; 
but  this  tribunal  was  probably  temporary,  and 
did  not  continue  to  exist  after  the  Israelites 
had  entered  Palestine.  In  the  lack  of  definite 
historical  information  as  to  the  establishment 
of  the  Sanhedrim,  it  can  only  be  said  in  gen- 


Tlie  Sanhodvim  in  Council. 

era!  that  the  Greek  etymology  of  the  name 
seems  to  point  to  a  period  subsequent  to  the 
Macedonian  supremacy*  in  Palestine.  From 
the  few  incidental  notices  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, we  gather  that  it  consisted  of  chief 
priests,  or  the  heads  of  the  24  classes  into 
which  the  priests  were  divided,  elders,  men  of 
age  and  experience,  and  scribes,  lawyers,  or 
those  learned  in  the  Jewish  law  (Matt.  xxvi. 
57,  59;  Mark  xv.  i ;  Luke  xxii.  66;  Acts  v.  21). 
2.  The  number  of  members  is  usually  given  as 
71.  The  president  of  this  body  was  styled 
Nasi,  and  was  chosen  on  account  of  his  emi- 
nence in  worth  and  wisdom.  Often,  if  not 
generally,  this  pre-eminence  was  accorded  to 
the  high-priest.    The  vice-president,  called  in 


the  Talmud  "father  of  the  house  of  judg- 
ment,", sat  at  the  right  hand  of  the  president. 
Some  writers  speak  of  a  second  vice-president, 
but  this  is  not  sufficiently  confirmed.  While 
in  session  the  Sanhedrim  sat  in  the  form  of  a 
half-circle.  3.  The  place  in  which  the  sessions 
of  the  Sanhedrim  were  ordinarily  held  was, 
according  to  the  Talmud,  a  hall  called  Gaz- 
zith,  supposed  by  Lightfoot  to  have  been  sit- 
uated in  the  south-east  corner  of  one  of  the 
courts  near  the  temple  building.  In  special 
exigencies,  however,  it  seems  to  have  met  in 
the  residence  of  the  high-priest  (Matt;  xxvi. 
3).  Forty  years  before  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, and-  consequently  while  the  Saviour 
was  teaching  in  Palestine,  the  sessions  of  the 
Sanhedrim  were  removed  from  the  hall  Gaz- 
zith  to  a  somewhat  greater  distance  from  the 
temple  building,  although  still  on  Mt.  Moriah. 
After  several  other  changes,  its  seat  was 
finally  established  at  Tiberias. — As  a  judicial 
body  the  Sanhedrim  constituted  a  supreme 
court,  to  which  belonged  in  the  first  instance 
the  trial  of  a  tribe  fallen  into  idolatry,  false 
prophets,  and  the  high-priest ;  also  the  other 
priests.  As  an  administrative  council  it  de- 
termined other  important  matters.  Jesus  was 
arraigned  before  this  body  as  a  false  prophet 
(John  xi.  47),  and  Peter,  John,  Stephen,  and 
Paul  as  teachers  of  error  and  deceivers  of  the 
people.  From  Acts  ix.  2  it  appears  that  the 
Sanhedrim  exercised  a  degree  of  authority  be- 
yond the  limits  of  Palestine.  According  to 
the  Jerusalem  Gemara  the  power  of  inflicting 
capital  punishment  was  taken  away  from  this 
tribunal  forty  years  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  With  this  agrees  the  answer  of 
the  Jews  to  Pilate  (John  xix.  31).  The  Tal- 
mud also  mentions  a  lesser  Sanhedrim  of 
twenty-three  members  in  every  city  in  Pales- 
tine in  which  were  not,  less  than  120  house- 
holders. 

Sapphire  (Heb.  sappir),  a  precious  stone, 
apparently  of  a  bright  blue  color  (see  Ex. 
xxiv.  10)  ;  the  second  stone  in  the  second  row 
of  the  high  priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii. 
18)  ;  extremely  precious  (Job  xxviii.  16)  ;  it 
was  one  of  the  precious  stones  that  orna- 
mented the  king  of  Tyre  (Ez.  xxviii.  13).  The 
sapphire  of  the  ancients  was  not  ou?  gem  of 
that  name,  viz.  the  azure  or  indigo  blue,  crystal- 
line variety  of  Corundum,  but  our  Lapis  lazuli 
(Ultra  marine). 

Sa'ra.  [Sarah.] 

Sa'rah  (Princess),  i.  The  wife  of  Abraham, 
and  mother  of  Isaac.  Her  name  is  first  intro- 
duced in  Gen.  xi.  29,  as  Sarai.  The  change  of 
her  name  from  "Sarai"  to  "Sarah"  was  made 
at  the  same  time  that  Abram's   name  was 


356 


OF  THE 


SARAI 


SATAN 


chang;ed  to  Abraham,  on  the  establishment  of  I  This  probably  was  erected  after  the  restora- 


the  covenant  of  circumcision  between  him  and 
God.  That  the  name  "Sarah"  signifies  "prin- 
cess" is  universally  acknowledged ;  but  the 
meaning  of  "Sarai"  is  still  a  subject  of  con- 
troversy. The  older  interpreters  suppose  it 
to  mean  "my  princess."  Her  history  is  of 
course  that  of  Abraham.  [Abraham.]  She 
died  at  Hebron  at  the  age  of  127  years,  28 
years  before  her  husband,  and  was  buried  by 
him  in  the  cave  of  ]\Iachpelah.  She  is  referred 
to  in  the  N.  T.  as  a  type  of  conjugal  obedience 
in  I  Pet.  iii.  6,  and  as  one  of  the  types  of  faith 
in  Heb.  xi.  11. 

Sa'rai,  the  original  name  of  Sarah,  the  wife 
of  Abraham.  The  meaning  of  the  name  may 
possibly  be,  as  Ewald  has  suggested,  "con- 
tentious." 

Sar'dis,  a  city  situated  about  two  miles  to 
the  south  of  the  river  Hermus,  just  below  the 
range  of  Tmolus,  on  a  spur  of  which  its 
acropolis  was  built.  It  was  the  ancient  resi- 
dence of  the  kings  of  Lydia.  Sardis  was  in 
very  early  times  a  commercial  'mart  of  im- 


Ruins  :it  Sardis. 

portance.  Chestnuts  were  first  produced  in 
the  neighborhood.  The  art  of  dyeing  wool  is 
said  by  Pliny  to  have  been  invented  there ;  and 
at'  any  rate  Sardis  was  the  entrepot  of  the 
dyed  woollen  manufactures.  In  the  year  214 
B.  C.  it  was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  army  of 
Antiochus  the  Great.  Its  productive  soil  must 
always  have  continued  a  source  of  wealth ;  but 
its  importance  as  a  central  mart  appears  to 
have  diminished  from  the  time  of  the  invasion 
of  Asia  by  Alexander.  The  massive  temple 
of  Cybele  still  bears  witness  in  its  fragmen- 
tary remains  to  the  wealth  and  architectural 
skill  of  the  people  that  raised  it.  On  the  north 
side  of  the  acropolis,  overlooking  the  valley 
of  the  Hermus,  is  a  theatre  near  400  feet  in 
diameter,  attached  to  a  stadium  of  about  1000. 


tion  of  Sardis  by  Alexander.  There  are  still 
considerable  remains  of  the  ancient  city  at 
Sert-Kalessi.  Travellers  describe  the  appear- 
ance of  the  locality  as  that  of  complete  soli- 
tude. The  only  passage  in  which  it  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible  is  Rev.  iii.  1-6. 

Sa'tan.  The  word  itself,  the  Hebrew  satan, 
is  simply  an  "adversary,"  and  is  so  used  in  i 
Sam.  xxix.  4 ;  2  Sam.  xix.  22 ;  I  K.  v.  4,  xi.  14, 
23,  25 ;  Num.  xxii.  22,  32 ;  Ps.  cix.  6.  This 
original  sense  is  still  found  in  our  Lord's  ap- 
plication of  the  name  to  St.  Peter  in  Matt, 
xvi.  23.  It  is  used  as  a  proper  name  or  title 
only  four  times  in  the  O.  T.  viz.  (with  the 
article)  in  Job  i.  6,  12,  ii.  i,  Zech.  ii.  i,  and 
(without  the  article)  in  i  Chr.  xxi.  i.  It  is 
with  the  scriptural  revelation  on  the  subject 
that  we  are  here  concerned ;  and  it  is  clear, 
from  this  simple  envuneration  of  passages,  that 
it  is  to  be  sought  in  the  New,  rather  than  in 
the  Old  Testament.  I.  The  personal  existence 
of  a  Spirit  of  Evil  is  clearly  revealed  in  Scrip- 
ture ;  but  the  revelation  is  made  gradually,  in 
accordance  with  the  progressiveness  of  God's 
method.  In  the  first  entrance  of  evil  into  the 
world,  the  temptation  is  referred  only  to  the 
serpent.  In  the  Book  of  Job  we  find,  for  the 
first  time,  a  distinct  mention  of  "Satan,"  the 
"adversary"  of  Job.  But  it  is  important  to 
remark  the  em.phatic  stress  laid  on  his  subor- 
dinate position,  on  the  absence  of  all  but  dele- 
gated power,  of  all  terror,  and  all  grandeur 
in  his  character.  It  is  especially  remarkable 
that  no  power  of  spiritual  influence,  but  only 
a  power  over  outward  circumstances,  is  at- 
tributed to  him.  The  New  Testament  first 
brings  plainly  forward  the  power  and  influence 
of  Satan.  From  the  beginning-  of  the  Gospel, 
when  he  appears  as  the  personal  tempter  of 
our  Lord,  through  all  the  Gospels,  Epistles, 
and  Apocalypse,  it  is  asserted  or  implied, 
again  and  again,  as  a  familiar  and  important 
truth.  II.  Of  the  nature  and  original  state  of 
Satan,  little  is  revealed  in  Scripture.  He  is 
spoken  of  as  a  "spirit"  in  Eph.  ii.  2,  as  the 
prince  or  ruler  of  the  "demons"  in  Matt.  xii. 
24-26,  and  as  having  "angels"  subject  to  him 
in  IMatt.  xxv.  41 ;  Rev.  xii.  7,  9.  The  whole  de- 
scription of  his  power  implies  spiritual  nature 
and  spiritual  influence.  We  conclude  there- 
fore that  he  was  of  angelic  nature,  a  rational 
and  spiritual  creature,  superhuman  in  power, 
wisdom,  and  energy ;  and  not  only  so,  but  an 
archangel,  one  of  the  "princes"  of  heaven.  We 
cannot,  of  course,  conceive  that  anything  es- 
sentially and  originally  evil  was  created  by 
God.  We  can  only  conjecture,  therefore,  that 
Satan  is  a  fallen  angel,  who  once  had  a  tirrre 


357 


SATAN 


SAUL 


of  probation,  but  whose  condemnation  is  now 
irrevocably  fixed.  As  to  the  time,  cause,  and 
manner  of  his  fall.  Scripture  tells  us  scarcely 
anything.  But  it  describes  to  us  distinctly 
the  moral  nature  of  the  Evil  One.  The  ideal 
of  goodness  is  made  up  of  the  three  great 
moral  attributes  of  God — Love,  Truth,  and 
Purity  or  Holiness ;  combined  with  that  si^irit 
which  is  the  natural  temper  pi  a  finite  and 
dependent  creature,  the  spirit  of  Faith.  We 
find,  accordingly,  that  the  opposites  of  these 
qualities  are  dwelt  upon  as  the  characteristics 
of  the  devil.  IIL  The  power  of  Satan  over  the 
soul  is  represented  as  exercised  either  directly 
or  by  his  instruments.  His  direct  influence 
over  the  soul  is  simply  that  of  a  powerful  and 
evil  nature  on  those  in  whom  lurks  the  germ 
of  the  same  evil.  Besides  this  direct  influence, 
we  learn  from  Scripture  that  Satan  is  the 
leader  of  a  host  of  evil  spirits  or  angels  who 
share  his  evil  work,  and  for  whom  the  "ever- 
lasting fire  is  prepared"  (Matt.  xxv.  41).  Of 
their  origin  and  fall  we  know  no  more  than 
of  his,  for  they  cannot  be  the  same  as  the 
fallen  and  imprisoned  angels  of  2  Pet.  ii.  4, 
and  Jude  6;  but  one  passage  (Matt.  xii.  24-26) 
identifies  them  distinctly  with  the  "demons" 
(A.  V.  "devils")  who  had  power  to  possess 
the  souls  of  men.  They  are  mostly  spoken 
of  in  Scripture  in  reference  to  possession ;  but 
in  Eph.  vi.  12,  they  are  described  in  various 
lights,  as  "principalities,"  "powers,"  "rulers  of 
the  darkness  of  this  world,"  and  "spiritual 
powers  of  wickedness  in  heavenly  places"  (or 
"things")  ;  and  in  all  as  "wrestling"  against 
the  soul  of  man.  We  find  them  sharing  the 
enmity  to  God  and  man  implied  in  the  name 
and  nature  of  Satan ;  but  their  power  and  ac- 
tion are  but  little  dwelt  upon  in  comparison 
with  his.  But  the  Evil  One  is  not  only  the 
"prince  of  the  demons,"  but  also  he  is  called 
the  "prince  of  this  world,"  in  John  xii.  31,  xiv. 
30,  xvi.  II,  and  even  the  "god  of  this  world"  in 
2  Cor.  iv.  4:  the  two  expressions  being  united 
in  Eph.  vi.  12.  This  power  he  claimed  for 
himself,  as  a  delegated  authority,  in  the 
temptation  of  our  Lord  (Luke  iv.  6)  ;  and  the 
temptation  would  have  been  unreal  had  he 
spoken  altogether  falsely.  The  indirect  action 
of  Satan  is  best  discerned  by  an  examination 
of  the  title  by  which  he  is  designated  in  Scrip- 
ture. He  is  called  emphatically  "the  devil." 
In  the  application  of  the  title  to  Satan,  both 
the  general  and  special  senses  should  be  kept 
in  view.  His  general  object  is  to  break  the 
bonds  of  communion  between  God  and  man, 
and  the  bonds  of  truth  and  love  which  bind 
men  to  each  other.  The  slander  of  God  to 
man  is  seen  best  in  the  words  of  Gen.  iii.  4, 


5.  They  attribute  selfishness  and  jealousy  to 
the  Giver  of  all  good.  The  slander  of  man  to 
God  is  illustrated  by  the  Book  of  Job  (Job  i. 
9-11,  ii.  4,  5).  The  method  of  Satanic  action 
upon  the  heart  may  be  summed  up  in  two 
words. — Temptation  and  Possession.  The 
subject  of  temptation  is  illustrated,  not  only 
by  abstract  statements,  but  also  by  the  record 
of  the  temptations  of  Adam  and  of  our  Lord. 
It  is  expressly  laid  down  (as  in  James  i.  2-4) 
that  "temptation,"  properly  so  called,  i.  e. 
"trial,"  is  essential  to  man,  and  is  accordingly 
ordained  for  him  and  sent  to  him  by  God  (as 
in  Gen.  xxii.  i).  It  is  this  tentability  of  man, 
even  in  his  original  nature,  which  is  repre- 
sented in  Scripture  as  giving  scope  to  the  evil 
action  of  Satan.  But  in  the  temptation  of  a 
fallen  nature  Satan  has  a  greater  power.  Every 
sin  committed  makes  a  man  the  "servant  of 
sin"  for  the  future  (John  viii.  34;  Rom.  vi. 
16)  :  it  therefore  creates  in  the  spirit  of  man 
a  positive  tendency  to  evil,  which  sympathizes 
with,  and  aids,  the  temptation  of  the  Evil  One. 
On  the  subject  of  Possession,  see  Demoniacs. 

Satyrs  are  mentioned  in  Is.  xiii.  21,  and 
xxxiv.  14,  where  the  prophet  predicts  the  deso- 
lation of  Babylon.  The  Hebrew  word  sig- 
nifies "hairy"  or  "rough,"  and  is  frequently 
applied  to  "he-goats."  In  the  passages  cited  i^ 
probably  refers  to  demons  of  woods  and 
desert  places,  half  men  and  half  goats  (comp. 
Lev.  xvii.  7;  2  Chr.  xi.  15). 

Saul,  more  accurately  Shaul. — i.  Saul  of 
Rehoboth  by  the  River  was  one  of  the  early 
kings  of  Edom,  and  successor  of  Samlah  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  37,  38;  I  Chr.  i.  48).  2.  The  first  king 
of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Kish  and  of  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin.  His  character  is  in  part  illus- 
trated by  the  fierce,  wayward,  fitful  nature  of 
the  tribe,  and  in  part  accounted  for  by  the 
struggle  between  the  old  and  new  systems  in 
which  he  found  himself  involved.  To  this  we 
must  add  a  taint  of  madness,  which  broke  out 
in  violent  frenzy  at  times,  leaving  him  with 
long  lucid  intervals.  He  was  remarkable  for 
his  strength  and  activity  (2  Sam.  i.  23)  and 
like  the  Homeric  heroes,  of  gigantic  stature, 
taller  by  head  and  shoulders  than  the  rest  of 
the  people,  and  of  that  kind  of  beauty  denoted 
by  the  Hebrew  word  "good"  (i  Sam.  ix.  2), 
and  which  caused  him  to  be  compared  to  the 
gazelle,  "the  gazelle  of  Israel."  His  birth- 
place is  not  expressly  mentioned ;  but,  as 
Zelah  was  the  place  of  Kish's  sepulchre  (2 
Sam.  xxi.),  it  was  probably  his  native  village. 
His  father,  Kish,  was  a  powerful  and  wealthy 
chief,  though  the  family  to  which  he  belonged 
was  of  little  importance  (ix.  i,  21).  A  portion 
of  his  property  consisted  of  a  drove  of  asses. 


358 


SAW 


SCOURGING 


In  search  of  these  asses,  gone  astray  on  the 
mountains,  lie  sent  his  son  Saul,  accompanied 
by  a  servant,  who  acted  also  as  a  guide  and 
guardian  of  the  young  man  (ix.  3-10).  It  was 
while  prosecuting  this  adventure  that  Saul 
met  with  Samuel  for  the  first  time.  A  Divine 
intimation  had  indicated  to  him  the  approach 
and  the  future  destiny  of  the  youthful  Ben- 
jamite.  In  anticipation  of  some  distinguished 
stranger,  Samuel  had  bade  the  cook  reserve  a 
boiled  shoulder,  from  which  Saul,  as  the  chief 
guest,  was  bidden  to  tear  off  the  first  morsel. 
They  then  descended  to  the  city,  and  a  bed 
was  prepared  for  Saul  on  the  house-top.  At 
daybreak  Samuel  roused  him.  They  descended 
again  to  the  skirts  of  the  town,  and  there  (the 
servant  having  left  them)  Samuel  poured  over 
Saul's  head  the  consecrated  oil,  and  with  a  kiss 
of  salutation  announced  to  him  that  he  was 
to  be  the  ruler  of  the  nation  '  (ix.  25-x.  i). 
From  that  moment  a  new  life  dawned  upon 
him ;  and  on  his  return  homewards,  his  call 
was  confirmed  by  the  incidents  which,  accord- 
ing to  Samuel's  prediction,  awaited  him  (x.  9, 
10).  This  is  what  may  be  called  the  private, 
inner  view  of  his  call.  The  outer  call,  which 
is  related  independently  of  the  other,  was  as 
follows : — An  assembly  was  convened  by  Sam- 
uel at  Mizpeh,  and  lots  were  cast  to  find  the 
tribe  and  the  family  which  was  to  produce  the 
king.  Saul  was  named — and,  by  a  Divine  in- 
timation, found  hid  in  the  circle  of  baggage 
which  surrounded  the  encampment  (x.  17-24). 
His  stature  at  once  conciliated  the  public  feel- 
ing, and  for  the  first  time  the  shout  was  raised, 
afterwards  so  often  repeated  in  modern  times, 
'"Long  live  the  king"  (x.  23-34),  and  he  re- 
turned to  Gibrah.  The  story  of  his  reign«and 
his  battles  with  the  Philistines  is  told  in  i 
Samuel  iv. 

Saw.  Egyptian  saws,  so  far  as  has  yet  been 
discovered,  were  single-handed,  though  St. 
Jerome  has  been  thought  to  allude  to  circular 
saws.  As  is  the  case  in  modern  Oriental  saws, 
the  teeth  usually  incline  towards  the  handle, 
instead  of  away  from  it,  like  ours.  They  have, 
in  most  cases,  bronze  blades,  apparently  at- 
tached to  the  handles  by  leathern  thongs  ;  but 
some  of  those  in  the  British  iMuseum  have 
their  blades  let  into  them  like  our  knives.  A 
double-handed  iron  saw  has  been  found  at 
Nimriid.  No  evidence  exists  of  the  use  of  the 
saw  applied  to  stone  in  Egypt,  nor  without 
the  double-handed  saw  does  it  seem  likely  that 
this  .should  be  the  case ;  but  we  read  of  sawn 
stones  used  in  the  Temple  (i  K.  vii.  9).  The 
saws  "under"  or  "in"  which  David  is  said  to 
have  placed  his  captives  were  of  iron.  The 
expression  in  2  Sam.  xii.  31,  does  not  neces- 


sarily imply  torture,  but  the  word  "cut"  in 
I  Chr.  XX.  3,  can  hardly  be  understood  other- 
wise. ' 

Scape-goat.    [Atonement,  Day  of.J 
Scarlet.  [Colors.] 

Sceptre,  originally  meant  a  rod  or  staff.  It 
was  thence  specifically  applied  to  the  shep- 
herd's crook  (Lev.  xxvii.  32;  Mic;  vii.  14),  and 
to  the  wand  or  sceptre  of  a  ruler.  The  use 
of  the  stafl:  as  a  symbol  of  authority  was  not 
confined  to  kings ;  it  might  be  used  by  any 
leader,  as  instanced  in  Judg.  v.  14,  where  for 
"pen  of  the  writer,"  as  in  the  A.  V.,  we  should 
read  "sceptre  of  the  leader."  The  allusions 
to  it  are  all  of  a  metaphorical  character,  and 
describe  it  simply  as  one  of  the  insignia  of  su- 
preme power  (Gen.  xlix.  10;  Num.  xxiv.  17;  Ps. 
xlv.  6;  Is.  xiv.  5;  Am.  i.  5;  Zech.  x.  11  ;  Wisd. 
x.  14;  Bar.  vi.  14). 

Scorpion,  twice  mentioned  in  the  O.  T. 
(Deut:  viii.  15;  Ez.  ii.  6),  and  four  times  in 
the  N.  T.  (Luke  x.  19,  xi.  12;  Rev.  ix.  3,  10). 
The  wilderness  of  Sinai  is  especially  alluded  to 
as  being  inhabited  by  scorpions  at  the  time  of 
the  Exodus,  and  to  this  day  these  animals  are 
common  in  the  same  district,  as  well  as  in 


Scorpion. 

some  parts  of  Palestine.  Scorpions  are  gen- 
erally found  in  dry  and  in  dark  places,  under 
stones  and  in  ruins,  chiefly  in  warm  climates. 
They  are  carnivorous  in  their  habits,  and  move 
along  in  a  threatening  attitude,  with  the  tail 
elevated.  The  sting,  which  is  situated  at  the 
extremity  of  the  tail,  has  at  its  base  a  gland 
that  secretes  a  poisonous  fluid,  which  is  dis- 
charged into  the  wound  by  two  minute  orifices 
at  its  extremity.  In  hot  climates  the  sting 
often  occasions  much  suffering,  and  some- 
times alarming  symptoms.  The  "scorpions" 
of  I  K.  xii.  II,  14,  2  Chr.  x.  11,  14,  have  clearly 
no  allusion  whatever  to  the  animal,  but  to 
some  instrument  of  scourging — unless  indeed 
the  expression  is  a  mere  figure. 

Scourging.  The  punishment  of  scourging 
was  prescribed  by  the  Law  in  the  case  of  a 
betrothed  bondwoman  guilty   of  unchastity, 


359 


SCREECH-OWL 


SCRIBES 


and  perhaps  in  the  case  of  both  the  guilty  | 
persons  (Lev.  xix.  20).  The  instrument  of 
punishment  in  ancient  Egypt,  as  it  is  also  in 
modern  times  generally  in  the  East,  was 
usually  the  stick,  applied  to  the  soles  of  the 
feet — bastinado.  Under  the  Roman  method 
the  culprit  was  stripped,  stretched  with  cords 


Flagellum  or  Scourge. 


or  thongs  on  a  frame,  and  beaten  with  rods. 
Another  form  of  scourge  consisted  of  a  handle 
with  three  laslies  or  thongs  of  leather  or  cord, 
sometimes  with  pieces  of  metal  fastened  to 
them. 

Screech-owl.  [Owl.] 

Scribes.  L  Name,  (i.)  Three  meanings  are 
connected  with  the  verb  saphar,  the  root  of 
Sopherim — (i)  to  write,  (2)  to  set  in  order, 
(3)  to  count.  The  explanation  of  the  word 
has  been  referred  to  each  of  these.  The  So- 
pherim were  so  called  because  they  wrote  out 
the  Law,  or  because  they  classified  and  ar- 
ranged its  precepts,  or  because  they  counted 
with  scrupulous  minuteness  every  clause  and 
letter  it  contained.  (2.)  The  name  of  Kirjath- 
Sepher  (Josh.  xv.  15;  Judg.  i.  12)  may  possi- 
bly connect  itself  with  some  early  use  of  the 
title.  In  the  song  of  Deborah  (Judg.  v.  14) 
the  word  appears  to  point  to  military  func- 
tions of  some  kind.  Three  men  are  men- 
tioned as  successively  filling  the  office  of 
Scribe  under  David  and  Solomon  (2  Sam.  viii. 
17,  XX.  25;  I  K.  iv.  3).  We  may  think  of  them 
as  the  king's  secretaries  writing  his  letters, 
drawing  up  his  decrees,  managing  his  finances 
(comp.  2  K.  xii.  10).    The  zeal  of  Hezekiah 


led  him  to  foster  the  growth  of  a  body  of  men 
whose  work  it  was  to  transcribe  old  records, 
or  to  put  in  writing  what  had  been  handed 
down  orally  (Prov.  xxv.  i).  To  this  period, 
accordingly,  belongs  the  new  significance  of 
the  title.  It  no  longer  designates  only  an  offi- 
cer of  the  king's  court,  but  a  class,  students 
and  interpreters  of  the  Law,  boasting  of  their 
wisdom  (Jer.  viii.  8).  The  seventy  years  of 
the  captivity  gave  a  fresh  glory  to  the  name. 
The  exiles  would  be  anxious  above  all  things 
to  preserve  the  sacred  books,  the  laws,  the 
hymns,  the  prophecies  of  the  past.  H.  De- 
velopment of  Doctrine. — Of  the  Scribes  of  this 
period,  with  the  exception  of  Ezra  and  Zadok 
(Neh.  xiii.  13),  we  have  no  record.  A  later 
age  honored  them  collectively  as  the  men  of 
the  Great  Synagogue.  Never,  perhaps,  was 
so  important  a  work  done  so  silently.  They 
devoted  themselves  to  the  careful  study  of 
the  text,  and  laid  down  rules  for  transcribing 
it  with  the  most  scrupulous  precision.  Every 
letter,  every  number,  became  pregnant  with 
mysteries.  The  "Words  of  the  Scribes,"  now 
used  as  a  technical  phrase  for  these  decisions, 
were  honored  above  the  Law.   It  was  a  great- 


Scribes. 


er  crime  to  offend'  against  them  than  against 
the  Law.  The  first  step  was  taken  towards 
annulling  the  commandments  of  God  for  the 
sake  of  their  own  traditions.  The  casuistry 
became  at  once  subtle  and  prurient,  evading 
the  plainest  duties,  tampering  with  conscience 
(Matt.  XV.  1-6;  xxiii.  16-23).  ^'^'^  c^'"'  there- 
fore understand  why  they  were  constantly  de- 
nounced by  our  Lord  along  with  the  Pharisees. 
While  the  Scribes  repeated  the  traditions  of 
the  elders,  He  "spake  as  one  having  author- 
ity," "not  as  the  Scribes"  (Matt.  vii.  29). 
While  they  confined  their  teaching  to  the  class 
of  scholars.  He  "Jiad  compassion  on  the  mi;lti- 
tudes"  (Matt.  ix.  36).  While  they  were  to  be 
found  only  in  the  council  or  in  their  schools, 


SCRIBES 


SEA,  MOLTEN 


He  journeyed  through  the  cities  and  villages 
(Matt.  iv.  23,  ix.  35,  &c.,  &c.)-  While  they 
spoke  of  the'  kingdom  of  God  vaguely,  as  a 
thing  far  off.  He  proclaimed  that  it  had  al- 
ready come  nigh  to  men  (Matt.  iv.  17).  But 
in  most  of  the  points  at  issue  between  the  two 
parties,  He  must  has  appeared  in  direct  antag- 
onism'to  the  school  of  Shammai,  in  sympathy 
with  that  of  Hillel.  So  far,  on  the  other  hand, 
as  the  temper  of  the  Hillel  school  was  one  of 


A  Jewish  Scribe. 

mere  adaptation  to  the  feeling  of  the  people, 
cleaving  to  tradition,  wanting  in  the  intuition 
of  a  higher  life,  the  teaching  of  Christ  must 
have  been  felt  as  unsparingly  condemning  it. 
— The  special  training  for  a  Scribe's  office 
began,  probably,  about  the  age  of  thirteen. 
The  boy  who  was  destined  by  his  parents  to 
the  calling  of  a  Scribe  went  to  Jerusalem  and 
applied  for  admission  in  the  school  of  some 
famous  Rabbi.  After  a  sufficient  period  of 
training,  probably  at  the  age  of  thirty,  the 
probationer  was  solemnly  admitted  to  his  of- 
fice. After  his  admission  there  was  a  choice 
of  a  variety  of  functions,  the  chances  of  fail- 
ure and  success.  He  might  give  himself  to 
any  one  of  the  branches  of  study,  or  combine 
two  or  more  of  them.  He  might  rise  to  high 
places,  become  a  doctor  of  the  law,  an  arbi- 
trator in  family  litigations  (Luke  xii.  14),  the 
head  of  a  school,  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrim. 
He  might  have  to  content  himself  with  the 
humbler  work  of  a  transcriber,  copying  the 
Law  and  the  Prophets  for  the  use  of  syna- 
gogues, or  a  notary,  writing  out  contracts  of 
sale,  covenants  of  espousals,  bills  of  repudia- 
tion. The  position  of  the  more  fortunate  was 
of  course  attractive  enough.  In  our  Lord's 
time  the  passion  for  distinction  was  insatiable. 
The  ascending  scale  of  Ralj,  Rabbi,  Rabban, 
presented  so  many  steps  on  the  ladder  of  ambi- 


tion. Other  forms  of  worldliness  were  not 
far  off.  The  salutations  in  the  market-place 
(^latt.  xxiii.  7),  the  reverential  kiss  offered 
by  the  scholars  to  their  master,  or  by  Rai)bis 
to  each  other,  the  greeting  of  Abba,  father 
(Matt,  xxiii.  9),  the  long  robes  with  the  broad 
blue  fringe  (Matt,  xxiii.  5), — all  these  go  to 
make  up  the  picture  of  a  Scribe's  life.  Draw- 
ing to  themselves,  as  they  did,  nearly  all  the 
energy  and  thought  of  Judaism,  the  close 
hereditary  caste  of  the  priesthood  was  power- 
less to  compete  with  them.  Unless  the  priest 
became  a  Scribe  also,  he  remained  in  obscur- 
ity. The  order,  as  such,  became  contemptible 
and  base.  For  the  Scribes  there  were  the  best 
places  at  feasts,  the  chief  seats  in  synagogues 
(Matt,  xxiii.  6;  Luke  xiv.  7). 

Scrip.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  translated 
appears  in  i  Sam.  xvii.  40,  as  a  synonym  for 
the  bag  in  which  the  shepherds  of  Palestine 
carried  their  food  or  other  necessaries.  The 
scrip  of  the  Galilean  peasants  was  of  leather, 
used  especially  to  carry  their  food  on  a  jour- 
ney, and  slung  over  their  shoulders  (Matt.  x. 
10;  Mark  vi.  8;  Luke  ix.  3,  xxii.  35).  The 
English  word  "scrip"  is  probably  connected 
with  scrape,  scrap,  and  was  used  in  like  man- 
ner for  articles  of  food. 

Sea.  The  Sea,  yam,  is  used  in  Scripture  to 
denote — i.  "The  gathering  of  the  waters,"  en- 
compassing the  land,  or  what  we  call,  in  a 
more  or  less  definite  sense,  "the  Ocean"  (Gen. 
i.  2,  10;  Deut.  XXX.  13,  &c.).  2.  Some  portion  of 
this,  as  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  called  the 
"hinder,"  the  "western,"  and  the  "utmost"  sea 
(Deut.  xi.  24,  xxxiv.  2 ;  Joel  ii.  20)  ;  "sea  ol  the 
Philistines"  (Ex.  xxiii.  31)  ;  "the  great  sea" 
(Num.  xxxiv.  6,  7;  Josh.  xv.  47);  "the  sea" 
(Gen.  xlix.  13;  Ps.  Ixxx.  11,  cvii.  23;  i  K.  iv. 
20,  &c.).  Also  frequently  of  the  Red  Sea  (Ex. 
XV.  4;  Josh.  xxiv.  6),  or  one  of  its  gulfs  (Num. 
xi.  31;  Is.  xi.  15).  [Red  Sea.]  3.  Inland  lakes 
termed  seas,  as  the  Salt  or  Dead  Sea.  (See  the 
special  article.)     4.  Any  great  collection  of 


The  Rrazen  or  Molten  Sea. 


waters,  as  the  river  Nile  (Is.  xiv.  5 ;  Am.  viii.  8, 
A.  V.  "flood;"  Nah.  iii.  8;  Ez.  xxxii.  2),  and 
Eui)hrates  (Jer.  li.  36). 

Sea,  Molten.    In  the  place  of  the  laver  of 


361 


SEA,  THE  SALT 


SEA,  THE  SALT 


the  tabernacle,  Solomon  caused  a  laver  to  be 
cast  for  a  similar  purpose,  which  from  its  size 
was  called  a  sea.  It  was  made  partly  or 
wholly  of  the  brass,  or  rather  copper,  which  had 
been  captured  by  David  from  "Tibhath  and 
Chun,  cities  of  Hadarezer  king  of  Zobah"  (i  K. 
vii.  23-26;  2  Chr.  xviii.  8).  It  is  said  to  have 
been  capable  of  containing  2000,  or,  according 
to  2  Chr.  iv.  5,  3000  baths.  The  laver  stood 
on  twelve  oxen,  three  towards  each  quar- 
ter of  the  heavens,  and  all  looking  out- 
wards. It  was  mutilated  by  Ahaz,  by  being 
removed  from  its  basis  of  oxen  and  placed  on 
a  stone  base,  and  was  finally  broken  up  by 
the  Assj^rians  (2  K.  xvi.  14,  17,  xxv.  13). 

Sea,  The  Salt.  The  usual,  and  perhaps  the 
most  ancient,  name  for  the  remarkable  lake 
which  to  the  Western  world  is  now  generally 
known  as  the  Dead  Sea.    I.    i.  It  is  found 


The  Salt  or  Dead  Sea.    The  figures  represent  the  depression 
below  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

only,  and  but  rarely,  in  the  Pentateuch  (Gen. 
xiv.  3;  Num.  xxxiv.  3,  12;  Deut.  iii.  17),  and 
in  the  Book  of  Joshua  (iii.  16,  xii.  3,  xv.  2,  5, 
xviii.  19).  2.  Another,  and  possibly  a  later, 
name  is  the  Sea  of  the  Arabah  (A.  V.  "sea  of 
the  plain"),  which  is  found  in  Deut.  iv.  49  and 
2  K.  xiv.  25 ;  and  combined  with  the  former — 
"the  sea  of  Arabah,  ^  the  salt  sea" — in  Deut. 
iii.  17;  Josh.  iii.  16,  xii.  3.  3.  In  the  prophets 
(Joel  ii.  20;  Ezek.  xlvii.  18;  Zech.  xiv.  8)  it  is 
mentioned  by  the  title  of  the  East  Sea.  4.  In 
Ez.  xlvii.  8  it  is  styled,  without  previous  ref- 
erence, the  sea,  and  distinguished  from  "the 
great  sea" — the  Mediterranean  (ver.  10).  5. 
Its  connection  with  Sodom  is  first  suggested 


in  the  Bible  in  the  book  of  2  Esdras  (v.  7)  by 
the  name  "Sodomitish  sea."  6.  In  the  Tal- 
mudical  books  it  is  called  both  the  "Sea  of 
Salt"  and  "Sea  of  Sodom."  II.  The  so-called 
Dead  Sea  is  the  final  receptacle  of  the  river 
Jordan,  the  lowest  and  largest  of  the  three 
lakes  which  interrupt  the  rush  of  its  down- 
ward course.  It  is  the  deepest  portion  of  that 
very  deep  natural  fissure  which  runs  like  a 
furrow  from  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  to  the  range 
of  Lebanon,  and  from  the  range  of  Lebanon 
to  the  extreme  north  of  Syria.  Viewed  on 
the  map,  the  lake  is  of  an  oblong  form,  of 
tolerably  regular  contour,  interrupted  only  by 
a  large  and  long  peninsula  which  projects  from 
the  eastern  shore,  near  its  southern  end,  and 
virtually  divides  the  expanse  of  the  water  into 
two  portions,  connected  by  a  long,  narrow 
and  somewhat  devious  passage.  Its  water 
surface  is  from  the  N.  to  S.  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible 40  geographical,  or  46  English  miles 
long.  Its  greatest  width  is  about  9  geogr. 
miles,  or  10  1/3  Eng.  miles.  Its  area  is  about 
250  square  geographical  miles.  The  depres- 
sion of  its  surface,  and  the  depth  which  it  at- 
tains below  that  surface,  combined  with  the 
absence  of  any  outlet,  render  it  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  spots  on  the  globe.  The  sur- 
face of  the  lake  in  J\Iay,  1848,  was  1316.7  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  at  Jafifa. 
Its  depth,  at  about  one-t]iird  of  its  length  from 
the  north  end,  is  1308  feet.  The  water  of  the 
lake  is  not  less  remarkable  than  its  other  fea- 
tures. Its  most  obvious  peculiarity  is  its 
great  weight.  Its  specific  gravity  has  been 
found  to  be  as  much  as  12.28;  that  is  to  say,  a 
gallon  of  it  would  weigh  over  1234  lbs.,  instead 
of  10  lbs.,  the  weight  of  distilled  water.  Water 
so  heavy  must  not  only  be  extremely  buoy- 
ant, but  must  possess  great  inertia.  Its  buoy- 
ancy is  a  common  theme  of  remark  by  the 
travelers  who  have  been  upon  it  or  in  it.  Dr. 
Robinson  "could  never  swim  before,  either  in 
fresh  or  salt  water,"  yet  here  he  "could  sit, 
stand,  lie  or  swim  without  difficulty."  The 
remarkable  weight  of  the  water  is  due  to  the 
very  large  quantity  of  mineral  salts  which  it 
holds  in  solution.  Each  gallon  of  the  water, 
weighing  12]/^  lbs.,  contains  nearly  33^2  lbs. 
of  matter-  in  solution — an  immense  quantity 
when  we  recollect  that  sea-water,  weighing 
1034  lbs.  per  gallon,  contains  less  than  %  a  lb. 
Of  this  33^  lbs.  nearly  i  lb.  is  common  salt 
(chloride  of  isodium),  about  2  lbs.  chloride  of 
magnesium,  and  less  than  34  a  lb.  chloride  of 
calcium  (or  muriate  of  lime).  The  most  un- 
usual ingredient  is  bromide  of  magnesium, 
which  e'lists  in  truly  extraordinary  quantity. 
It  has  been  long  supposed  that  no  life  what- 


362 


1 

i 


SEAL 

ever  existed  in  the  lake.  But  recent  facts 
show  that  some  inferior  organizations  do  find 
a  home  even  in  these  salt  and  acrid  waters. 

Seal.  The  importance  attached  to  seals  in 
the  East  is  so  great  that  without  one  no  docu- 
ment is  regarded  as  authentic.  The  use  of 
some  method  of  sealing  is  obviously,  there- 
fore, of  remote  antiquity.  Among  such  meth- 
ods used  in  Egypt  at  a  very  early  period  were 
engraved  stones,  pierced  through  their  length 


Seal  and  Signets. 

and  hung  by  a  string  or  chain  from  the  arm 
or  neck,  or  set  in  rings  for  the  finger.  The 
most  ancient  form  used  for  this  purpose  was 
the  scarabaeus,  formed  of  precious  or  com- 
mon stone,  or  even  of  blue  pottery  or  porce- 
lain, on  the  flat  side  of  which  the  inscription 
or  device  was  engraved.  Cylinders  of  stone 
or  pottery  bearing  devices  were  also  used  as 


Seal  with  Frame. 

signets.  In  many  cases  the  seal  consisted  of 
a  lump  of  clay,  impressed  with  the  seal  and 
attached  to  the  document,  whether  of  papyrus 
or  other  material,  by  strings.  The  use  of  clay 
in  sealing  is  noticed  in  the  Book  of  Job 
(xxxviii.  14),  and  the  signet-ring  as  an  ordi- 
nary part  of  a  man's  equipment  in  the  case  of 
Judah  (Gen.  xxxviii.  18),  who  probably,  like 
many  modern  Arabs,  wore  it  suspended  by  a 
string  from  his  neck  or  arm  (Cant.  viii.  6). 

Seleu'cia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes, 
was  practically  the  seaport  of  Antioch.  The 
distance  between  the  two  towns  was  about  16 


SENNACHERIB 

miles.  We  are  expressly  told  that  St.  Paul, 
in  company  with  Barnabas,  sailed  from  Selcu- 
cia  at  the  beginning  of  his  first  missionary  cir- 
cuit (Acts  xiii.  4)  ;  and  it  is  almost  certain 
that  he  landed  there  on  his  return  from  it  (xiv. 
26).  This  strong  fortress  and  convenient  sea- 
port was  constructed  by  the  first  Scleucus,  and 
here  he  was  buried.  It  retained  its  importance 
in  Roman  times,  and  in  St.  Paul's  day  it  had 
the  privileges  of  a  free  city.  The  remains  are 
numerous. 

Semitic  Languages.  [Shemitic  Languages.] 
Sennache'rib  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
Sargon.  His  name  in  the  original  is  read  as 
Tsinakki-irib,  which  is  understood  to  mean 
"Sin  (or  the  Moon)  increases  brothers;"  an 
indication  that  he  was  not  the  first-born  of  his 
father.   Sennacherib  mounted  the  throtie  B.  C. 


Sennacherib  on  Ifis  Throne. 


702.  His  ef¥orts  were  directed  to  crushing  the 
revolt  of  Babylonia,  which  he  invaded  with  a 
large  army.  Merodach-Baladan  ventured  on 
a  battle,  but  was  defeated  and  driven  from  the 
country.  In  his  third  year  (B.  C.  700)  he 
turned  his  arms  towards  the  west,  chastised 
Sidon,  took  tribute  from  Tyre,  Aradus  and 
other  Phoenician  cities,  as  well  as  from  Edom 
and  Ashdod,  besieged  and  captured  Ascalon, 
made  war  on  Egypt,  which  was  still  depend- 
ent on  Ethiopia,  took  Libnah  and  Lachish  on 
the  Egyptian  frontier,  and,  having  probably 
concluded  a  convention  with  his  chief  enemy, 
finally  marched  against  Hezekiah,  king  of  Ju- 
dah. It  was  at  this  time  that  "Sennacherib 
came  up  against  all  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah, 
and  took  them"  (2  K.  xviii.  13).  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  record  which  he  has  left 
of  his  campaign  against  "Hiskiah,"  in  his  third 
year,  is  the  war  with  Hezekiah  so  briefly 
touched  in  the  four  verses  of  this  chapter 
(vers.  13-16).  In  the  following  year  (B.  C. 
699),  Sennacherib  invaded  Babylonia  for  the 

363 


i 


SEPTUAGINT 

second  time.  Hezekiah  had  again  revolted, 
and  claimed  the  protection  of  Egypt.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  besieging  Jernsalem,  the  Assyrian 
king  marched  past  it  to  the  Egyptian  frontier, 
attacked  once  more  Lachish  and  Libnah,  but 
apparently  failed  to  take  them,  spnt  messen- 
gers from  the  former  to  Hezekiah  (2  K.  xviii. 
17),  and  on  their  return  without  his  submission 
wrote  him  a  threatening  letter  (2  K.  xix.14). 
Tirhakah  was  hastening  to  the  aid  of  the  Egyp- 
tians when  an  event  occurred  which  relieved 
both  Egypt  and  Judaea  from  their  danger. 
In  one  night  the  Assyrians  lost,  either  by  a 
pestilence  or  by  some  more  awful  manifesta- 
tion of  divine  power,  185,000  men !  The  camp 
immediately  broke  up — the  king  fled.  Sen- 
nacherib reached  his  capital  in  safety,  and  was 
not  deterred,  by  the  terrible  disaster  which 
had  befallen  his  arms,  from  engaging  in  other 
wars,  though  he  seems  thenceforward  to  have 
carefully  avoided  Palestine.  Sennacherib 
reigned  22  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Esar- 
haddon,  B.  C.  680.  Sennacherib  was  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  of  the  Assyrian  kings. 
He  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  fixed  the 
seat  of  government  permanently  at  Nineveh, 
which  he  carefully  repaired  and  adorned  with 
splendid  buildings.  His  greatest  work  is  the 
grand  palace  at  Kouyunjik. 

Septuagint  (the  seventy).  The  Septuagint 
or  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament  appears 
at  the  present  day  in  four  principal  editions. 
I.  Biblia  Polyglotta  Complutensis,  A.  D.  1514- 

1517.  2.  The  Aldine  Edition,  Venice,  A.  D. 

1 5 18.  3.  The  Roman  Edition,  edited  under 
Pope  Sixtus  v.,  A.  D.  1587.  4.  Facsimile 
Edition  of  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  by  H.  H. 
Baber,  A.  D.  1816.  The  Jews  of  Alexandria 
had  probably  still  less  knowledge  of  Hebrew 
than  their  brethren  in  Palestine ;  their  familiar 
language  was  Alexandrian  Greek.  They  had 
settled  in  Alexandria  in  large  numbers  soon 
after  the  time  of  Alexander,  under  the  early 
Ptolemies.  They  would  naturally  follow  the 
same  practice  as  the  Jews  in  Palestine,  and 
hence  would  arise  in  time  an  entire  Greek  ver- 
sion. But  the  numbers  and  names  of  the 
translators,  and  the  times  at  which  different 
portions  were  translated,  are  all  uncertain. 
The  commonly  received-  story  respecting  its 
origin  is  contained  in  an  extant  letter  ascribed 
to  Aristeas,  who  was  an  officer  at  the  court  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  This  letter,  which  is 
addressed  by  Aristeas  to  his  brother,  Philo- 
crates,  gives  a  splendid  account  of  the  origin 
of  the  Septuagint ;  of  the  embassy  and  pres- 
ents sent  by  King  Ptolemy  to  the  high-priest 
at  Jerusalem,  by  the  advice  of  Demetrius  Pha- 
lereus,  his  librarian,  50  talents  of  gold  and  70 


SEPTUAGINT 

talents  of  silver,  &c. ;  the  Jewish  slaves  whom 
he  set  free,  paying  their  ransom  himself;  the 
letter  of  the  king;  the  answer  of  the  high- 
priest;  the  choosing  of  six  interpreters  from 
each  of  the  twelve  tribes,  and  their  names ;  the 
copy. of  the  Law,  in  letters  of  gold;  the  feast 
prepared  for  the  seventy-two,  which  continued 
for  seven  days ;  the  questions  proposed  to  each 
of  the  interpreters  in  turn,  with  the  answers 
of  each ;  their  lodging  by  the  sea-shore ;  and 
the  accomplishment  of  their  work  in  seventy- 
two  days,  by  conference  and  comparison.  This 
is  the  story,  which  probably  gave  to  the  Ver- 
sion the  title  of  the  Septuagint,  and  which  has 
been  repeated  in  various  forms  by  the  Chris- 
tian writers.  But  it  is  now  generally  admitted 
that  the  letter  is  spurious,  and  is  probably  the 
fabrication  of  an  Alexandrian  Jew  .shortly  be- 
fore the  Christian  era.  Still  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  there  was  a  basis  of  fact  for  the 
fiction ;  on  three  points  of  the  story  there  is 
no  material  difference  of  opinion,  and  they  are 
confirmed  by  the  study  of  the  Version  itself: 
I.  The  Version  was  made  at  Alexandria.  2. 
It  was  begun  in  the  time  of  the  earlier  Ptole- 
mies, about  280  B.  C.  3.  The  Law  (i.  e.  the 
Pentateuch)  alone  was  translated  at  first.  The 
Septuagint  version  was  highly  esteemed  by 
the  Hellenistic  Jews  before  the  coming  of 
Christ.  Wherever,  by  the  conquests  of  Al- 
exander, or  by  colonization,  the  Greek  lan- 
guage prevailed ;  wherever  Jews  were  settled, 
and  the  attention  of  the  neighboring  Gentiles 
was  drawn  to  their  wondrous  history  and  law, 
there  was  found  the  Septuagint,  which  thus 
became,  by  Divine  Providence,  the  means  of 
spreading  widely  the  knowledge  of  the  One 
True  God,  and  His  promises  of  a  Saviour  to 
come,  throughout  the  nations.  To  the  wide 
dispersion  of  this  version  we  may  ascribe  in 
great  measure  that  general  persuasion  which 
prevailed  over  the  whole  East  of  the  near  ap- 
proach of  the  Redeemer,  and  led  the  Magi  to 
recognize  the  star  which  proclaimed  the  birth 
of  the  King  of  the  Jews.  Not  less  wide  was 
the  influence  of  the  Septuagint  in  the  spread 
of  the  Gospel.-  For  a  long  period  the  Septua- 
gint was  the  Old  Testament  of  the  far  larger 
part  of  the  Christian  Church.  Character  of  the 
Septuagint. — It  has  been  clearly  shown  by 
Hody,  Frankel,  and  others,  that  the  several 
books  were  translated  by  different  persons, 
without  any  comprehensive  revision  to  har- 
monize the  several  parts.  Names  and  words 
are  rendered  differently  in  different  books. 
Thus  the  character  of  the  Version  varies  much 
in  the  several  books ;  those  of  the  Pentateuch 
are  the  best.  The  poetical  parts  are,  generally 
speaking,  inferior  to  the  historical,  the  original 


364 


SEPULCHRE 


SERPENT 


abounding  with  rarer  words  ?.nd  expressions. 
In  the  ^Major  Prophets  (probably  translated 
nearly  lOO  years  after  the  Pentateuch)  some  of 
the  most  important  prophecies  are  sadly  ob- 
scured. Ezekiel  and  the  Minor  Prophets  (gen- 
erally speaking)  seem  to  be  better  rendered. 
Supposing  .the  numerous  glosses  and  duplicate 
renderings,  which  have  evidently  crept  from 
the  margin  into  the  text,  to  be  removed,  and 
forming  a  rough  estimate  of  what  the  Septua- 
gint  was  in  its  earliest  stage,  we  may  perhaps 
say  of  it  that  it  is  the  image  of  the  original 
seen  through  a  glass  not  adjusted  to  the  proper 
focus;  the  larger  features  are  shown,  but  the 
sharpness  of  definition  is  lost.  The  close  con- 
nection between  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
makes  the  study  of  the  Septuagint  extremely 
valuable,  and  almost  indispensable  to  the  theo- 
logical student.  It  was  manifestly  the  chief 
storehouse  from  which  the  Apostles  drew  their 
proofs  and  precepts. 
Sepulchre.  [Burial.] 

Ser'aphim,  an  order  of  celestial  beings, 
whom  Isaiah  beheld  in  vision  standing  above 
Jehovah  as  He  sat  upon  His  throne  (Is.  vi.  2). 
They  are  described  as  having  each  of  them 
three  pairs  of  wings,  with  one  of  which  they 
covered  their  faces  (a  token  of  humility)  ;  with 
the  second  they  covered  their  feet  (a  token  of 
respect)  ;  while  with  the  third  they  flew.  They 
seem  to  have  borne  a  general  resemblance  to 
the  human  figure,  for  they  are  represented  as 
having  a  face,  a  voice,  feet,  and  hands  (ver. 
6).  Their  occupation  was  twofold — to  cele- 
brate the  praises  of  Jehovah's  holiness  and 
pow'Cr  (ver.  3),  and  to  act  as  the  medium  of 
communication  between  heaven  and  earth 
(ver.  6). 

Ser'gius  PauTus  was  the  proconsul  of  Cyp- 
rus when  the  Apostle  Paul  visited  that  island 
with  Barnabas  on  his  first  missionary  tour 
(Acts  xiii.  7,  sq.).  He  is  described  as  an  in- 
telligent man,  truth-seeking,  eager  for  informa- 
tion from  all  sources  within  his  reach.  It  was 
this  trait  in  his  character  which  led  him  to  seek 
out  the  missionary  strangers  and  learn  from 
them  the  nature  of  the  Christian  doctrine. 
On  becoming  acquainted  with  the  Apostle  he 
examined  at  once  the  claims  of  the  Gospel,  and 
yielded  his  mind  to  the  evidence  of  its  truth. 

Serpent.  The  Hebrew  word  Nachash  is  the 
generic  name  of  any  serpent.  The  following 
are  the  principal  Bible  allusions  to  this  ani- 
mal: Its  subtlety  is  mention  in  Gen  iii.  i ;  its 
wisdom  is  alluded  to  by  our  Lord  in  Matt.  x. 
16;  the  poisonous  properties  of  some  species 
are  often  mentioned  (sec  Ps.  Iviii.  4;  Prov. 
xxiii.  32)  ;  the  sharp  tongue  of  the  serpent, 
which  it  would  appear  some  of  the  ancient  He- 


brews believed  to  be  the  instrument  of  poison, 
is  mentioned  in  Ps.  cxl.  3,  Job  xx.  16,  "the 
viper's  tongue  shall  slay  him ;"  although  in 
other  places,  as  in  Prov.  xxiii.  32,  Eccl.  x.  8,  11, 
Num.  xxi.  9,  the  venom  is  correctly  ascribed 
to  the  bite,  while  in  Job  xx.  14  the  gall  is  said 
to  be  the  poison ;  the  habit  serpents  have  of 


Serpent — Denoting  immortality. 

lying  concealed  in  hedges  is  alluded  to  in  Eccl. 
X.  8,  and  in  holes  of  walls,  in  Am.  v.  19;  their 
dwelling  in  dry  sandy  places,  in  Deut.  viii.  15; 
their  wonderful  mode  of  progression  did  not 
escape  the  observation  of  the  author  of  Prov. 
XXX.,  who  expressly  mentions  it  as  "one  of  the 
three  things  which  were  too  wonderful  for 


The  Viper. 

him"  (19)  ;  the  oviparous  nature  of  most  of 
the  order  is  alluded  to  in  Is.  lix.  5,  where  the 
A.  v.,  however,  has  the  unfortunate  rendering 
of  "cockatrice."  The  art  of  taming  and  charm- 
ing serpents  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  is  al- 
luded to  in  Ps.  Iviii.  5,  Eccl.  x.  11,  Jer.  viii.  17, 
and  doubtless  intimated  by  St.  James  (iii.  7), 
who  particularizes  serpents  among  all  other 
animals  that  "have  been  tamed  by  man."  It 
was  under  the  form  of  a  serpent  that  the  devil 
seduced  Eve ;  hence  in  Scripture  Satan  is  called 
"the  old  serpent"  (Rev.  xii.  9,  and  comp.  2 
Cor.  xi.  3).    Serpents  are  said  in  Scripture  to 


365 


SERVANT 

"eat  dust"  (Sefe  Gen.  iii.  14;  Is.  Ixv.  25;  Mic. 
vii.  17)  ;  these  animals,  which  for  the  most  part 
take  their  food  on  the  ground,  do  consequently 
swallow  with  it  large  portions  of  sand  and 
dust.  Throughout  the  East  the  serpent  was 
used  as  an  emblem  of  the  evil  principle,  of  the 
spirit  of  disobedience  and  contumacy.  Much 
has  been  written  on  the  question  of  the  "fiery 
serpents"  of  Num.  xxi.  6,  8,  with  which  it  is 
usual  erroneously  to  identify  the  "fiery  flying 
serpent"  of  Is.  xxx.  6,  and  xiv.  29.  The  word 
"fiery"  probably  signifies  "burning,"  in  allu- 
tion  to  the  sensation  produced,  by  the  bite. 
Monstrous  forms  of  snakes  with  birds'  wings 
occur  on  the  Egyptian  sculptures.  There  is  no 
Scriptural  allusion  by  means  of  which  it  is  pos- 
sible to  determine  the  species  of  serpent  indi- 
cated by  the  Hebrew  term,  which  is  derived 
from  a  root  which  signifies  "to  hiss."  The 
snake  that  fastened 'on  St.  Paul's  hand  when 
he  was  at  Melita  (Acts  xxviii.  3)  was  probably 
the  common  viper. 
Servant.  [Slave.] 

Seth  (Gen.  iv.  25,  v.  3 ;  i  Chr.  i.  i),  the  third 
son  of  Adam,  and  father  of  Enos.  The  signifi- 
cation of  his  name  is  "appointed"  or  "put"  in 
the  place  of  the  murdered  Abel.  Adam  hand- 
ed down  to  Seth  and  his  descendants  the  prom- 
ise of  mercy,  faith  in  which  became  the  dis- 
tinction of  God's  children.  This  seems  to  be 
the  meaning  of  the  statement  that,  in  the  days 
and  in  the  family  of  Seth,  "men  began  to  call 
upon  the  name  of  Jehovah"  (Gen.  iv.  26). 

Seven.  The  frequent  recurrence  of  certain 
numbers  in  the  sacred  literature  of  the  He- 
brews is  obvious  to  the  most  superficial  read- 
er ;  and  it  is  almost  equally  obvious  that  these 
numbers  are  associated  with  certain  ideas,  so 
as  in  some  instances  to  lose  their  numerical 
force  and  to  pass  over  into  the  province  of 
symbolic  signs.  This  is  more  or  less  true  of 
the  numbers  three,  four,  seven,  twelve  and 
forty ;  but  seven  so  far  surpasses  the  rest,  both 
in  the  frequency  with  which  it  recurs,  and  in 
the  importance  of  the  objects  with  which  it  is 
associated,  that  it  may  fairly  be  termed  the 
representative  symbolic  number.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  number  seven  was  not  restricted  to 
the  Hebrews ;  it  prevailed  among  the  Persians 
(Esth.  i.  ID,  14),  among  the  ancient  Lidiahs, 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  a  certain 
extent,  and-  probably  among  all  nations  where 
the  week  of  seven  days  was  established,  as  in 
China,  Egypt,  Arabia,  &c.  The  Sabbath,  be- 
ing the  seventh  day,  suggested  the  adoption 
of  seven  as  the  coefficient,  so  to  say,  for  the 
appointment  of  all  sacred  periods ;  and  we  thus 
find  the  7th  month  ushered  in  by  the  Feast 
of  Trumpets,  and  signalized  by  the  celebra- 


SHEBA 

tion  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  and  the  great 
Day  of  Atonement ;  7  weeks  as  the  interval  be- 
tween the  Passover  and  the  Pentecost;  the  7th 
year  as  the  Sabbatical  year;  and  the  year  suc- 
ceeding 7X7  years  as  the  Jubilee  year.  Seven 
days  were  appointed  as  the  length  of  the 
Feasts  of  Passover  and  Tabernacles;  7  days 
for  the  ceremonies  of  the  consecration  of 
priests,  and  so  on ;  7  victims  to  be  ofifered  on 
any  special  occasion,  as  in  Balaam's  sacrifice 
(Num.  xxiii.  i),  and  especially  at  the  ratifica- 
tion of  a  treaty,  the  notion  of  seven  being  em- 
bodied in  the  very  term  signifying  to  swear, 
literally  meaning  to  do  seven  times  (Gen.  xxi. 
28). 

Sha'drach,  the  Hebrew,  or  rather  Chaldee, 
name  of  Hananiah,  the  chief  of  the  "three  chil- 
dren," whose  song,  as  given  in  the  apocryphal 
Daniel,  forms  part  of  the  service  of  the  Church 
o^  England,  under  the  name  of  "Benedicite, 
omnio  opera."  The  history  of  Shadrach,  or 
Hananiah,  as  told  in  Dan.  i.-iii.,  is  well  known. 
After  their  deliverance  from  the  furnace,  we 
hear  no  more  of  Shadrach,  Meshach  and  Abed- 
nego  in  the  O.  T. ;  neither  are  they  spoken  of 
in  the  N.  T.,  except  in  the  pointed  allusion  to 
them  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  as  having 
"through  faith  quenched  the  violence  of  fire" 
(Heb.  xi.  33,  34).  But  there  are  repeated  al- 
lusions to  them  in  the  later  apocryphal  books, 
and  the  martyrs  of  the  Maccabaean  period 
seem  to  have  been  much  encouraged  by  their 
example.  See  i  Mace.  ii.  59,  60;  3  Mace.  vi.  6; 
4  Mace.  xiii.  9,  xvi.  3,  21,  xviii.  12. 

Sha'ron  (a  plain),  a  district  of  the  holy  land 
occasionally  referred  to  in  the  Bible,  i  Chron. 
V.  16;  Isa.  xxxiii.  9.  In -Acts  ix.  35  called 
Saron.  The  name  has  on  each  occurrence, 
with  one  exception  only,  i  Chron.  v.  16,  the 
definite  article ;  it  would  therefore  appear  that 
"the  Sharon"  was  some  well-defined  region 
familiar  to  the  Israelites.  It  is  that  broad, 
rich  tract  of  land  which  lies  between  the  moun- 
tains of  the  central  part  of  the  holy  land  and 
the  Mediterranean — the  northern  continuation 
of  the  Shefelah.  [Palestine.]  The  Sharon  of  i 
Chron.  v.  16,  to  which  allusion  has  already 
been  made,  is  distinguished  from  the  western 
plain  by  not  having  the  article  attached  to  its 
name,  as  the  other  invariably  has.  It  is  also 
apparent  from  the  passage  itself  that  it  was 
some  district  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Gilead  and  Bashan.  The 
name  has  not  been  met  with  in  that  direction. 

She'ba.  The  Joktanites  were  among  the 
early  colonists  of  Southern  Arabia,  and  the 
kingdom  which  they  there  founded  was  for 
many  centuries  called  the  kingdom  of  Sheba, 
after  one  of  the  sons  of  Joktan.    The  inhabi- 


366 


OF  m 


SHEARIXG-HOUSE 


SHECHEM 


tants  are  the  "Sabaei"  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro-  was'  then  in  the  land ;"  and  it  is  evident  that 


mans.  In  the  Bible,  the  Joktanite  Sheba,  men 
tioned  genealogically  in  Gen.  x.  28,  recurs,  as 
a  kingdom,  in  the  account  of  the  visit  of  the 
queen  of  Sheba  to  King  Solomon  (i  K.  x.  i). 
That  the  queen  was  of  Sheba  in  Arabia,  and 
not  of  Seba  the  Cushite  kingdom  of  Ethiopia, 
is  unquestionable.  The  other  passages  in  the 
Bible  which  seem  to  refer  to  the  Joktanite 
Sheba  occur  in  Is.  Ix.  6,  and  again  in  Jer.  vi. 
20.  In  Ps.  Ixxii.  ID,  the  Joktanite  Sheba  is  un- 
doubtedly meant.  The  kingdom  of  Sheba  em- 
braced the  greater  part  of  the  Yemen,  or  Ara- 
bia Felix.  Its  chief  cities,  and  probabl}'  suc- 
cessive capitals,  were  Seba,  San'a  (Uzal),  and 
Zafar  (Sephar).  Seba  was  probably  the  name 
of  the  city,  and  generally  of  the  country  and 
nation. 

Shearing-house,  The,  a  place  on  the  road  be- 
tween Jezreel  and  Samaria,  at  which  Jehu,  on 
his  way  to  the  latter,  encountered  forty-two 
members  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah,  whom 
he  slaughtered  at  the  well  or  pit  attached  to 
the  place  (2  K.  x.  12,  14).  Eusebius  mentions 
it  as  a  village  of  Samaria  "in  the  great  plain 
[of  Esdraelon],  15  miles  from  Legeon." 

She'chem  (back  or  shoulder),  i.  An  impor- 
tant city  in  Central  Palestine,  situated  on 
Mount  Ephraim  (comp.  i  K.  xii.  25),  and  under 
the  summit  of  Gerizim,  which  belonged  to 
the  Ephraim  range.  Its  present  name,  Nabu- 
lus,  is  a  corruption  of  Neapolis,  which  succeed- 
ed the  more  ancient  Shechem,  and  received  its 
'new  name  from  Vespasian.  On  coins  still  ex- 
tant it  is  called  Flavia  Neapolis.  The  situa- 
tion of  the  town  is  one  of  surpassing  beauty. 
It  lies  in  a  sheltered  valley,  protected  by  Ger- 
izim on  the  south  and  Ebal  on  the  north.  The 
feet  of  these  mountains,  where  they  rise  from 
the  town,  are  not  more  than  five  hundred  yards 
apart.  The  bottom  of  the  valley  is  about  1800 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  top 
of  Gerizim  800  feet  higher  still.  The  site  of 
the  present  city,  which  was  also  that  of  the 
Hebrew  city,  occurs  exactly  on  the  water-sum- 
mit;  and  streams  issuing  from  the  numerous 
springs  there  flow  down  the  opposite  slopes  of 
the  valley,  spreading  verdure  and  fertility  in 
every  direction.  Travelers  vie  with  each  other 
in  the  language  which  they  employ  to  describe 
the  scene  that  bursts  here  so  suddenly  upon 
them  on  arriving  in  spring  or  early  summer 
at  this  paradise  of  the  Holy  Land.  The  allu- 
sions to  Shechem  in  the  Bible  are  numerous, 
and  show  how  important  the  place  was  in 
Jewish  history.  Abraham,  on  his  first  migra- 
tion to  the  Land  of-  Promise,  pitched  his  tent 
and  built  an  altar  under  the  Oak  (or  Tere- 
binth) o'f  Moreh  at  Shechem.   "The  Canaanite 


the  region,  if  not  the  city,  was  already  in  pos- 
session of  the  aboriginal  race  (see  Gen.  xii.  6). 
At  the  time  of  Jacob's  arrival  here,  after  his 
sojourn  in  Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xxxiii.  18, 
xxxiv.),  Shechem  was  a  Hivite  city,  of  which 
Hamor,  the  father  of  Shechern,  was  the  head- 
man. It  was  at  this  time  that  the  patriarch 
purchased  from  that  chieftain  "the  parcel  of 
the  field,"  which  he  subsequently  bequeathed, 
as  a  special  patrimony,  to  his  son  Joseph  (Gen. 
xliii.  22;  Josh.  xxiv.  32;  John  iv.  5).  The  field 
lay  undoubtedly  on  the  rich  plain  of  the 
Mukhana,  and  its  value  was  the  greater  on 
account  of  the  well  which  Jacob  had  dug  there, 
so  as  not  to  be  dependent  on  his  neighbors  for 
a  supply  of  water.  In  the  distribution  of  the 
land  after  its  conquest  by  the  Hebrews,  She- 


Sliechem  (Nabltis  Sychar). 

chem  fell  to  the  lot  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xx.  7), 
but  was  assigned  to  the  Levites,  and  became 
a  city  of  refuge  (Josh.  xxi.  20,  21).  It  acquired 
new  importance  as  the  scene  of  the  renewed 
promulgation  of  the  Law,  when  its  blessings 
were  heard  from  Gerizim  and  its  curses  from 
Ebal,  and  the  people  bowed  their  heads  and 
acknowledged  Jehovah  as  their  king  and  ruler 
(Deut.  xxvii.  11,  and  Josh.  ix.  33-35).  It  was 
here  Joshua  assembled  the  people,  shortly  be- 
fore his  death,  and  delivered  to  them  his  last 
counsels  (Josh.  xxiv.  i,  25).  After  the  death 
of  Gideon,  Abimelech,  his  bastard  son,  induced 
the  Shechemites  to  revolt  from  the  Hebrew 
commonwealth  and  elect  him  as  king  (Judg. 
ix.).  In  revenge  for  his  expulsion  after  a 
reign  of  three  years,  Abimelech  destroyed  the 
city  and  as  an  emblem  of  the  fate  to  which  he 
would  consign  it,  sowed  the  ground  with  salt 
(Judg.  ix.  34-45).  It  was  soon  restored,  how- 
ever, for  we  are  told  in  i  K.  xii.  that  all  Israel 
assembled  at  Shechem,  and  Rehoboam,  Solo- 
mon's successor,  went  thither  to  be  inaugurat- 
ed as  king.    Here,  at  this  same  place,  the  ten 


SHEEP 


SHEKEL 


tribes  renounced  the  house  of  David,  and  trans- 
ferred their  allegiance  to  Jeroboam  (i  K.  xii, 
i6),  under  whom  Shechem  became  for  a  time 
the  capital  of  his  kingdom.  From  the  time  of 
the  origin  of  the  Samaritans  the  history  of 
Shechem  blends  itself  with  that  of  this  people 
and  of  their  sacred  mount,  Gerizim.  [Samaria.] 
— Shechem  reappears  in  the  New  Testament. 
It  is,  the  Sychar  of  John  iv.  5,  near  which 
the  Saviour  conversed  with  the  Samaritan 
woman  at  Jacob's  Well. — The  population 
of  Nabulus.  consists  of  about  5000,  among 
whom  are  500  Greek  Christians,  150  Sa- 
maritans and  a  few  Jews.  The  enmity  be- 
tween the  Samaritans  and  Jews  is  as  inveterate 
still  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  Christ.  The  Mo- 
hammedans, of  course,  make  up  the  bulk  of 
the  population.  The  Well  of  Jacob  and  the 
Tomb  of  Joseph  are  still  shown  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  town. 

Sheep.  Sheep  were  an  important  j^art  of 
the  possessions  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  and  of 
Eastern  nations  generally.    The  first  mention 


Broad-tailed  Slreep. 

of  sheep  occurs  in  Gen.  iv.  2.  They  were  used 
in  the  sacrificial  offerings,  both  the  adult  ani- 
mal (Ex.  XX.  24;  I  K.  viii.  63;  2  Chr.  xxix.  33)- 
and  the  lamb,  i.  e.  "a  male  from  one  to  three 
years  old,"  but  young  lambs  of  the  first  year 
were  more  generally  used  in  the  offerings  (see 
Ex.  xxix.  38 ;  Lev.  ix.  3,  xii.  6 ;  Num.  xxviii.  9, 
&c.).  Sheep  and  lambs  formed  an  important 
article  of  food  (i  Sam.  xxv.  18;  i  K.  i.  19,  iv. 
23;  Ps.  xliv.  II,  &c.).  The  wool  was  used  as 
clothing  (Lev.  xiii.  47;  Deut.  xxii.  11;  Prov. 
xxxi.  13;  Job  xxxi.  20,  &c.).  "Rams'  skins 
dyed  red"  were  used  as  a  covering  for  the  tab- 
ernacle (Ex.  xxv.  5).  Sheep  and  lambs  were 
sometimes  paid  as  tribute  (2  K.  iii.  4).  It  is 
very  striking  to  notice  the  immense  numbers 
of  sheep  that  were  reared  in  Palestine  in  Bibli- 
cal times.    Sheep-shearing  is  alluded  to  Gen. 


xxxi.  19,  xxxviii.  13 ;  Deut.  xv.  19 ;  i  Sam.  xxv. 
4;  Is.  liii.  y]  &c.  Sheep-dogs  were  employed 
in  Biblical  times,  as  is  evident  from  Job  xxx. 
I,  "the  dogs  of  my  flock."  Shepherds  in  Pal- 
estine and  the  East  generally  go  before  their 
flocks,  which  they  induce  to  follow  by  calling 
to  them  (comp.  John  x.  4;  Ps.  Ixxvii.  20,  Ixxx. 
i),  though  they  also  drove  them  (Gen.  xxxiii. 
13). 

Sheep-gate,  The,  one  of  the  gates  of  Jerusa- 
lem as  rebuilt  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  i,  32,  xii. 
39).    It  stood  between  the  tower  of  Meali  and 


Eastern  Sheepfold. 

the  chamber  of  the  corner  (iii.  32,  i)  or  gate 
of  the  guard-house  (xii.  39,  A.  V.  "prison- 
gate").  The  latter  seems  to  have  been  at  the 
angle  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  wall  of 
the  city  of  David  with  that  of  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem proper,  having  the  sheep-gate  on  the 
north  of  it.  The  position  of  the  sheep-gate 
may  therefore  have  been  on  or  near  that  of 
the  Bab  el-Kattanin. 

Sheep-market,  The  (John  v.  2).  The  word 
"market"  is  an  interpolation  of  our  translators. 
We  ought  probably  to  supply  the  word  "gate" 
(not  "market"),  meaning  the  gate  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  article. 

Shekel.  In  a  former  article  [Money]  some 
account  has  been  given  of  the  coins  called 
shekels.  The  present  article  will  only  contain 
a  few  particulars  relating  to  the  Jewish  coin- 
age which  did  not  fall  within  the  plan  of  the 
former.  Although  some  shekels  are  found 
with  Hebrew  letters  instead  of  Samaritan, 
these  are  undoubtedly  all  forgeries.  Ramban, 
i.  e.  Rabbi-Moses-Bar-Nachman,  who  lived 
about  the  commencement  of  the  13th  century, 
describes  a  shekel  which  he  had  seen,  and  of 
which  the  Cuthaeans  read  the  inscription  with 
ease.  The  explanation  which  they  gave  of 
the  inscription  was  on  one  side  Shekel  na- 
Shekalim,  "the  shekel  of  shekels,"  and  on  the 
other  "Jerusalem  the  Holy."  We  find  that 
in  early  times  shekels  were  known  to  the  Jew- 


368 


SHEM 


SHEPHERD . 


ish  Rabbis  with  Samaritan  inscriptions,  corre- 
sponding with  those  now  found. 

Shem,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah  (Gen.  v.  32). 
He  was  g8  years  old,  married,  and  childless,  at 
the  time  of  the  Flood.  After  it,  he,  with  his 
father,  brothers,  sisters-in-law  and  wife,  re- 
ceived the  blessing  of  God  (ix.  i),  and  entered 
into  the  covenant.  With  the  help  of  his  broth- 
er Japheth,  he  covered  the  nakedness  of  their 
father,  which  Canaan  and  Ham  did  not  care 
to  hide.  He  died  at  the  age  of  600  years.  The 
portion  of  the  earth  occupied  by  the  descend- 
ants of  Shem  (x.  21-31)  intersects  the  portions 
of  Japheth  and  Ham,  and  stretches  in  an  un- 
interrupted line  from  the  IMediterranean  Sea 
to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Beginning  at  its  north- 
western extremity  with  Lydia,  it  includes 
Syria  (Aram)  Chaldaea  (Arphaxad),  parts  of 
Assyria  (Asshur),  of  Persia  (Elam),  and  of 
the  Arabian  Peninsula  (Joktan).  Modern 
scholars  have  given  the  name  of  Shemitic  or 
Semitic  to  the  languages  spoken  by  his  real  or 
supposed  descendants.  [Hebrew.] 

Shemitic  Languages.  The  expressions, 
''Shemitic  family,"  and  "Shemitic  languages," 
are  based,  as  is  well  known,  on  a  reference  to 
Gen.  x.  21,  seq.  It  is  the  family  of  languages 
spoken  by  the  descendants  of  Shem,  chiefly 
the  Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  Assyrian,  Arabic,  Phoe- 
nician and  Aramaic  or  Syriac.  The  Jews  in 
their  earlier  history  spoke  Hebrew,  but  in 
Christ's  time  they  spoke  the  Aramaic,  some- 
times called  the  Syro-chaldaic. 

Shepherd.  In  a  nomadic  state  of  society 
every  man,  from  the  sheikh  down  to  the  slave, 
is  more  or  less  a  shepherd.  The  progenitors 
of  the  Jews  in  the  patriarchal  age  were  no- 
mads, and  their  history  is  rich  in  scenes  of 
pastoral  life.  The  occupation  of  tending  the 
flocks  was  undertaken,  not  only  by  the  sons  of 
wealthy  chiefs  (Gen.  xxx.  29,  ff.,  xxxvii.  12, 
ft.),  but  even  by  their  daughters  (Gen.  xxix. 
6,  ff. ;  Ex.  ii.  19).  The  Egyptian  captivity  did 
much  to  implant  a  love  of  settled  abode,  and 
consequently  we  find  the  tribes  which  still 
retained  a  taste  for  shepherd  life  selecting  their 
own  quarters  apart  from  their  brethren  in  the 
trans-Jordanic  district  (Xum.  xxxii.  i,  fif.). 
Henceforward  in  Palestine  Proper  the  shep- 
herd held  a  subordinate  position.  The  office 
of  the  Eastern  shei)herd,  as  described  in  the 
Bible,  was  attended  with  much  hardship,  and 
even  danger.  He  was  exposed  to  .  the  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold  (Gen.  xxxi.  40)  ;  his 
food  frequently  consisted  of  the  precarious  sup- 
plies afforded  by  nature,  such  as  the  fruit  of 
the  "sycamore"  or  Egyptian  fig  (Am.  vii.  14), 
the  "husks"  of  the  carob-trec  (Luke  xv.  16), 
and  perchance  the  locusts  ari^d  wild  honey 


which  supported  the  Baptist  (Matt.  iii.  4)  ;  he 
had  to  encounter  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts, 
occasionally  the  larger  species,  such  as  lions, 
wolves,  panthers  and  bears  (i  Sam.  xvii.  34; 
Is.  xxxi.  4;  Jer.  v.  6;  Am.  iii.  12)  ;  nor  was  he 
free  from  the  risk  of  robbers  or  predatory 
hordes  (Gen.  xxxi.  39).  To  meet  these  various 
foes  the  shepherd's  equipment  consisted  of  the 
following  articles :  A  mantle,  made  probably 
of  sheepskin  with  the  fleece  on,  which  he 
turned  inside  out  in  cold  weather,  as  implied 
in  the  comparison  in  Jer.  xliii.  12  (cf.  Juv.  xiv. 


Eastern  Shepherd. 

187)  ;  a  scrip  -or  wallet,  containing  a  small 
amount  of  food  (i  Sam.  xvii.  40)  ;  a  sling, 
which  is  still  the  favorite  weapon  of  the  Bed- 
ouin shepherd  (l  Sam.  xvii.  40)  ;  and,  lastly, 
a  staff,  which  served  the  double  purpose  of 
a  weapon  against  foes  and  a  crook  for  the  man- 
agement of  the  flock  (i  Sam.  xvii.  40;  Ps.  xxiii. 
4;  Zech.  xi.  7).  If  the  shepherd  was' at  a  dis- 
;ance  from  his  home,  he  was  provided  with 
a  light  tent  (Cant.  i.  8;  Jer.  xxxv.  7),  the  re- 
moval of  which  was  easily  effected  (Is.  xxxviii. 
12).  In  certain  localities,  moreover,  towers 
were  erected  for  the  double  purpose  of  spying 
an  enemy  at  a  distance  and  protecting  the 
flock ;  such  towers  were  erected  by  Uzziah 
and  Jotham  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  10,  xxvii.  4),  while 
their  existence  in  earlier  times  is  testified  by 
the  name  Migdal-Eder  (Gen.  xxxv.  21,  A.  V. 
"tower  of  Edar;"  Mi-c.  iv.  8,  A.  V.  "tower  of 
the  flock").  The  routine  of  the  shepherd's 
duties  appears  to  have  been  as  follows :  In 
the  morning  he  led  forth  his  flock  from  the 
fold  (John  X.  4),  which  he  did  by  going  before 
them  and  calling  to  them,  "as  is  still  usual  in 
the  East ;  arrived  at  the  pasturage,  he  watched 
the  flock  with  the  asistance  of  dogs  (Job  xxx. 
i),  and,  should  any  sheep  stray,  he  had  to 
search  for  it  until  he  found  it  (Ez.  xxxiv.  12; 
Luke  XV.  4)  ;  he  supplied  them  with  water, 
either  at  a  running  stream  or  at  troughs  at- 


369 


SHOW-BREAD 


SHILOH 


tached  to  wells  (Gen.  xxix.  7,  xxx.  38;  Ex.  ii. 
16;  Ps.  xxiii.  2)  ;  at  evening  he  brought  them 
back  to  the  fold,  and  reckoned  them,  to  see 
that  hone  were  missing,  by  passing  them  "un- 
der the  rod"  as  they  entered  the  door  of  the 
enclosure  (Lev.  xxvii.  32;  Ez.  xx.  37),  check- 
ing each  sheep,  as  it  passed,  by  a  motion  of  the 
hand  (Jer.  xxxiii.  13)  ;  and,  finally,  he  watched 
the  entrance  of  the  fold  throughout  the  night, 
acting  as  porter  (John  x.  3).  The  shepherd's 
office  thus  required  great  watchfulness,  partic- 
ularly by  night  (Luke  ii.  8;  cf.  Nah.  iii.  18). 
It  also  required  tenderness  towards  the  young 
and  feeble  (Is.  xl.  11),  particularly  in  driving 
them  to  and  from  the  pasturage  (Gen.  xxxiii. 
13).  In  large  establishments  there  were  va- 
rious grades  of  shepherds,  the  highest  being 
styled  "rulers"  (Gen.  xlvii.  8),  or  "chief 
shepherds"  (i  Pet.  v.  4)  ;  in  a  royal  household 
the  title  of  abbir,  "mighty,"  was  bestowed  on 
the  person  who  held  the  post  (i  Sam.  xxi.  7). 
[Sheep.]  The  hatred  of  the  Egyptians  to- 
wards shepherds  (Gen.  xlvi.  34)  may  have  been 
mainly  due  to  their  contempt  for  the  sheep  it- 
self, which  appears  to  have  been  valued  neither 
for  ^food  nor  generally  for  sacrifice,  the  only 
district  where  they  were  oflfered  being  about 
the  natron  lakes.  It  may  have  been  increased 
by  the  memory  of  the  Shepherd  invasion. 

Shew-bread  (Ex.  xxv.  30,  xxxv.  13,  xxxix.  36, 
&c.),  literally  "bread  of  the  face"  or  "faces." 
Shew-bread  was  unleavened  bread  placed  upon 


Table  of  Shew-bread. 

a  table  which  stood  in  the  Sanctuary  together 
with  the  seven-branched  candlestick  and  the 
altar  of  incense.  See  Ex.  25  ;  23-30  for  descrip- 
tion of  this  table.  Every  Sabbath  twelve  new- 
ly baked  loaves  vvere  put  on  it  in  two  rows, 
six  in  each,  and  sprinkled  with  incense,  where 
they  remained  till  the  following  Sabbath. 
Then  they  were  replaced  by  twelve  new  ones, 
the  incense  was  burned,  and  they  were  eaten 
by  the  priests  in  the  Holy  Place,  out  of  which 


they  might  not  be  removed.  Its  name  "Bread 
of  the  Face"  seems  to  indicate  that  bread 
through  which  God  is  seen,  that  is,  with  the 
participation  of  which  the  seeing  of  God  is 
bound  up  or  through  the  participation  of  which 
man  attains  the  sight  of  God..  Whence  it  fol- 
lows that  we  have  not  to  think  of  bread  mere- 
ly as  such,  as  the  means  of  nourishing  the 
bodily  life,  but  as  spiritual  food,  as  a  means 
of  appropriating  and  retaining  that  life  which 
consists  in  seeing  the  face  of  jGod. 

Shib'boleth  (Judg.  xii.  6)  is  the  Hebrew 
word  which  the  Gileadites  under  Jephthah 
made  use  of  at  the  passage  of  the  Jordan  after 
a  victory  over  the  Ephraimites,  to  test  the 
pronunciation  of  the  sound  sh  by  those  who 
wished  to  cross  over  the  river.  The  Ephraim- 
ites, it  would  appear,  in  their  dialect  substitut- 
ed for  sh  the  simple  sound  s ;  and  the  Gilead- 
ites, regarding  every  one  who  failed  to  pro- 
nounce sh  as  an  Ephraimite,  and  therefore  an 
enemy,  put  him  to  death  accordingly.  The 
word  "Shibboleth,"  which  has  now  a  second 
life  in  the  English  language  in  a  new  significa- 
tion, has  two  meanings  in  Hebrew:  ist,  an 
ear  of  corn;  2dl)^  a  stream  or  flood  (Ps.  Ixix. 
2,  15)  ;  and  it  was,  perhaps,  in  the  latter  sense 
that  this  particular  word  suggested  itself  to 
the  Gileadites,  the  Jordan  being  a  rapid  river. 
There  is  no  mystery  in  this  particular  word. 
Any  word  beginning  with  the  sound  sh  would 
have  answered  equally  well  as  a  test. 

Shield.  The  ordinary  shield  consisted  of  a 
framework  of  wood  covered  with  leather;  it 
thus  admitted  of  being  burnt  (Ez.  xxxix.  9). 
It  was  frequently  cased  with  metal,  either 
brass  or  copper ;  its  appearance  in  this  case  re- 
sembled gold,  when  the  sun  shone  on  it  (i 
Mace.  vi.  39),  and  to  this,  rather  than  to  the 
practice  of  smearing  blood  on  the  shield,  we 
may  refer  the  redness  noticed  by  Nahum  (ii. 
3).  The  surface  of  the  shield  was  kept  bright 
by  the  application  of  oil,  as  implied  in  Is.  xxi. 
5.  The  shield  was,  worn  on  the  left  arm,  to 
which  it  was  attached  by  a  strap.  Shields  of 
state  were  covered  with  beaten  gold.  Shields 
were  suspended  about  public  buildings  for  or- 
namental purposes  (i  K.  x.  17).  In  the  meta- 
phorical language  of  the  Bible  the  shield  gen- 
erally represents  the  protection  of  God  (e.  g. 
Ps.  iii.  3,  xxviii.  7)  ;  but  in  Ps.  xlvii.  9  it  is  ap- 
plied to  earthly  rulers,  and  in  Eph.  vi.  16  to 
faith.  [Arms.] 

Shilo'ah,  The  Waters  of,  a  certain  soft-flow- 
ing stream  mentioned  by  the  prophet  Isaiah 
(viii.  6),  better  known  under  the  latter  name 
of  Siloam — the  only  perennial  spring  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

Shi'loh.    In  the  A.  V.  of  the  Bible,  Shiloh  is 


370 


:8|f 


SHILOH 


SHIP 


once  used  as  the  name  of  a  person,  in  a  very 
dif?icult  passage,  in  Gen.  xlix.  lo,  "The  sceptre 
shall  not  depart  from  Judah,  nor  a  lawgiver 
from  between  his  feet,  until  Shiloh  come,  and 
unto  him  shall  the  gathering  of  the  people  be." 
Supposing  that  the  translation  is  correct,  the 
meaning  of  the  word  is  Peaceable  or  Pacific, 
and  the  allusion  is  either  to  Solomon,  whose 
name  has  a  similar  signification,  or  to  the  ex- 
pected Messiah,  who  in  Is.  ix.  6  is  expressly 
called  the  Prince  of  Peace.    [Messiah.]  Other 


Sbiloh. 

interpretations,  however,  of  the  passage  are 
given,  one  of  which  makes  it  refer  to  the  city 
of  this  name.  It  might  be  translated,  "The 
sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah,  nor  the 
ruler's  staft  from  between  his  feet,  till  he  shall 
go  to  Shiloh."  In  this  case  the  allusion  would 
be  to  the  primacy  of  Judah  in  war  (Judg.  i.  i, 
2,  XX.  i8;  Num.  ii.  3,  x.  14),  which  was  to  con- 
tinue until  the  Promised  Land  was  conquered, 
and  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  was  solemnly  de- 
posited at  Shiloh. 

Shi'loh  (place  of  rest),  a  city  of  Ephraim. 
In  Judg.  xxi.  19  it  is  said  that  Shiloh  is  "on  the 
north  side  of  Bethel,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
highway  that  goeth  up  from  Bethel  to  She- 
chem,  and  on  the  south  of  Lebonah."  In 
agreement  with  this  the  traveler  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  going  north  from  Jerusalem,  lodges 
the  first  night  at  Beitin,  the  ancient  Bethel ; 
the  next  -day,  at  the  distance  of  a  few  hours, 
turns  aside  to  the  right,  in  order  to  visit  Seilun, 
the  Arabic  for  Shiloh ;  and  then,  passing 
through  the  narrow  Wady,  which  brings  him 
to  the  main  road,  leaves  el  Lebban,  the  Leb- 
onah of  Scripture,  on  the  left,  as  he  pursues 
"the  highway"  to  Nablus,  the  ancient  Shechem. 
[Shechem.]  Shiloh  was  one  of  the  earliest 
and  most  sacred  of  the  Hebrew  sanctuaries. 
The  ark  of  the  covenant,  which  had  been  kept 


at  Gilgal  during  the  progress  of  the  Conquest 
(Josh,  xviii.  i,  sq.),  was  removed  thence  on 
the  subjugation  of  the  country,  and  kept  at 
at  Shiloh  from  the  last  days  of  Joshua  to  the 
time  of  Samuel  (Josh,  xviii.  10;  Judg.  xviii.  31 ; 
I  Sam.  iv.  3).  It  was  here  the  Hebrew  con- 
queror divided  among  the  tribes  the  portion  of 
the  west  Jordan-region,  which  had  not  been 
already  allotted  (Josh,  xviii.  10,  xix.  51).  In 
this  distribution,  or  an  earlier  one,  Shiloh  fell 
within  the  limits  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xvi.  5). 
The  ungodly  conduct  of  the  sons  of  Eli  occa- 
sioned the  loss  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
which  had  been  carried  into  battle  against  the 
Philistines,  and  Shiloh  from  that  time  sank 
into  insignificance.  It  stands  forth  in  the 
Jewish  histor}'  as  a  striking  example  of  the 
Divine  indignation  (Jer.  vii.  12). 

Shi'nar.  The  ancient  name  of  the  great  al- 
luvial tract  through  which  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates pass  before  reaching  the  sea — the  tract 
known  in  later  times  as  Chaldaea  or  Babylo- 
nia. It  was  a  plain' country  where  brick  had  to 
be  used  for  stone,  and  slime  for  mortar  (Gen. 
xi.  3).  Among  the  cities  were  Babel  (Baby- 
lon), Erech  or  Orech  (Orchoe),  Calneh  or  Cal- 
no  (probably  Niffer),  and  Accad,  the  site  of 
which  is  unknown.  It  may  be  suspected  that 
Shinar  was  the  name  by  which  the  Hebrews 
originally  knew  the  lower  Mesopotamian  coun- 


Uoman  Galley. 

try,  where  they  so  long  dwelt,  and  which  Abra- 
ham brought  with  him  from  "Ur  of  the  Chal- 
dees." 

Ship.  No  one  writer  in  the  whole  range  of 
Greek  and  Roman  literature  has  supplied  us 
with  so  much  information  concerning  the  mer- 
chint-ships  of  the  ancients  as  St.  Luke  in  the 
narrative  of  St.  Paul's  voyage  to  Rome  (Acts 
xxvii.,  xxviii.).  It  is  important  to  remember 
chat  he  accomplished  it  in  three  ships :  first 
the  Adramyttian  vessel  which  took  him  from 
Caesarea  to  Myra,  and  which  was  probably  a 
coasting  vessel  of  no  great  size  (xxvii.  1-6)  ; 


371 


SHIP 


SHISHAK 


secondly,  the  large  Alexandrian  corn-ship,  in 
which  he  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Malta 
(xxvii.  6-xxviii.  l)  ;  and  thirdly,  another  large 
Alexandrian  corn-ship,  in  which  he  sailed  from 
Malta  by  Syracuse  and  Rhegium  to  Puteoli 
(xxviii.  11-13).  (i-)  Size  of  Ancient  Ships. — 
The  narrative  which  we  take  as  our  chief  guide 
afifords  a  good  standard  for  estimating  this. 
The  ship  in  which  St.  Paul  was  wrecked  had 
276  persons  on  board  (Acts  xxvii.  37),  besides 
a  cargo  of  .wheat  (ib.  10,  38)  ;  and  all  these 
passengers  seem  to  have  been  taken  on  to 
Puteoli  in  another  ship  (xxviii.  ii),  which  had 
its  own  crew  and  its  own  cargo.  Now,  in 
transport-ships,  prepared  for  carrying  troops, 
it'  is  a  common  estimate  to  allow  a  ton  and 
a  half  per  man.  On  the  whole,  if  we  say  that 
an  ancient  merchant-ship  might  range  from  500 
to  1000  tons,  we  are  clearly  within  the  mark. 


Boat  of  the  Nile,  sliowing  how  the  sail  was  fastened  to  the 
yards,  and  the  nature  of  the  rigging. 

(2.)  Steering  Apparatus. — Ancient  ships  were 
not  steered  by  rudders  fastened  or  hinged  to 
the  stern,  but  by  means  of  two.paddle-rudders, 
one  on-  each  quarter,  acting  in  a  rowlock  or 
through  a  porthole,  as  the  vessel  m-ight  be 
small  or  large.  (3.)  Build  and  Ornaments  of 
the  Hull. — It  is  probable  that  there  was  no  very 
marked  difference  between  the  bow  and  the 
stern.  The  "hold"  (Jonah  i.  5)  would  present 
no  special  peculiarities.  That  personification 
of  ships,  which  seems  to  be  instinctive,  led  the 
ancients  to  paint  an  eye  on  each  side  of  the 
bow  (comp.  Acts  xxvii.  15).  (4.)  Anchors. — 
Ancient  anchors  were  similar  in  form  to  those 
which  we  use  now,  except  that  they  were  with- 
out flukes.  Two  allusions  to  anchoring  are 
found  in  the  N.  T.,  one  in  a  very  impressive 
metaphor  concerning  Christian  hope  (Heb.  vi. 
19).  The  other  passage  is  part  of  the  literal 
narrative  of  St.  Paul's  voyage  at  its  most  criti- 
cal point.  The  ship  in  which  he  was  sailing 
had  four  anchors  on  board,  and  these  were  all 
employed  in  the  night,  when  the  danger  of 
falling  on  breakers  was  imminent.  The 
sailors  on  this  occasion  anchored  by  the  stern 
(Acts  xxvii.  29).    (5.)  Masts,  Sails,  Ropes,  and 


Yards. — The  rig  of  an  ancient  ship  was  more 
simple  and  clumsy  than  that  employed  in  mod- 
ern times.  Its  great  feature  was  one  large 
mast,  with  one  large  square  sail  fastened  to  a 
yard  of  great  length.  Hence  the  strain  upon 
the  hull,  and  the  danger  of  starting  the  planks, 
were  greater  than  under  the  present  system, 
which  distributes  the  mechanical  pressure  more 
evenly  over  the  whole  ship.  Not  that  there 
were  never  more  masts  than  one,  or  more  sails 
than  one  on, the  same  mast,  in  an  ancient  mer- 
chantman. But  these  were  repetitions,  so  to 
speak,  of  the  same  general  unit  of  rig.  In  the 
O.  T.  the  mast  is  mentioned  (Is.  xxxiii.  23)  ; 
and  from  another  prophet  (Ez.  xxvii.  5)  we 
learn  that  cedar-wood  from  Lebanon  was 
sometimes  used  for  this  part  "of  ships.  There 
is  a  third  passage  (Prov.  xxiii.  34),  where  the 
top  of  a  ship's  mast  is  probably  intended.  In 
Ez.  xxvii.  29,  oars  are  distinctly  mentioned; 
and  it  seems  that  oak-wood  from  Bashan  was 
used  in  making  them.  Another  feature  of  the 
ancient,  as  of  the  modern  ship,  is  the  flag  at  the 
top  of  the  mast  (Is.  1.  c,  and  xxx.  17).  (6.) 
Rate  of  Sailing. — St.  Paul's  voyages  furnish  ex- 
excellent  data  for  approximately  estimating 
this ;  and  they  are  quite  in  harmony  with  what 
we  learn  from  other  sources.  We  must  notice 
here,  however  (what  commentators  sometimes 
curiously  forget),  that  winds  are  variable.  Thus 
the  voyage  between  Troas  and  Philippi,  accom- 
plished, on  one  occasion  (Acts  xvi.  11,  12)  in 


Head  of  Shishals. 

two  days,  occupied  on  another  occasion  (Acts 
XX.  6)  five  days.  With  a  fair  wind  an  ancient 
ship  would  sail  fully  seven  knots  an  hour. 

Shi'shak,  king  of  Egypt,  the  Sheshenk  I.  of 
the  monuments,  first  sovereign  of  the  Bubastite 
xxiid  dynasty.  His  reign  ofYers  the  first  de- 
termined synchronisms  of  Egyptian  and  He- 
brew history.  The  first  year  of  Shishak  would 
about  correspond  to  the  26th  of  Solomon,  and 
the  20th  of  Shishak  to  the  5th  of  Rehoboam. 


372 


j 


THE  UB^^^^ 


SHITTAH-TREE 


SIDON 


Shishak  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  received 
the  fugitive  Jcreboam  (i  K.  xi.  40)  ;  and  it  was 
probably  at  the  instigation  of  Jeroboam  that 
he  attacked  Rehoboam.  "He  took  the  fenced 
cities  which  [pertained]  to  Judah,  and  came 
to  Jerusalem."  He  exacted  all  the  treasures 
of  his  'city  from  Rehoboam,  and  apparently 
made  him  tributary  (i  K.  xiv.  25,  26;  2  Chr. 
xii.  2-9).  Shishak  has  left  a  record  of  this  ex- 
pedition, sculptured  on  the  wall  of  the  great 
temple  of  El-Karnak.  It  is  a  list  of  the  coun- 
tries, cities,  and  tribes,  conquered  or  ruled  by 
him.  or  tributary  to  him. 

Shittah-tree,  Shittim  (Heb.  shittah),  is  with- 
out doubt  correctly  referred  to  some  species 
of  Acacia,  of  which  three  or  four  kinds  occur 
in  the  Bible  lands.    The  wood  of  this  tree — 


Shittim  Wood. 

perhaps  the  Acacia  Seyal  is  more  definitely 
signified — was  extensively  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  tabernacle  (see  Ex.  xxv., 
xxvi.,  xxxvi.,  xxxvii.,  xxxviii.).  It  is  very  com- 
mon in  some  parts  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai. 
It  yields  the  well-known  substance  called  gum 
arable  which  is  obtained  by  incisions  in  the 
bark.  This  acacia  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  American  tree  known  by  this  name, 
which  belongs  to  a  different  genus  and  sub- 
order. 

Shu'hite.  This  ethnic  appellative  "Shuhite" 
is  frequent  in  the  Book  of  Job,  but  only  as  the 
epithet  of  one  person,  Bildad.  The  local  in- 
dications of  the  Book  of  Job  point  to  a  region 
on  the  western  side  of  Chaldaea,  bordering  on 
Arabia;  and  exactly  in  this  locality,  above  Hit 
and  on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  are  found. 


in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions,  the  Tsukhi,  a 
powerful  people.  It  is  probable  that  these 
were  the  Shuhitcs. 

Shu'lamite,  The,  one  of  the  personages  in 
the  poem  of  Solomon's  Song  (vi.  13).  The 
name  denotes  a  woman  belonging  to  a  place 
called  Shulem,  which  is  probably  the  same  as 
Shunem.  If,  then,  Shulamite  and  Shunam- 
mite  are  equivalent,  we  may  conjecture  that 
the  Shunammitc  who  was  the  object  of  Solo- 
mon's passion  was  Abishag. 

Shut,  a  place  just  without  the  eastern  border 
of  Egypt.  Shur  is  first  mentioned  in  the  nar- 
rative of  Hagar's  flight  from  Sarah  (Gen.  xvi. 
7).  Abraham  afterwards  "dwelled  between 
Kadesh  and  Shur,  and  sojourned  in  Gerar"  (xx. 
i).  The  first  clear  indication  of  its  position 
occurs  in  the  account  of  Ishmael's  posterity. 
"And  they  dwelt  from  Havilah  unto  Shur,  that 
[is]  before  Egypt,  as  thou  goest  towards  As- 
syria (xxv.  18;  comp.  I  Sam.  xv.  7;  xxvii.  8). 
The  wilderness  of  Shur  was  entered  by  the 
Israelites  after  they  had  crossed  the  Red  Sea 
(Ex.  XV.  22,  23).  It  was  also  called  the  Wilder- 
ness of  Etham  (Num.  xxxiii.  8). 

Sib'boleth,  the  Ephraimite  pronunciation  of 
the  word  Shibboleth  (Judg.  xii.  6).  [Shibbo- 
leth.] 

Sid'dim,  The  Vale  of,  a  place  named  only  in 
one  passage  of  Genesis  (xiv.  3,  8,  10).  It  was 
one  of  that  class  of  valleys  which  tlie  Hebrews 
designated  by  the  word  Emek.  This  term  ap- 
pears to  have  been  assigned  to  a  broad,  flattish 
tract,  sometimes  of  considerable  width,  en- 
closed on  each  side  by  a  definite  range  of  hills. 
It  was  so  far  a  suitable  spot  for  the  combat 
between  the  four  and  five  kings  (ve.r.  8)  ;  but 
it  contained  a  multitude  of  bitumen-pits  suf- 
ficient materially  to  affect  the  issue  of  the  bat- 
tle. In  this  valley  the  kings  of  the  five  allied 
cities  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboim, 
and  Bela,  seem  to  have  awaited  the  approach 
of  the  invaders.  It  is  therefore  probable  that 
it  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  "plain,  or 
circle,  of  Jordan"  in  which  those  cities  stood. 
If  we  could  venture,  as  some  have  done,  to  in- 
terpret the  latter  clause  of  ver.  3,  "which  is 
near,"  or  "which  is  at,  or  by,  the  Salt  Sea," 
then  we  might  agree  with  Dr.  Robinson  and 
others  in  identifying  the  Valley  of  Siddim  with 
the  enclosed  plain  which  intervenes  between 
the  south  end  of  the  lake  and  the  range  of 
heights  which  terminate  the  Qhor  and  com- 
mence the  Wady  Arabah.  But  the  original  of 
the  passage  seems  to  imply  that  the  Salt  Sea 
covers  the  actual  space  formerly  occupied  by 
the  Vale  of  Siddim. 

Si'don,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Phoenician 
name  Zidon.  [Zidon.] 


373 


SILK 


SILOAM 


Silk.  The  only  undoubted  notice  of  silk  in 
the  Bible  occurs  in  Rev.  xviii.  12,  where  it  is 
mentioned  among  the  treasures  of  the  typical 
Babylon.  It  is,  however,  in  the  highest  de- 
gree probable  that  the  texture  was  known  to 
the  Hebrews  from  the  time  that  their  commer- 
cial relations  were  extended  by  Solomon.  The 
well-known  classical  name  of  the  substance 
'  does  not  occur  in  the  Hebrew  language.  The 
Hebrew  terms  which  have  been  supposed  to 
refer  to  silk  are  meshi  and  demeshek.  The 
former  occurs  only  in  Ez.  xvi.  10,  13  (A.  V. 
"silk").  The  other  term  demeshek  occurs  in 
Am.  iii.  12  (A.  V.  "Damascus"),  and  has  been 
supposed  to  refer  to  silk  from  the  resemblance 
of  the  word  to  our  "damask."  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  "damask"  is  a  corruption  of  dimakso, 
a  term  applied  by  the  Arabs  to  the  raw  ma- 
terial alone.  ^V e  must,  therefore,  consider  the 
reference  to  silk  as  extremely  dubious.  The 
value  set  upon  silk  by  the  Romans,  as  implied 
in  Rev.  xviii.  12,  is  noticed  by  Josephus  as 
well  as  by  classical  writers. 

Siroah,  The  Pool  of,  properly  "the  Pool  of 
Shelach"  (Neh.  iii.  15).  [Siloam.] 

Siroam.  Siloam  is  one,  of  the  few  undis- 
puted localities  in  the  topography  of  Jeru- 
salem; still  retaining  its  old  name  (with  Arabic 


Tool  of  the  Virgin. 

modification,  Silwan),  while  every  other  pool 
has  lost  its  Bible-designation.  This  is  the  more 
remarkable  as  it  is  a  mere  suburban  tank  of  no 
great  size,  and  for  many  an  age  not  particu- 
larly good  or  plentiful  in  its  waters,  though 
Josephus  tells  us  that  in  his  day  they  were 
both  "sweet  and  abundant."  A  little  way  be- 
low the  Jewish  burying-ground,  but  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  valley,  where  the  Kedron 
turns  slightly  westward,  and  widens  itself  con- 
siderably, is  the  fountain  of  the  Virgin  or 
Um-ed-Deraj.  near  the  beginning  of  that  sad- 


dle-shaped projection  of  the  Temple-hill  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Ophel  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
Ophlas  of  Josephus.  At  the  back  part  of  this 
fountain  a  subterraneous  passage  begins, 
thitough  which  the  water  flows,  and  through 
which  a  man  may  make  his  way,  sometimes 
walking  erect,  sometimes  stooping,  sometimes 
kneeling,  and  sometimes  crawling,  to  Siloam. 
This  conduit  has  had  tributaries  which  have 
formerly  sent  their  waters  down  from  the  city 
pools  or  Temple-walls  to  swell  Siloam.  It  en- 
ters Siloam  at  the  north-west  angle ;  or  rather 


Pool  of  Siloam. 

enters  a  small  rock-cut  chamber  which  forms 
the  vestibule  of  Siloam,  about  five  or  six  feet 
broad.  To  this  you  descend  by  a  few  rude 
steps,  under  which  the  water  pours  itself  into 
the  main  pool.  This  pool  is  oblong;  about  18 
feet  broad,  and  19  feet  deep;  but  it  is  never 
filled,  the  water  either  passing  directly 
through,  or  being  maintained  at  a  depth  of 
three  or  four  feet.  Siloam  is  a  sacred  spot, 
even  to  the  Moslem ;  much  more  to  the  Jew. 
It  was  to  Siloam  that  the  Levite  was  sent  with 
the  golden  pitcher  on  the  "last  and  great  day 
of  the  feast"  of  Tabernacles ;  it  was  from 
Siloam  that  he  brought  the  water  which  was 
then  poured  over  the  sacrifice,  in  memory  of 
the  water  from  the  rock  of  Rephidim  ;  and  it 
was  to  this  Siloam  water  that  the  Lord  pointed 
when  He  stogd  in  the  Temple  on  that  day  and 
cried,  "If  any  man  thirst,  let  him  come  unto 
me  and  drink."  The  Lord  sent  the  blind  man 
to  wash,  not  in,  as  our  version  has  it,  but  at 
the  pool  of  Siloam  ;  for  it  was  the  clay  from  his 
eyes  that  was  to  be  washed  off ;  and  the  Evan- 
gelist is  careful  to  throw  in  a  remark,  not  for 


374 


SILO  AM,  TOWER  IN 


SIMON 


the  purpose  of  telling  us  that  Siloam  meant  an 
"aqueduct,"  as  some  think,  but  to  give  higher 
significance  to  the  miracle.  "Go  wash  at  Sil- 
oam," was  the  command;  the  Evangelist  adds, 
"which  is,  by  interpretation,  sent"  (John  ix.  7). 
That  "Sent"  is  the  natural  interpretation  is  evi- 
dent, not  simply  from  the  word  itself,  but  from 
other  passages  where  the  Hebrew  word  is  used 
in  connection  with  water,  at  Job  iii.  10,  "He 
sendeth  waters  upon  the  fields;"  and  Ezek. 
xxxi.  4,  "She  sent  out  her  little  rivers  unto  all 
the  trees  of  tlie  field." 

Siroam,  Tower  in  (Luke  xiii.  4).  Of  this  we 
know  nothing  definitely  beyond  these  w^ords  of 
the  Lord.  In  connection  with  Ophel,  there  is 
mention  made  of  ""a  tower  that  lieth  out"  (Neh. 
iii.  26)  ;  and  there  is  no  unlikelihood  in  connect- 
ing this  projecting  tower  with  the  tower  in  Sil- 
oam, while  one  may  be  almost  excused  for  the 
conjecture  that  its  projection  was  the  cause  of 
its  ultimate  fall. 

Silver.  In  very  early  times,  silver  was  used 
for  ornaments  (Gen.  xxiv.  53)  and  for  vessels  of 
various  kinds.  Images  for  idolatrous  worship 
were  made  of  silver  or  overlaid  with  it  (Ex.  xx. 


Silver. 


23;  Hos.  xiii.  2;  Hab.  ii.  19;  Bar.  vi.  39),  and 
the  manufacture  of  silver  shrines  for  Diana  was 
a  trade  in  Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  24).  But  its 
chief  use  was  as  a  medium  of  exchange,  and 
throughout  the  O.  T.  we  find  "silver"  used  for 
money,  like  the  Fr.  argent.  Silver  was  brought 
to  Solomon  from  Arabia  (2  Chr.  ix.  14)  and 
from  Tarshish  (2  Chr.  ix.  21),  which  supplied 
the  markets  of  Tyre  (Ez.  xxvii.  12).  From 
Tarshish  it  came  in  the  form  of  plates  (Jer.  x. 
9),  like  those  on  which  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Singhalese  are  written  to  this  day.  Spain  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  chief  source  whence  sil- 
ver was  obtained  by  the  ancients.  Possibly  the 
hills  of  Palestine  may  have  afforded  some  sup- 
ply of  this  metal. 

Sim'eon  (heard),  i.  The  second  of  Jacob's 
sons  by  Leah.    His  birth  is  recorded  in  Gen. 
xxix.  33.    The  first  group  of  Jacob's  children  | 
consists,  besides  Simeon,  of  the  three  other  1 


sons  of  Leah — Reuben,  Levi,  Judah.  With 
each  of  these  Simeon  is  mentioned  in 
some  connection.  At  the  censijs  at  Sinai  Sim- 
eon numbered  59,300  fighting  men  (Num.  i. 
23).  .  When  the  second  census  was  taken,  at 
Shittim,  the  numbers  had  fallen  to  22,200,  and 
it  was  the  weakest  of  all  tribes.  This  was  no 
doubt  partly  due  to  the  recent  mortality  fol- 
lowing the  idolatry  of  Peor,  but  there  must 
have  been  other  causes  which  liave  escaped 
mention.  To  Simeon  was  allotted  a  district  out 
of  the  territor}^  of  his  kinsman,  on  its  southern 
frontier,  which  contained  eighteen  or  nineteen 
cities,  with  their  villages,  spread  round  the 
venerable  well  of  Beersheba  (Josh.  xix.  1-8;  I 
Chr.  iv.  28-33).  Of  these  places,  with  the  help 
of  Judah,  the  Simeonites  possessed  themselves 
(Judg.  i.  3,  17)  ;  and  here  they  were  found, 
doubtless  by  Joab,  residijjg  in  the  reign  of 
David  (i  clir.  iv.  31).  2.  A  devout  Jew,  in- 
spired by  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  met  the  parents 
of  our  Lord  in  the  Temple,  took  Him  in  his 
arms,  and  gave  thanks  for  what  he  saw  and 
knew  of  Jesus  (Luke  ii.  25-35).  There  was  a 
Simeon  who  succeeded  his  father  Hillel  as 
president  of  the  Sanhedrim  about  A.  D.  13,  and 
whose  son  Gamaliel  was  the  Pharisee  at  whose 
feet  St.  Paul  was  brought  up  (Acts  xxii.  3).  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  he  may  be  the  Sim- 
eon of  St.  Luke. 

Si'mon.  i.  Simon  the  Canaanite,  one  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles  (Matt.  x.  4;  Mark  iii.  18), 
otherwise  described  as  Simon  Zelotes  (Luke 
vi.  15;  Acts  i.  13). — The  latter  term,  which  is 
peculiar  to  Luke,  is  the  Greek  equivalent  for 
the  Chaldee  term  preserved  by  Matthew  and 
Mark.  [Canaanite.]  Each  of  these  equally 
points  out  Simon  as  belonging  to  the  faction. of 
the  Zealots,  who  were  conspicuous  for  their 
fierce"  advocacy  of  the  Mosaic  ritual.  2.  Simon 
of  Cyrene. — A  Hellenistic  Jew,  born  at  Cyrene 
on  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  who  was  present 
at  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  the  crucifixion  of 
Jesus,  either  as  an  attendant  at  the  feast  (Acts 
ii.  10),  or  as  one  of  the  numerous  settlers  at 
Jerusalem  from  that  place  (Acts  vi.  9).  3.  Si- 
mon the  Leper. — A  resident  at  Bethany,  dis- 
tinguished as  "the  leper."  It  is  not  improbable 
that  he  had  been  miraculously  cured  by  Jesus. 
In  his  house  Mary  anointed  Jesus  preparatory 
to  his  death  and  burial  (Matt.  xxvi.  6,  &c. ; 
Mark  xiv.  3,  &c. ;  John  xii.  i,  &c.).  4.  Simon 
Magus. — A  Samaritan  living  in  the  Apostolic 
age,  distinguished  as  a  sorcerer  or  "magician," 
from  his  practice  of  magical  arts  (Acts  viii.  9). 
According  to  ecclesiastical  writers  he  was  born 
at  Gitton,  a  village  of  Samaria,  and  was  prob- 
I  ably  educated  at  Alexandria  in  the  tenets  of 
1  the  Gnostic  school.    He  is  first  introduced  to 


375 


SIN-OFFERiNG 


SINAI 


us  as  practising  magical  arts  in  a  city  of  Sa- 
maria, perhaps  Sychar  (Acts  viii.  5;  comp. 
John  iv.  5),  and  with  such  success,  that  he  was 
pronounced  to  be  "the  power  of  God  which 
is  called  great"  (Acts  viii.  10).  The  preaching 
and  miracles  of  Philip  having  excited  his  ob- 
servation, he  became  one  of  his  disciples,  and 
received  baptism  at  his  hands.  Subsequently 
he  witnessed  the  effect  produced  by  the  imposi- 
tion of  hands,  as  practised  by  the  Apostles 
Peter  and  John,  and,  being  desirous  of  acquir- 
ing a  similar  power  for  himself,  he  offered  a 
sum  of  money  for  it.  His  object  evidently  was 
to  apply  the  power  to  the  prosecution  of  mag- 
ical arts.  The  motive  and  the  means  were 
equally  to  be  reprobated ;  and  his  proposition 
met  with  a  severe  denunciation  from  Peter, 
followed  by  a  petition  on  the  part  of  Simon, 
the  tenor  of  whicl^  bespeaks  terror,  but  not 
penitence  (Acts  viii.  9-24).  5.  Simon,  a  Phar- 
isee, in  whose  liouse  a  penitent  woman  anointed 
the  head  and  feet  of  Jesus  (Luke  vii.  40). 

Sin-offering.  The  sin-offering  among  the 
Jews  was  the  sacrifice,  in  which  the  ideas  of 
propitiation  and  of  atonement  for  sin  were 
most  distinctly  marked.  The  ceremonial  of  the 
sin-offering  is  described  in  Lev.  iv.  and  vi.  The 
Trespass-oiTering  is  closely  connected  with 
the  sin-offering  in  Leviticus,  but  at  the  same 
time  clearly  distinguished  from  it,  being  in 
some  cases  offered  with  it  as  a  distinct  part  of 
the  same  sacrifice ;  as,  for  example,  in  the 
cleansing  of  the  leper  (Lev.  xiv.).  The  distinc- 
tion of  ceremonial  clearly  indicates  a  difference 
in  the  idea  of  the  two  sacrifices.  The  nature  of 
that  difference  is  still  a  subject  of  great  contro- 
versy. We  find  that  the  sin-offerings  were — 
(A.)  Regular,  (i.)  For  the  whole  people,  at  the 
New  Moon,  Passover,  Pentecost,  Feast  of 
Trumpets,  and  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Num. 
xxviii.  15-xxix.  38);  besides  the  solemn  offer- 
ing of  the  two  goats  on  the  Great  Day  of 
Atonement  (Lev.  xvi.).  (2.)  For  the  Priests 
and  Levites  at  their  consecration  (Ex.  xxix. 
10-14,  36)  ;  besides  the  yearly  sin-offering  (a 
bullock)  for  the  high-priest  on  the  Great  Day 
of  Atonement  (Lev.  xvi.)  (B.)  Special,  (i.) 
For  any  sin  of  "ignorance"  (Lev.  iv.).  (2.)  For 
refusal  to  bear  witness  (Lev.  v.  i).  (3.)  For 
ceremonial  defilement  not  wilfully  contracted 
(Lev.  V.  2,  3,  xii.  6-8,  xiv.  19,  31,  -xv.  15,  30; 
Num.  vi.  6-1 1,  16).  (4.)  For  the  breach  of  a 
rash  oath  (Lev.  v.  4).  The  trespass-offerings, 
on  the  other  hand,  were  always  special,  as — 
(i.)  For  sacrilege  "in  ignorance"  (Lev.  v.  15, 
16).  (2.)  For  ignorant  transgression  (v.  17-19). 
(3.)  For  fraud,  suppression  of  the  trum,  or  per- 
jury (vi.  1-6).  (4.)  For  rape  of  a  betrothed 
slave  (Lev.  xix.  20,  21).    (5.)  At  the  purifica- 


tion of  the  leper  (Lev.  xiv.  12),  and  the  pol- 
luted Nazarite  (Num.  vi.  12),  offered  with  the 
sin-offering. 

Si'nai  (thorny).  Nearly  in  the  centre  of  the 
peninsula  which  stretches  between  the  horns  of 
the  Red  Sea  lies  a  wedge  of  granite,  griinstem, 
and  porphyry  rocks  rising  to  between  8000  and 
9000  feet  above  the  sea.  These  mountains  may 
be  divided  into  two  great  masses — that  of  Jebel 
Serbal  (6759  feet  high)  in  the  north-west  above 
Wady  Feiran  and  the  central  group,  roughly 
denoted  by  the  general  name  of  Sinai.  This 
group  rises  abruptly  from  the  Wady  es-Sheykh 
at  its  north_  foot,  first  to  the  cliffs  of  the  Ras 
Sufsafeh,  behind  which  towers  the  pinnacle  of 
Jebel  Mfisa  (the  Mount  of  Moses),  and  farther 
back  to  the  right  of  it  the  summit  of  Jebel 
I<Caterin  (Mount  St.  Catherine,  8705  feet),  all 
being  backed  up  and  overtopped  by  Um  Shau- 
mer  (the  mother  of  fennel,  9300  feet),  which 


Sinai  and  the  plain  of  Er  R^bab. 


is  the  highest  point  of  the  whole  peninsula. 
These  mountains  are  called  Horeb  and  some- 
times Sinai.  That  the  modern  Horeb  of  the 
monks — viz.  the  N.  W.  and  lower  face  of  the 
Jebel  Miisa,  crowned  with  a  range  of  magnifi- 
cent cliffs,  the  highest  point  called  Ras  Sufsa- 
feh, as  overlooking  the  plain  er  Rahah,  is  the 
scene  of  the  giving  of  the  Law,  and  that  peak 
the  mountain  into  which  Moses  ascended.  But 
the  whole  of  Jebel  Miisa  is,  compared  with  the 
adjacent  mountains,  insignificant.  The  con- 
junction of  mountain  with  plain  is  the  greatest 
feature  of  this  site;  in  choosing  it,  we  lose- in 
the  mountain,  as  compared  with  Serbal,  but  we 
gain  in  the  plain,  of  which  Serbal  has  nothing. 
It  may  be  added  that,  supposing  Wady  Tayi- 
beh  to  have  been  the  encampment  "by  the  sea," 
as  stated  in  Num.  xxxiii.  10,  three  routes 
opened  there  before  the  Israelites ;  the  most 
southerly  one  down  the  plain  el  Kaa  to  Tur ;  the 


I 


SIRAH,  THE  WELL  OF 

most  northerly  by  the  Sarbut  el  Khadem ;  and 
the  middle  one  by  \\'ady  Feiran,  by  which  they 
would  pass  the  foot  of  Serbal,  which  therefore 
in  this  case  alone  could  possibly  be  Sinai.  The 
middle  route  aforesaid  from  W.  Tayibeh 
reaches  the  W.  Feiran  through  w-hat  is  called 
the  W.  Mokatteb,  or  "written  valley,"  from  the 
inscriptions  on  the  rocks  which  line  it,  generally 
considered  to  have  been  the  work  of  Christian 
hands,  but  whether  those  of  a  Christian  people 
localized  there  at  an  unknown  period,  as  Lep- 
sius  thinks,  or  of  passing  pilgrims,  as  is  the 
more  general  opinion,  is  likely  to  continue 
doubtful. 

Si'rah,  The  Well  of,  from  which  Abner  was 
recalled  b}'  Joab  to  his  death  at  Hebron  (2 
Sam.  iii.  26,  only).  It  was  apparently  on  the 
northern  road  from  Hebron.  There  is  a  spring 
and  reservoir  on  the  w^estern  side  of  the  an- 
cient northern  road,  about  one  mile  out  of 
Hebron,  which  is  called  Ain  Sara. 

Sivan.  [Month.] 

Slave.  The  institution  of  slavery  was  recog- 
nized, though  not  established,  by  the  Mosaic 
Law  with  a  view  to  mitigate  its  hardship  and 
to  secure  to  every  man  his  ordinary  rights. 
L  Hebrew  Slaves,  i.  The  circumstances  un- 
der which  a  Hebrew  might  be  reduced  to 
servitude  were— (i)  poverty;  (2)  the  commis- 
sion of  theft;  and  (3)  the  exercise  of  paternal 
authority.  In  the  first  case,  a  man  who  had 
mortgaged  his  property,  and  was  unable  to 
support  his  family,  might  sell  himself  to  an- 
other Hebrew,  w'ith  a  view  both  to  obtain 
maintenance  and  perchance  a  surplus  sufficient 
to  redeem  his  property  (Lev.  xxv.  25,  39).  (2) 
The  commission  of  theft  rendered  a  person 
liable  to  servitude,  whenever  restitution  could 
not  be  made  on  the  scale  prescribed  by  the 
Law  (Ex.  xxii.  i,  3).  The  thief  was  bound  to 
work  out  the  value  of  his  restitution  money  in 
the  service  of  him  on  whom  the  theft  had  been 
committed.  (3)  The  exercise  of  paternal  au- 
thority was  limited  to  the  sale  of  a  daughter 
of  tender  age  to  be  a  maid-servant,  with  the 
ulterior  view  of  her  becoming  the  concubine 
of  the  purchaser  (Ex.  xxi.  7).  2.  The  servi- 
tude of  a  Hebrew  might  be  terminated  in  three 
ways:  (i)  by  the  satisfaction  or  the  remission 
of  all  claims  against  him  ;  (2)  by  the  recur- 
rence of  the  year  of  Jubilee  (Lev.  xxv.  40)  ; 
and  (3)  the  expiration  of  six  years  from  the 
time  that  his  servitude  commenced  (Ex.  xxi. 
2;  Deut.  XV.  12).  (4)  To  the  above  modes  of 
obtaining  liberty  the  Rabbinists  added,  as  a 
fourth,  the  death  of  the  master  without  leav- 
ing a  son,  there  being  no  power  of  claiming 
the  slave  on  the  part  of  any  heir  except  a  son. 
If  a  servant  did  not  desire  to  avail  himself  of 


SLING 

the  opportunity  of  leaving  his  service,  he  was 
to  signify  his  intention  in  a  formal  manner 
before  the  judges  (or  more  exactly  at  the  place 
of  judgment),  and  then  the  master  was  to  take 
him  to  the  door-post,  and  to  bore  his  ear 
through  with  an  awl  (Ex.  xxi.  6),  driving  the 
awl  into  or  "unto  the  door,"  as  stated  in  Deut. 
XV.  17,  and  thus  fixing  the  servant  to  it.  A 
servant  who  had  submitted  to  this  operation 
remained,  according  to  the  words  of  the  Law, 
a  servant  "forever"  (Ex.  xxi.  6).  These  words 
are,  however,  interpreted  by  Josephus  and  by 
the  rabbinists  as  meaning  until  the  year  of 
Jubilee.  3.  The  condition  of  a  Hebrew  serv- 
ant was  by  no  means  intolerable.  His  master 
was  admonished  to  treat  him,  not  "as  a  bond- 
servant, but  as  an  hired  servant  and  as  a  so- 
journer," and,  again,  "not  to  rule  over  him 
with  rigor"  (Lev.  xxv.  39,  40,  43).  At  the 
termination  of  his  servitude  the  master  was 
enjoined  not  to  "let  him  go  away  empty,"  but  to 
remunerate  him  liberally  out  of  his  flock,  his 
floor,  and  his  wine-press.  (Deut.  xv.  13,  14). 
In  the  event  of  a  Hebrew  becoming  the  serv- 
ant of  a  "stranger,"  meaning  a  non-Hebrew, 
the  servitude  could  be  terminated  only  in  two 
ways,  viz.,  by  the  arrival  of  the  year  of  Jubi- 
lee, or  by  the  repayment  to  the  master  of  the 
purchase-money  paid  for  the  servant,  after 
deducting  a  sum  for  the  value  of  his  services 
proportioned  to  the  length  of  his  servitude 
(Lev.  xxv.  47-55).  A  Hebrew  woman  might 
enter  into  voluntary  servitude  on  the  score  of 
poverty,  and  in  this  case  she  was  entitled  to 
her  freedom  after  six  years'  service,  together 
with  her  usual  gratuity  at  leaving,  just  as  in 
the  case  of  a  man  (Deut.  xv.  12,  13). 

Slime,  translated  bitumen  in  the  Vulgate. 
The  three  instances  in  which  it  is  mentioned 
in  the  O.  T.  are  illustrated  by  travelers  and  • 
historians.  It  is  first  spoken  of  as  used  for 
cement  by  the  builders  in  the  plain  of  Shinar, 
or  Babylonia  (Gen.  xi.  3).  The  bitumen  pits 
in  the  vale  of  Siddim  are  mentioned  in  the  an- 
cient fragment  of  Canaanitish  history  (Gen. 
xiv.  10)  ;  and  the  ark  of  papyrus  in  which 
Moses  was  placed  was  made  impervious  to 
water  by  a  coating  of  bitumen  and  pitch  (Ex. 
ii.  3).  Herodotus  (i.  179)  tells  us  of  the  bitu- 
men found  at  Is,  a  town  of  Babylonia,  eight 
days'  journey  from  Babylon.  The  town  of  Is, 
mentioned  by  Herodotus,  is  the  modern  Hit 
or  Heet,  on  the  west  or  right  bank  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  four  days'  journey  from  Bag- 
dad. The  principal  bitumen  pit  at  Heet  has 
two  sources,  and  is  divided  by  a  wall  in  the 
centre,  on  one  side  of  which  bitumen  bubbles 
up,  and  on  the  other  the  oil  of  naphtha. 

Sling.  [Arms.] 


377 


i 


SMITH 


SODOM 


Smith.  [Handicraft.] 

Smyr'na,  the  city  to  which  allusion  is  made 
in  Revelation  ii.  8-11,  was  founded  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and  was  situated  twenty 
stades  from  the  city  of  the  same  name,  which 
after  a  long  series  of  wars  with  the  Lydiaris 
had  been  finally  taken  and  sacked  by  Haly- 
attes.  It  seems  not  impossible,  that  just  as 
St.  Paul's  illustrations  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  are  derived  from  the  Isthmian 
games,  so  the  message  to  the  Church  in  Smyr- 


Smyrna,  Modern. 

na  contains  allusions  to  the  ritual  of  the  pagan 
mysteries  which  prevailed  in  that  city.  In 
the  time  of  Strabo  the  ruins  of  the  Old  Smyrna 
still  existed,  and  were  partially  inhabited,  but 
the  new  city  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in 
all  Asia.  The  streets  were  laid  out  as  near  as 
might  be  at  right  angles.  There  was  a  large 
(public  library  there,  and  also  a  handsome 
building  surrounded  with  porticos  which 
served  as  a  museum.  It  was  consecrated  as  a 
heroiim  to  Homer,  whom  the  Smyrnaeans 
claimed  as  a  countryman.  Olympian  games 
were  celebrated  here,  and  excited  great  inter- 
est. 

Snail.  I.  The  Hebrew  word  shablvil  occurs 
only  in  Ps.  Iviii.  8.  The  rendering  of  the  A.  V. 
is  probably  correct.  The  term  would'  denote 
either  a  Limax  or  a  Helix,  which  are  particu- 
larly noticeable  for  the  slimy  track  they  leave 
behind  them.  2.  The  Hebrew  word  chomet 
occurs  only  as  the  name  of  some  unclean  ani- 
mal in  Lev.  xi.  3a.  Perhaps  some  kind  of  lizard 
may  be  intended. 

Snow.  The  historical  books  of  the  Bible 
contain  only  two  notices  of  snow  actually  fall- 
ing (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20 ;  i  Mace.  xiii.  22)  ;  but  the 
allusions  in  the  poetical  books  are  so  numerous 
that  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  its  being  an 
ordinary  occurrence  in  the  winter  months  (Ps. 
cxlvii.  16,  cxlviii.  8). 

Soap.  The  Hebrew  term  borith  is  a  general 
term  for  any  substance  of  cleansing  qualities. 


As,  however,  it  appears  in  Jer.  ii.  22,  in  contra- 
distinction to  nether,  which  undoubtedly 
means  "natron,"  or  mineral  alkali,  it  is  fair  to 
infer  that  borith  refers  to  vegetable  alkali,  or 
some  kind  of  potash,  which  forms  one  of  the 
usual  ingredients  in  our  soap. 

Sod'om,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Syria.  It  is  commonly  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  Gomorrah,  but  also  with  Admah  and 
Zeboim,  and  on  one  occasion.  (Gen.  xiv.)  with 
Bela  or  Zoar.  Sodom  was  evidently  the  chief 
town  in  the  settlement.  The  four  are  first 
named  in  the  ethnological  records  of  Gen.  x. 
19,  as  belonging  to  the  Canaanites.  The  next 
mention  of  the  name  of  Sodom  (Gen.  xiii.  10- 
13)  gives  more  certain  indication  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  city.  Abram  and  Lot  are  standing 
together  between  Bethel  and  Ai  (ver.  3),  tak- 
ing a  survey  of  the  land  around  and  below 
them.  Eastward  of  them,  and  absolutely  at 
their  feet,  lay  the  "circle  of  Jordan."  The 
whole  circle  was  one  great  oasis — "a  garden  of 
Jehovah"  (ver.  10).  In  the  midst  of  the  garden 
the  four  cities  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah, 
and  Zeboim  appear  to  have  been  situated.  It 
is  necessary  to  notice  how  absolutely  the  cities 
are  identified  with  the  district.  In  the  subse- 
quent account  of  their  destruction  (Gen.  xix.), 
the  topographical  terms  are  employed  with  all 


Snail. 


the  precision  which  is  characteristic  of  such 
early  times.  The  mention  of  the  Jordan  is 
conclusive  as  to  the  situation  of  the  district, 
for  the  Jordan  ceases  where  it  enters  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  can  have  no  existence  south  of  that 
point.  The  catastrophe  by  which  they  were 
destroyed  is  described  in  Gen.  xix.  As  to  the 
exact  situation  of  Sodom  no  satisfactory  con- 
clusion can  at  present  be  come  to.  On  the  one 
hand,  the  narrative  of  Genesis  seems  to  state 
positively  that  it  lay  at  the  northern  end  of 
the  Dead  Sea.    On  the  other  hand,  the  long- 


SOLOMON 


SOLOMON 


continued  tradition  and  the  names  of  existing 
spots  seem  to  pronounce  with  ahnost  equal 
positiveness  that  it  was  at  its  southern  end. — 
Of  the  catastrophe  which  destroyed  the  city 
and  the  district  of  Sodom  we  can  hardly  hope 
ever  to  form  a  satisfactory  conception.  Some 
catastrophe  there  undoubtedly  was.  But  what 
secondary  agencies,  besides  fire,  were  em- 
ployed in  the  accomplishment  of  the  punish- 
ment cannot  be  safely  determined  in  the  al- 
most total  absence  of  exact  scientific  descrip- 
tion of  the  natural  features  of  the  ground  round 
the  lake.  The  name  Sodom  has  been  inter- 
preted to  mean  "burning."  The  miserable  fate 
of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  is  held  up  as  a  warn- 
ing in  numerous  passages  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  (2  Pet.  ii.  6;  Jude  4-7;  Mark  vi. 
II). 

Sol'omon  (peaceful).  L  Early  Life  and  Ac- 
cession.— He  was  the  child  of  David's  old  age, 
the  last-born  of  all  his  sons  (i  Chr.  iii.  5).  The 
feelings  of  the  king  and  of  his  prophet-guide 
expressed  themselves  in  the  names  with  which 
they  welcomed  his  birth.  The  yearnings  of  the 
"man  of  war"  now  led  him  to  give  to  the  new- 
born infant  the  name  of  Solomon  (Shelomoh 
=the  peaceful  one).  Nathan,  with  a  marked 
reference  to  the  meaning  of  the  king's  own 
name  (David=the  darling,  the  beloved  one), 
calls  the  infant  Jedidiah  (Jedid-yah),  that  is, 
the  "darling  of  the  Lord"  (2  Sam.  xii.  24,  25). 
He  was  placed  under  the  care  of  Nathan  from 
his  earliest  infancy.  At  first  apparently,  there 
was  no  distinct  purpose  to  make  him  his  heir. 
Absalom  is  still  the  king's  favorite  son  (2  Sam. 
xiii.  37,  xviii.  33) — is  looked  on  by  the  people 
as  the  destined  successor  (2  Sam.  xiv.  13,  xv. 
1-6).  The  death  of  Absalom,  when  Solomon 
was  about  ten  years  old,  left  the  place  vacant, 
and  David  pledged  his  word  in  secret  to  Bath- 
sheba  that  he,  and  no  other,  should  be  the  heir 
(i  K.  i.  13).  The  words  which  were  spoken 
somewhat  later,  express,  doubtless,  the  pur- 
pose which  guided  him  throughout  (i  Chr. 
xxviii.  9,  20).  His  son's  life  should  not  be  as 
his  own  had  been,  one  of  hardships  and  wars, 
dark  crimes  and  passionate  repentance,  but, 
from  first  to  last,  be  pure,  blameless,  peaceful, 
fulfilling  the  ideal  of  glory  and  of  righteous- 
ness, after  which  he  himself  had  vainly  striven. 
The  glorious  visions  of  Ps.  Ixxii.  may  be  looked 
on  as  the  prophetic  expansion  of  those  hopes 
of  his  old  age.  So  far,  all  was  well.  But  we 
may  not  ignore  the  fact,  that  the  later  years  of 
David's  life  presented  a  change  for  the  worse, 
as  well  as  for  the  better.  We  cannot  rest  in 
the  belief  that  his  influence  over  his  son's 
character  was  one  exclusively  for  good.  Noth- 
ing that  we  know  of  Bathsheba  leads  us  to 


think  of  her  as  likely  to  mould  her  son's  mind 
and  heart  to  the  higher  forms  of  goodness. 
Under  these  influences  the  boy  grew  up.  At 
the  age  of  ten  or  eleven  he  must  have  passed 
through  the  revolt  of  Absalom,  and  shared  his 
father's  exile  (2  Sam.  xv.  16).  He  would  be 
taught  all  that  priests,  or  Levites,  or  prophets 
had  to  teach.  The  feebleness  of  David's  old 
age  led  to  an  attempt  that  might  have  deprived 
Solomon  of  the  throne  his  father  destined  for 
him,  but  Solomon  went  down  to  Gihon,  and 
was  proclaimed  ■  and  anointed  king.  A  few 
months  more,  and  Solomon  found  himself,  by 
his  father's  death,  the  sole  occupant  of  the 
throne.  The  position  to  which  he  succeeded 
was  unique.  Never  before,  and  never  after, 
did  the  kingdom  of  Israel  take  its  place  among 
the  great  monarchies  of  the  East.  Large  treas- 
ures accumulated  through  many  years  were 
at  his  disposal. — Of  Solomon's  personal  ap- 
pearance we  have.no  direct  description,  as  we 
have  of  the  earlier  kings.  There  are,  however, 
materials  for  filling  up  the  gap.  Whatever 
higher  mystic  meaning  may  be  latent  in  Ps. 
xlv.,  or  the  Song  of  Songs,  we  are  all  but  com- 
pelled to  think  of  them  as.  having  had,  at  least, 
an  historical  starting-point.  They  tell  us  of 
one  who  was,  in  the  eyes  of  the  men  of  his 
own  time,  "fairer  than  the  children  of  men," 
the  face  "bright  and  ruddy"  as  his  father's 
(Cant.  >.  10;  I  Sam.  xvii.  42),  bushy  locks, 
dark  as  the  raven's  wing,  yet  not  without  a 
golden  glow,  the  eyes  soft  as  "the  eyes  of 
doves,"  the  "countenance  as  Lebanon,  excel- 
lent as  the  cedars,"  "the  chiefest  among  ten 
thousand,  the  altogether  lovely"  (Cant.  v. 
9-16).  Add  to  this  all  gifts  of  a  noble,  far- 
reaching  intellect,  large  and  ready  sympathies, 
a  playful  and  genial  humor,  the  lips  "full  of 
grace,"  the  soul  "anointed"  as  "with  the  oil  of 
gladness"  (Ps.  xlv.),  and  we  may  form  some 
notion  of  wha-t  the  king  was  like  in  that  dawn 
of  his  golden  prime.  All  the  data  for  a  contin- 
uous history  that  we  have  of  Solomon's  reign 
are — (a.)  The  duration  of  the  reign,  40  years 
(i  K.  xi.  42)  B.  C.  1015-975.  (b.)  The  "com- 
mencement of  the  Temple  in  the  4th,  its  com- 
pletion in  the  nth  year  of  his  reign  (i  K.  vi. 
I'  37.  38)-  (c.)  The  commencement  of  his  own 
palace  in  the  7th,  its  completion  in  the  20th 
year  (i  K.  vii.  i  ;  2  Chr.  viii.  i).  (d.)  The  con- 
quest of  Hamath-Zobah,  and  the  consequent 
foundation  of  cities  in  the  region  north  of  Pal- 
estine after  the  20th  year  (2  Chr.  viii.  1-6). 
With  materials  so  scanty  as  these,  it  will  be 
better  to  group  the  chief  facts  in  an  order 
which  will  best  enable  us  to  appreciate 
their  significance.  Foreign  Policy. — i.  Egypt. 
The  first  act  of  the  foreign  policy  of  the  new 


379 


SOLOMON 


SOLOMON 


reign  must  have  been  to  most  Israelites  a  very 
startling  one.  He  made  affijiity  with  Pharaoh, 
king  of  Egypt,  by  marrying  his  daughter  (i 
K.  iii.  i).  The  immediate  results  were  prob- 
ably favorable  enough.  The  new  queen 
brought  with  her  as  a  dowry  the  frontier-city 
of  Gezer,  against  which,  as  threatening  the 
tranquillity  of  Israel,  and  as  still  possessed  by 
a  remnant  of  the  old  Canaanites,  Pharaoh  had 
led  his  armies.  She  was  received  with  all 
honor.  A  separate  and  stately  palace  was  built 
for  her,  before  long,  outside  the  city  of  David 
(2  Chr.  viii.  11).  The  ultimate  issue  of  the 
alliance  showed  that  it  was  hollow  and  impol- 
itic. 2.  Tyre.  The  alliance  with  the  Phoeni- 
cian king  rested  on  a  somewhat  different  foot- 
ing. It  had  been  part  of  David's  policy  from 
the  beginning  of  his  reign.  Hiram  had  been 
"ever  a  lover  of  David."  As  soon  as  he  heard 
of  Solomon's  accession  he  sent  ambassadors  to 
salute  him.  A  correspondence  passed  between 
the  two  kings,  which  ended  in  a  treaty  of  com- 
merce. The  opening  of  Joppa  as  a  port  cre- 
ated a  new  coasting-trade,  and  the  materials 
from  Tyre  were  conveyed  to  it  on  floats,  and 
thence  to  Jerusalem  (2  Chr.  ii.  16).  In  return 
for  these  exports,  the  Phoenicians  were  only 
to  glad  to  receive  the  corn  and  oil  of  Solo- 
mon's territory.  The  results  of  the  alliance 
did  not  end  here.  Now,  for  the  first  time  in 
the  history  of  Israel,  they  entered  on  a  career 
as  a  commercial  people.  They  joined  the 
Phoenicians  in  their  Mediterranean  voyages  to 
the  coasts  of  Spain.  3.  These  were  the  two 
most  important  alliances.  The  absence  of  any 
reference  to  Babylon  and  Assyria,  and  the  fact 
that  the  Euphrates  was  recognized  as  the 
boundary  of  Solomon's  kingdom  (2  Chr.  ix. 
26),  suggest  the  inference  that  the  Mesopota- 
mian  monarchies  were  at  this  time  compara- 
tively feeble.  Other  neighboring  nations  were 
content  to  pay  annual  tribute  in  the  form  of 
gifts  (2  Chr.  ix.  42).  4.  The  survey  of  the  in- 
fluence exercised  by  Solomon  on  surrounding 
nations  would  be  incomplete  if  we  were  to  pass 
over  that  which  was  more  directly  personal — 
the  fame  of  his  glory  and  his  wisdom.  Wher- 
ever the  ships  of  Tarshish  went,  they  carried 
with  them  the  report,  losing  nothing  in  its 
passage,  of  what  their  crews  had  seen  and 
heard.  The  journey  of  the  queen  of  Sheba, 
though  from  its  circumstances  the  most  con- 
spicuous, did  not  stand  alone.  Internal  His- 
tory.— I.  The  first  prominent  scene  in  Solo- 
mon's reign  is  one  which  presents  his  charac- 
ter in  its  noblest  aspect.  Solomon  prayed,  not 
for  riches,  or  long  life,  or  victory  over  enemies, 
but  for  a  "wise  and  understanding  heart,"  that 
he  might  judge  the  people.      The  "speech 


pleased  the  Lord."  The  wisdom  asked  for  was 
given  in  large  measure,  and  took  a  varied 
range.  The  wide  world  of  nature,  animate  and 
inanimate,  the  lives  and  characters  of  men,  lay 
before  him,  and  he  took  cognizance  of  all.  But 
the  highest  wisdom  was  that  wanted  for  the 
highest  work  for  governing  and  guiding,  and 
the  historian  has.tens  to  give  an  illustration  of 
it.  The  pattern-instance  is,  in  all  its  circum- 
stances, thoroughly  Oriental  (i  K.  iii.  16-28). 
2.  In  reference  to  the  king's  finances,  the  first 
impression  of  the  facts  given  us  is  that  of 
abounding  plenty.  Large  quantities  of  the 
precious  metals  were  imported  from  Ophir  and 
Tarshish  (i  K.  ix.  28).  All  the  kings  and 
princes  of  the  subject  provinces  paid  tribute 
in  the  form  of  gifts,  in  money  and  in  kind,  "at 
a  fixed  rate  year  by  year"  (i  K.  x.  25).  Mo- 
nopolies of  trade  contributed  to  the  king's 
treasury  (i  K.  x.  28,  29).  The  total  amount 
thus  brought  into  the  treasury  in  gold,  ex- 
clusive of  all  payments  in  kind,  amounted  to 
666  talents  (i  K.  x.  14).  3.  It  was  hardly  pos- 
sible, however,  that  any  financial  system  could 
bear  the  strain  of  the  king's  passion  for  mag- 
nificence. The  cost  of  the  Temple  was,  it  is 
true,  provided  for  by  David's  savings  and  the 
ofTerings  of  the  people;  but  even  while  that 
was  building,  yet  more  when  it  was  finished, 
one  structure  followed  on  another  with  ruinous 
rapidity.  All  the  equipment  of  his  court,  the 
"apparel"  of  his  servants,  was  on  the  same 
scale.  A  bodyguard  attended  him,  "threescore 
valiant  men,"  tallest  and  handsomest  of  the 
sons  of  Israel.  Forty  thousand  stalls  of  horses 
for  his  chariots,  and  twelve  thousand  horse- 
rnen,  made  up  the  measure  of  his  magnificence 
(i  K.  iv.  26).  As  the  treasury  became  empty, 
taxes  multiplied  and  monopolies  became  more 
irksome.  The  people  complained,  not  of  the 
king's  idolatry,  but  of  their  burdens  of  his 
"grievous  yoke"  (l  K.  xii.  4).  4.  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  Temple  erected  by  Solomon  is 
given  elsewhere.  After  seven  years  and  a  half 
the  work  was  completed,  and  the  day  came  to 
which  all  Israelites  looked  back  as  the  cul- 
minating glory  of  their  nation.  5.  We  cannot 
ignore  the  fact  that  even  how  there  were  some 
darker  shades  in  the  picture.  He  reduced  the 
"strangers"  in  the  land,  the  remnant  of  the 
Canaanite  races  to  the  state  of  helots,  and 
made  their  life  "bitter  with  all  hard  bondage." 
One  hundred  and  fifty-three  thousand,  with 
wives  and  children  in  proportion,  were  torn 
from  their  homes  and  sent  off  to  the  quarries 
and  the  forests  of  Lebanon  (i  K.  v.  15;  2  Chr. 
ii.  17,  18).  And  the  king  soon  fell  from  the 
loftiest  height  of  his  religious  life  to  the  lowest 
depth.    Before  long  the  priests  and  prophets 


380 


SOLOMON'S  SOXG 


SPARROW 


had  to  grieve  over  rival  temples  to  Moloch, 
Chemosh,  Ashtaroth,  forms  of  ritual  not  idol- 
atrous only,  but  cruel,  dark,  impure.  Legends. 
— Round  the  facts  of  the  history,  as  a  nucleus, 
there  gathers  a  whole  world  of  fantastic  fables, 
Jewish,  Christian,  and  Mohammedan.  Even 
in  the  Targum  of  Ecclesiastes  we  find  strange 
stories  of  his  character.  He  left  behind  him 
spells  and  charms  to  cure  diseases  and  cast  out 
evil  spirits.  His  wisdom  enabled  him  to  inter- 
pret the  speech  of  beasts  and  birds.  He  Jcnew 
the  secret  virtues  of  gems  and  herbs.  Arabic 
imagination  took  a  yet  wilder  flight.  After  a 
strong  struggle  with  the  rebellious  Afreets  and 
Jinns,  Solomon  conquered  them  and  cast  them 
into  the  sea.  To  him  belonged  the  magic  ring 
which  revealed  to  him  the  past,  present,  and 
the  future.  The  visit  of  the  queen  of  Sheba 
furnished  some  three  or  four  romances. 

Solomon's  Song.  [Canticles.] 

Solomon,  Wisdom  of  [Wisdom,  Book  of.] 

Son.  The  term  "son"  is  used  in  Scripture 
language  to  imply  almost  any  kind  of  descent 
or  succession,  as  ben  shanah,  "son  of  a  year," 
i.  e.,  a  year  old,  ben  kesheth,  "son  of  a  bow," 
i.  e.,  an  arrow.  The  word  bar  is  often  found 
in  the  N.  T.  in  composition,  as  Bar-timaeus. 

Soothsayer.  [Divination.] 

Sop.  In  eastern  lands  where  our  table  uten- 
sils are  unknown,  the  meat,  with  the  broth,  is 
brought  upon  the  table  in  a  large  dish  and  is 


eaten  usually  by  means  of  pieces  of  bread 
dipped  into  the  common  dish.  The  bread  so 
dipped  is  called  sop.  It  was  a  piece  of  bread 
dipped  in  broth  that  Jesus  gave  to  Judas,  John 
13:26,  and  again,  in  Matt.  26:23,  it  is  said  "he 
that  dippeth  his  hand  with  me  in  the  dish"  i. 
e.,  to  make  a  sop  by  dipping  a  piece  of  bread 
into  the  central  dish. 
Sow.  [Swine.] 


Sower,  Sowing.  The  operation  of  sowing 
with  the  hand  is  one  of  so  simple  a  character 
as  to  need  little  description.  The  Egyptian 
paintings  furnish  many  illustrations  of  the 
mode  in  which  it  was  conducted.  The  sower 
held  the  vessel  or  basket  containing  the  seed, 
in  his  left  hand,  while  with  his  right  he  scat- 
tered the  seed  broadcast.    The  "drawing  out" 


Eastern  isower 


of  the  seed  is  noticed,  as  the  most  characteris- 
tic action  of  the  sower,  in  Ps.  cxxvi.  6  (A.  V. 
"precious")  and  Am.*ix.  13.  In  wet  soils  the 
seed  was  trodden  in  by  the  feet  of  animals  (Is. 
xxxii.  20).  The  sowing  season  commenced  in 
October  and  continued  to  the  end  of  February, 
wheat  being  put  in  before,  and  barley  after, 
the  beginning  of  January.  The  Mosaic  law 
prohibited  the  sowing  of  mixed  seed  (Lev.  xix. 
19 ;  Deut.  xxii.  9). 

Spain  (i  Mace.  viii.  3 ;  Rom.  xv.  24,  28).  The 
local  designation,  Tarshish,  representing  the 
Tartessus  of  the  Greeks,  probably  prevailed 
until  the  fame  of  the  Roman  wars  in  that 
country  reached  the  East,  when  it  was  super- 
seded by  its  classical  name.  The  mere  inten- 
tion of  St.  Paul  to  visit  Spain  implies  two  in- 
teresting facts,  viz.,  the  establishment  of  a 
Christian  community  in  that  country,  and  this 
by  means  of  Hellenistic  Jews  resident  there. 
The  early  introduction  of  Christianity  into  that 
country  is  attested  by  Irenaeus  and  TertuUian. 

Sparrow.  (Heb.  tzippor).  This  Heb.  word 
occurs  upwards  of  forty  times  in  the  O.  T. 
In  all  passages  excepting  two  it  is  rendered 
by  A.  V.  indififerently  "bird"  or  "fowl."  In 
Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3,  and  Ps.  cii.  7,  it  is  rendered 
"sparrow."  Tzippor,  from  a  root  signifying  to 
"chirp"  or  "twitter,"  appears  to  be  a  phonetic 
representation  of  the  call-note  of  any  passerine 
bird.  Although  the  common  sparrow  does  not 
occur  in  the  Holy  Land,  its  place  is  abundantly 
supplied  by  two  very  closely  allied  Southern 
species.   The  English  tree  sparrow  is  also  very 


SPARROW 


SPIKENARD 


common,  and  may  be  seen  in  numbers  on 
Mount  Olivet,  and  also  about  the  sacred  en- 
closure of  the  mosque  of  Omar.  This  is  per- 
haps the  exact  species  referred  to  in  Ps.  Ixxxiv. 
3.  The  rock  sparrow  is  a  common  bird  in  the 
barer  portions  of  Palestine,  eschewing  woods, 
and  generally  to  be  seen  perched  alone  on  the 
top  of  a  rock  or  on  any  large  stone.  From  this 
habit  it  has  been  conjectured  to  be  the  bird 


^^^^^^^ 


Syrian  Spai-rovv. 

alluded  to  in  Ps.  cii.  7,  as  "the  sparrow  that 
sitteth  alone  upon  the  house-top ;"  but  as  the 
rock  sparrow,  though'  found  among  ruins, 
never  resorts  to  inhabited  buildings,  it  seems 
more  probable  that  the  bird  to  which  the 
psalmist  alludes  is  the  blue  thrush.  It  is  a 
solitary  bird,  eschewing  the  society  of  its  own 


.Sparrows  in  Market. 

Species,  and  rarely  more  than  a  pair  are  seen 
together.  There  are  but  two  allusions  to  the 
singing  of  birds  in  the  Scriptures.  Eccles.  xii. 
4  and  Ps.  civ.  12.  As  the  psalmist  is  here 
.speaking  of  the  sides  of  streams  and  rivers,  he 


probably  had  in  his  mind  the  bulbul  of  the 
country,  or  Palestine  nightingale,  a  bird  not 
very  far  removed  from  the  thrush  tribe,  and 
a  closely  allied  species  of  which  is  the  true 
bulbul  of  Persia  and  India.  Small  birds  were 
probably  as  ordinary  an  article  of  consumption 
among  the  Israelites  as  they  still  are  in  the 
markets  both  of  the  Continent  and  of  the  East 
(Luke  xii.  6;  Matt.  x.  29), 

Spar'ta  (i  Mace.  xiv.  16;  2  Mace.  v.  9:  A. 
V.  "Lacedaemonians").  In  the  history  of  the 
Maccabees  mention  is  made  of  a  remarkable 
correspondence  between  the  Jews  and  the 
Spartans,  which  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
discussion. 

Spear.  [Arms.] 

Spearmen,  The  word  thus  rendered  in  the 
A.  V.  of  Acts  xxiii.  23  is  of  very  rare  occur- 
rence, and  its  meaning  is  extremely  obscure. 
They  were  probably  troops  so  lightly  armed 
as  to  be  able  to  keep  pace  on  the  march  with 
mounted  soldiers. 

Spice,  Spices,  i.  Hebrew  Basam,  besem,  or 
bosem.  In  Cant.  v.  i,  "I  have  gathered  my 
myrrh  with  my  spice,"  the  word  points  appar- 
ently to  some  definite  substance.  In  the  other 
places,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  Cant.  i. 
13,  vi.  2,  the  words  refer  more  generally  to 
sweet  aromatic  odors,  the  principal  of  which 
was  that  of  the  balsam  or  balm  of  Gilead;  the 
tree  which  yields  this  substance  is  now  gen- 
erally admitted  to  be  the  Balsamodendron  opo- 
balsamum.  The  balm  of  Gilead  tree  grows  in 
some  parts  of  Arabia  and  Africa,  and  is  sel- 
dom more  than  fifteen  feet  high,  with  strag- 
gling branches  and  scanty  foliage.  The  bal- 
sam is  chiefly  obtained  from  incisions  in  the 
bark,  but  the  substance  is  procured  also  from 
the. green  and  ripe  berries.  2.  Necoth  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  25,  xliii.  11).  The  most  probable  ex- 
planation is  that  which  refers  the  word  to  the 
Arabic  naka'at,  i.  e.,  "the  gum  obtained  from 
the  tragacanth"  (Astragalus).  3.  Sammim. 
A  general  term  to  denote  those  aromatic  sub- 
stances which  were  used  in  the  preparation  of 
the  anointing  oil,  the  incense  ofTerings,  &c. 
The  spices  mentioned  as  being  used  by  Nico- 
demus  for  the  preparation  of  our  Lord's 
body.  (John  xix.  39,  40)  are  "myrrh  and 
aloes,"  by  which  latter  word  must  be  under- 
stood not  the  aloes  of  medicine  (Aloe),  but  the 
highly-scented  wood  of  the  Aquilaria  agal- 
lochmin. 

Spider.  The  Hebrew  word  'accabish  in  Job 
viii.  14,  Is.  lix.  5,  is  correctly  rendered  "Spider." 
But  Semamith  is  wrongly  translated  "spider" 
in  Prov.  xxx.  28;  it  refers  probably  to  some 
kind  of  lizard. 

Spikenard  (Heb.  nard)  is  mentioned  twice 


382 


SPINNING 


STEPHEN 


in  the  O.  T.,  viz.,  in  Cant.  i.  12,  iv,  13,  14.  The 
ointment  with  wliich  our  Lord  was  anointed  as 
He  sat  at  meat  in  Simon's  house  at  Bethany 
consisted  of  this  precious  substance,  the  costH- 
ness  of  which  may  be  inferred  from  the  indig- 


Spikenard. 

nant  surprise  manifested  by  some  of  the  wit- 
nesses of  the  transaction  (see  Mark  xiv.  3-5 ; 
John  xii.  3,  5). 

Spinning.  The  notices  of  spinning  in  the 
Bible  are  confined  to  Ex.  xxxv.  25,  26;  Matt, 
vi.  28 ;  and  Prov.  xxxi.  19.  The  latter  passage 
implies  (according  to  the  A.  V.)  the  use  of  the 
same  instruments  which  have  been  in  vogue 
for  hand-spinning  down  to  the  present  day, 
viz.,  the  distaff  and  spindle.  The  distaff,  how- 
ever, appears  to  have  been  dispensed  with,  and 
the  term  so  rendered  means  the  spindle  itself, 
while  that  rendered  "spindle"  represents  the 


Sponge  of  Commerce. 

whirl  of  the  spindle,  a  button  of  circular  rim 
which  was  affixed  to  it,  and  gave  steadiness  to 
its  circular  motion.  The  "whirl"  of  the  Syrian 
women  was  made  of  amber  in  the  time  of 
Pliny.  The  spindle  was  held  perpendicularly 
in  the  one  hand,  while  the  other  was  employed 
in  drawing  out  the  thread. 

Sponge  is  mentioned  only  in  the  N.  T.  (Matt, 
xxvii.  48:  Mark  xv.  36;  John  xix.  29).  The 
commercial  value  of  the  sponge  was  known 


from  very  early  times;  and  although  there  ap- 
pears to  be  no  notice  of  it  in  the  O.  T.,  yet  it 
is  probable  that  it  was  used  by  the  ancient  He- 
brews, who  could  readily  have  obtained  it  good 
from  the  Mediterranean. 

Spouse.  [Marriage.] 

Standards.  [Ensigns.] 

Star  of  the  Wise  Men.  [Magi.] 

Stater.  [Money.] 

Steel.  In  all  cases  where  the  word  "steel" 
occurs  in  the  A.  V.  the  true  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  is  "copper."  Whether  the  ancient  He- 
brews were  acquainted  with  steel  is  not  per- 
fectly certain.  It  has  been  inferred  from  a 
passage  in  Jeremiah  (xv.  12),  that  the  "iron 
from  the  north"  there  spoken  of  denoted  a  su- 
perior kind  of  metal,  hardened  in  an  unusual 
manner,  like  the  steel  obtained  from  the  Cha- 
lybes  of  the  Pontus,  the  ironsmiths  of  the  an- 
cient world.  The  hardening  of  iron  for  cut- 
ting-instruments was  practised  in  Pontus,  Ly- 
dia,  and  Laconia.  Steel  appears  to  have  been 
known  to  the  Egyptians.  The  steel  weapons  in 
the  tomb  of  Rameses  III.,  says  Wilkinson,  are 
painted  blue,  the  bronze  red.' 

Ste'phen,  the  First  Christian  Martyr,  was 
the  chief  of  the  Seven  (commonly  called  Dea- 
cons) appointed  to  rectify  the  complaints  in 
the  early  Church  of  Jerusalem,  made  by  the 
Hellenistic  against  the  Hebrew  Christians.  His 
Greek  name  indicates  his  own  Hellenistic  ori- 
gin. His  importance  is  stamped  on  the  narra- 
tive by  a  reiteration  of  emphatic  almost  super- 
lative phrases  :  "full  of  faith  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost"  (Acts  vi.  5)  ;  "full  of  grace  and 
power"  (ib.  8)  ;  irresistible  "spirit  and  wis- 
dom" (ib.  10)  ;  "full  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  (vii. 
55).  He  shot  far  ahead  of  his  six  companions, 
and  far  above  his  particular  office.  First,  he 
arrests  attention  by  the  "great  wonders  and 
miracles  that  he  did."  Then  begins  a  series  of 
disputations  with  the  Hellenistic  Jews  of  North 
Africa,  Alexandria,  and  Asia  Minor,  his  com- 
panions in  race  and  birthplace.  The  subject  of 
these  disputations  is  not  expressly  mentioned  ; 
but  from  what  follows,  it  is  obvious  that  he 
struck  into  a  new  vein  of  teaching,  which  evi- 
dently caused  his  martyrdom.  Down  to  this 
time  the  Apostles  and  the  early  Christian  com- 
munity had  clung  in  their  worship,  not  merely 
to  the  Holy  Land  and  the  Holy  City,  but  to 
the  Holy  Place  of  the  Temple.  This  local  wor- 
sliip,  with  the  Jewish  customs  belonging  to  it, 
he  now  denounced.  So  we  must  infer  from 
the  accusations  brought  against  him,  con- 
firmed as  they  are  by  the  tenor  of  his  defence. 
He  was  arrested  at  the  instigation  of  the  Hel- 
lenistic Jews,  and  brought  before  the  San- 
hedrin.    His  speech  in  his  defence,  and  his  ex- 


383 


STOCKS 


STONES,  PRECIOUS 


ecutioii  by  stoning  outside  the  gates  of  Jerusa- 
are  related  at  length  in  the  Acts  (vii.)- 
The  frame  work  in  which  his  defence  is  cast  is 
a  summary  of  the  history  of  the  Jewish 
Church.  The  importance  of  Stephen's  career 
may  be  briefly  summed  up  under  three  heads: 

I.  He  was  the  first  great  Christian  ecclesias- 
tic, "the  Archdeacon,"  as  he  is  called  in  the 
Eastern  Church.  II.  He  is  the  first  martyr — 
the  proto-martyr.  To  him  the  name  "martyr" 
is  first  applied  (Acts  xxii.  20).  Ill,  He  is  the 
forerunner  of  St.  Paul.  He  was  the  antici- 
pator, as,  had  he  lived,  he  would  have  been  the 
propagator,  of  the  new  phase  of  Christianity, 
of  which  St.  Paul  became  the  main  support. 

Stocks.  The  term  "stocks"  is  applied  in  the 

A.  V.  to  two  different  articles,  one  of  which 
answers  rather  to  our  pillory ;  while  the  other 
answers  to  our  "stocks,"  the  feet  alone  being 
confined  in  it.  The  prophet  Jeremiah  was  con- 
fined in  the  first  sort  (Jer.  xx.  2),"  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  common  mode  of  punish- 
ment in  his  day  (Jer.  xxix.  26),  as  the  prisons 
contained  a  chamber  for  the  special  purpose, 
termed  "the  house  of  the  pillory"  (2  Chr.  xvi. 
10;  A.  V.  "prison-house").  The  stocks,  prop- 
erly so  called,  are  noticed  in  Job  xiii.  27,  xxxiii. 

II,  and  Acts  xvi.  24.  The  term  used  in  Prov. 
vii.  22  (A.  V.  "stocks")  more  properly  means 
a  fetter. 

Stoics.  The  Stoics  and  Epicureans  who  are 
mentioned  together  in  Acts  xvii.  18,  represent 
the  two  opposite  schools  of  practical  philoso- 
phy which  survived  the  fall  of  higher  specula- 
tion in  Greece.  The  Stoic  school  was  foumded 
by  Zeno  of  Citium  (cir.  B.  C.  280),  and  derived 
its  name  from  the  painted  "portico"  in  which 
he  taught.  Zeno  was  followed  by  Cleanthes 
(cir.  B.  C.  260),  Cleanthes  by  Chrysippus  (cir. 

B.  C.  240),  who  was  regarded  as  the  intellec- 
tual founder  of  the  Stoic  system.  The  ethical 
system  of  the  Stoics  has  been  commonly  sup- 
posed to  have  a  close  connection  with  Chris- 
tian morality.  But  the  morality  of  stoicism  is 
essentially  based  on  pride,  that  of  Christianity 
on  humility ;  the  one  upholds  individual  inde- 
pendence, the  other  absolute  faith  in  another ; 
the  one  looks  for  consolation  in  the  issue  of 
fate,  the  other  in  Providence ;  the  one  is  lim- 
ited by  periods  of  cosmical  ruin,  the  other  is 
consummated  in  a  personal  resurrection  (Acts 
xvii.  18).  But  in  spite  of  the  fundamental  er- 
ror of  stoicism,  which  lies  in  a  supreme  ego- 
tism, the  teaching  of  this  school  gave  a  wide 
currency  to  the  noble  doctrines  of  the  Father- 
hood of  God,  the  common  bonds  of  mankind, 
the  sovereignty  of  the  soul. 

Stomacher.  The  Hebrew  word  so  trans- 
lated, describes  some  article  of  female  attire 


(Is.  iii.  24),  the  character  of  which  is  a  mere 
matter  of  conjecture. 

Stones.  Besides  the  ordinary  uses  to  which 
stones  were  applied,  we  may  mention  that 
large  stones  were  set  up  to  commemorate  any 
remarkable  events  (Gen.  xxviii.  18,  xxxv.  14, 
xxxi.  45;  Josh.  iv.  9;  I  Sam.  vii.  12).  Such 
stones  were  occasionally  consecrated  by 
anointing  (Gen.  xxviii.  18).  A  similar  prac- 
tice existed  in  heathen  countries,  and  by  a  sin- 
gular coincidence  these  stones  were  described 
in  Phoenicia  by  a  name  very  similar  to  Bethel, 
viz.,  baetylia.  The  only  point  of  resemblance 
between  the  two  consists  in  the  custom  of 
anointing.  That  the  worship  of  stones  pre- 
vailed among  the  heathen  nations  surrounding 
Palestine,  and  was  borrowed  from  them  by 
apostate  Israelites,  appears  from  Is.  Ivii.  6,  ac- 
cording to  the  ordinary  rendering  of  the  pas- 
sage. Heaps  of  stones  were  piled  up  on  va- 
rious occasions,  as  in  token  of  a  treaty  (Gen. 
xxxi.  46)  ;  or  over  the  grave  of  some  notorious 
offender  (Josh.  vii.  26,  viii.  29 ;  2  Sam.  xviii. 
17).  The  "white  stone"  noticed  in  Rev.  ii.  17 
has  been  variously  regarded  as  referring  to 
the  pebble  of  acquittal  used  in  the  Greek 
courts ;  to  the  lot  cast  in  elections  in  Greece ; 
to  both  these  combined ;  to  the  stones  in  the 
high-priest's  breastplate ;  to  the  tickets  pre- 
sented to  the  victors  at  the  public  games ;  or, 
lastly,  to  the  custom  of  writing  on  stones.  The 
notice  in  Zech.  xii.  3  of  the  "burdensome  stone" 
is  referred  by  Jerome  to  the  custom  of  lifting 
stones  as  an  exercise  of  strength  (comp.  Ec- 
clus.  vi.  21)  ;  but  it  may  equally  well  be  ex- 
plained of  a  large  corner-stone  as  a  symbol  of 
strength  (Is.  xxviii.  16).  Stones  are  used  met- 
aphorically to  denote  hardness  or  insensibil- 
ity (i  Sam.  XXV.  37;  Ez.  xi.  19,  xxxvi.  26),  as 
well  as  firmness  or  strength  (Gen.  xlix.  24). 
The  members  of  the  Church  are  called  "living 
stones,"  as  contributing  to  rear  that  living 
temple  in  which  Christ,  himself  "a  living 
stone,"  is  the  chief  or  head  of  a  corner  (Eph. 
ii.  20-22 ;  I  Pet.  ii.  4-8). 

Stones,  Precious.  Precious  stones  are  fre- 
quently alluded  to  in  the  Holy  Scriptures;  they 
were  known  and  very  highly  valued  in  the 
earliest  times.  The  Tyrians  traded  in  precious 
stones  supplied  by  Syria  (Ez.  xxvii.  16).  The 
merchants  of  Sheba  and  Raamah  in  South  Ara- 
bia, and  doubtless  India  and  Ceylon,  supplied 
the  markets  of  Tyre  with  various  precious 
stones.  The  art  of  engraving  on  precious 
stones  was  known  from  the  very  earliest  times 
(Gen.  xxxviii.  18).  The  twelve  stones  of  the 
breastplate  were  engraved  each  one  with  the 
name  of  one  of  the  tribes  (Ex.  xxviii.  17-21). 
It  is  an  undecided  question  whether  the  dia- 


384 


STONING 


STRANGER 


niond  was  known  to  the  early  nations  of  an- 
tiquity. The  A.  gives  it  as  the  rendering  of 
the  Heb.  Yahalom.  but  it  is  probable  that  the 
jasper  is  intended.  Precious  stones  are  used  in 
Scripture  in  a  figurative  sense  to  signify  value, 
beauty,  durability,  &c.,  in  those  objects  with 
which  they  are  compared  (see  Cant.  v.  14;  Is. 
liv.  II,  12;  Lam.  iv.  7;  Rev.  iv.  3,  xxi.  10,  21). 

Stoning.  [Punishments.] 

Stork.  The  \\'hite  Stork  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  conspicuous  of  land  birds, 
standing  nearly  four  feet  high,  the  jet  black  of 
its  wings  and  its  bright  red  beak  and  legs  con- 
trasting finely  with  the  pure  white  of  its  plu- 
mage (Zech.  V.  9).  In  the  neighborhood  of 
man  it  devours  readily  all  kinds  of  ofifal  and 
garbage.  For  this  reason,  doubtless,  it  is  placed 
in  the  list  of  unclean  birds  by  the  Mosaic  Law 
(Lev.  xi.  19;  Deut.  xiv.  18).  The  range  of  the 
white  stork  extends  over  the  whole  of  Europe, 


The  stork. 

except  the  British  Isles,  where  it  is  now  only  a 
rare  visitant,  and  over  Northern  Africa  and 
Asia  as  far  at  least  as  Birmah.  The  Black 
Stork,  though  less  abundant  in  places,  is 
scarcely  less  widely  distributed,  but  has  a  more 
easterly  range  than  its  congener.  Both  species 
are  very  numerous  in  Palestine.  While  the 
Black  stork  is  never  found  about  buildings,  but 
prefers  marshy  places  in  forests,  and  breeds 
on  the  tops  of  the  loftiest  trees,  the  white  stork 
attaches  itself  to  man,  and  for  the  service 
which  it  renders  in  the  destruction  of  reptiles 
and  the  removal  of  offal  has  been  repaid  from 
the  earliest  times  by  protection  and  reverence. 
The  derivation  of  chasidah  (from  chaccd, 
'"kindness")  points  to  the  paternal  and  filial  at- 
tachment of  which  the  stork  seems  to  have 
been  a  type  among  the  Hebrews  no  less  than 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.   It  was  believed  that 


the  young  repaid  the  care  of  their  parents  by 
attaching  themselves  to  them  for  life,  and 
tending  them  in  old  age.  That  the  parental 
attachment  of  the  stork  is  very  strong,  has 
been  proved  on  many  occasions.  Few  migra- 
tory birds  are  more  punctual  to  the  time  of 
their  reappearance  than  the  white  stork.  The 
stoc1<  has  no  note,  and  the  only  sound  it  emits 
is  that  caused  by  the  sudden  snapping  of  its 
long  mandibles. 

Stranger.  A  "stranger"  in  the  technical 
sense  of  the  term  may  be  defined  to  be  a 
person  of  foreign,  i.  e.  non-Israelitish,  extrac- 
tion resident  within  the  limits  of  the  promised 
land.  He  was  distinct  from  the  proper  "for- 
eigner," inasmuch  as  the  latter  still  belonged 
to  another  country,  and  would  only  visit  Pal- 
estine as  a  traveller:  he  was  still  more  distinct 
from  the  "nations,"  or  non-Israelite  peoples. 
The  term  may  be  compared  with  our  expres- 
sion "naturalized  foreigner."  The  terms  ap- 
plied to  the  "stranger"  have  special  reference 
to  the  fact  of  his  residing  in  the  land.  The 
existence  of  such  a  class  of  persons  among 
the  Israelites  is  easily  accounted  for:  the 
"mixed  multitude"  that  accompanied  them  out 
of  Egypt  (Ex.  xii.  38)  formed  one  element; 
the  Canaanitish  population,  Avhich  was  never 
wholly  extirpated  from  their  native  soil, 
formed  another  and  a  still  more  important 
one ;  captives  taken  in  war  formed  a  third ; 
fugitives,  hired  servants,  merchants,  &c., 
formed  a  fourth.  The  enactments  of  the 
Mosaic  Law,  which  regulated  the  political 
and  social  position  of  resident  strangers,  were 
conceived  in  a  spirit  of  great  liberality.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites 
(Deut.  xxiii.  3),  all  nations  were  admissible  to 
the  rights  of  citizenship  under  certain  condi- 
tions. The  stranger  appears  to  have  been 
eligible  to  all  civil  ofidces, — that  of  king  ex- 
cepted (Deut.  xvii.  15).  In  regard  to  religion, 
it  was  absolutely  necssary  that  the  stranger 
should  not  infringe  any  of  the  fundamental 
laws  of  the  Israelitish  state.  If  he  was  a 
bondsman,  he  was  obliged  to  submit  to  cir- 
cumcision (Ex.  xii.  44)  ;  if  he  was  independent, 
it  was  optional  with  him  :  but  if  he  remained 
uncircumcised,  he  was  prohibited  from  par- 
taking of  the  Passover  (Ex.  xii.  48),  and  could 
not  be  regarded  as  a  full  citizen.  Liberty  was 
also  given  in  regard  to  the  use  of  prohibited 
food  to  an  uncircumcised  stranger.  Assuming, 
however,  that  the  stranger  was  circumcised, 
no  distinction  existed  in  regard  to  legal  rights 
between  the  stranger  and  the  Israelites.  The 
Israelite  is  enjoined  to  treat  him  as  a  brother 
(Lev.  xix.  34;  Deut.  x.  19).  It  also  appears 
that  the  "stranger"  formed  tlie  class  whence 

385 


STRAW 

the  hirelings  were  drawn ;  the  terms  being 
coupled  together  in  Ex.  xii.  45;  Lev.  xxii.  10, 
XXV.  6,  40.  The  liberal  spirit  of  the  Mosaic 
regulations  respecting  strangers  presents  a 
strong  contrast  to  the  rigid  exclusiveness  of 
the  Jews  at  the  commencement  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.  The  growth  of  this  spirit  dates  from 
the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

Straw.  Both  wheat  and  barley  straw  were 
used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  chiefly  as  fod- 
der for  the  horses,  cattle,  and  camels  (Gen. 
xxiv.  25;  .1  K.  iv-.  28;  Is.  xi.  7,  Ixv.  25).  There 
is  no  intimation  that  straw  was  used  for  litter. 
It  was  employed  by  the  Egyptians  for  making 
bricks  (Ex.  v.  7,  16),  being  chopped  up  and 
mixed  with  the  clay  to  make  them  more  com- 
pact, and  to  prevent  their  cracking.  [See 
Brick,  p.  59.]  The  ancient  Egyptians  reaped 
their  grain  close  to  the  ear,  and  afterwards 
cut  the  straw  close  to  the  ground,  and  laid  it 
by.  This  was  the  straw  that  Pharaoh  refused 
to  give  to  the  Israelites,  who  were  therefore 
compelled  to  gather  "stubble"  instead — ra  mat- 
ter of  considerable  difficulty,  seeing  that  the 
straw  itself  had  been  cut  off  near  to  the 
ground.  [Brick.] 

Street.  The  streets  of  a  modern  Oriental 
town  presented  a  great  contrast  to  those  with 
which  we  are  familiar,  being  generally  nar- 
row, tortuous,  and  gloomy,  even  in  the  best 
towns.  Their  character  is  mainly  fixed  by  the 
climate  and  the  style  of  architecture,  the  nar- 
rowness being  due  to  the  extreme  heat,  and 
the  gloominess  to  the  circumstance  of  the 
windows  looking  for  the  most  part  into  the 
inner  court.  The  street  called  "Straight,"  in 
Damascus  (Acts  ix.  11),  was  an  exception  to 
the  rule  of  narrowness :  it  was  a  noble  thor- 
oughfare, 100  feet  wide,  divided  in  the  Roman 
age  by  colonnades  into  three  avenues,  the  cen- 
tral one  for  foot  passengers,  the  side  passages 
for  vehicles  and  horsemen  going  in  different 
directions.  The  shops  and  warehouses  were 
probably  collected  together  into  bazaars  in 
ancient  as  in  modern  times  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21), 
and  perhaps  the  agreement  between  Benha- 
dad  and  Ahab  that  the  latter  should  "make 
streets  in  Damascus"  (i  K.  xx.  34),  was  in 
reference  rather  to  bazaars,  and  thus  amounted 
to  the  establishment  of  a  jus  commercii. 
That  streets  occasionally  had  names  appears 
from  Jer.  xxxvii.  21  ;  Acts  ix.  11.  That  they 
were  generally  unpaved  may  be  inferred  from 
the  notices  of  the  pavement  laid  by  Herod 
the  Great  at  Antioch,  and  by  Herod  Agrippa 
II.  at  Jerusalem.  Hence  pavement  forms  one 
of  the  peculiar  features  of  the  ideal  Jerusalem 
(Tob.  xiii.  17;  Rev.  xxi.  21).  Each  street  and 
bazaar  in  a  modern  town  is  locked  up  at 


SUN 

night ;  the  same  custom  appears  to  have  pre- 
vailed in  ancient  times  (Cant.  iii.  3). 

Sun.  In  the  history  of  the  creation  the  sun 
is  described  as  the  "greater  light,"  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  moon,  or  "lesser  light,"  in 
conjunction  with  which  it  was  to  serve  "for 
signs,  and  for  seasons,  and  for  days,  and  for 
years,"  while  its  special  office  was  "to  rule  the 
day"  (Gen.  i.  14,  16).  The  "signs"  referred 
to  were  probably  such'  extraordinary  phe- 
nomena as  eclipses,  which  were  regarded  as 
conveying  premonitions  of  coming  events 
(Jer.  X.  2;  Matt.  xxiv.  29,  with  Luke  xxi.  25). 
The  joint  influence  assigned  to  the  sun  and 
moon  in  deciding  the  "seasons,"  both  for  agri- 
cultural operations  and  for  religious  festivals, 
and  also  in  regulating  the  length  and  subdivi- 
sions of  the  "years,"  correctly  describes  the 
combination  of  the  lunar  and  solar  year,  which 
prevailed  at  all  events  subsequently  to  the 
Mosaic  period.  Sunrise  and  sunset  are  the 
only  defined  points  of  time  in  the  absence  of 
artificial  contrivances  for  telling  the  hour  of 
the  day.  Between  these  two  points  the  Jews 
recognized  three  periods,  viz.  when  the  sun 
became  hot,  about  9  a.  m.  (i  Sam.  xi.  9;  Neh. 
vii.  3)  ;  the  double  light,  or  noon  (Gen.  xliii. 
16;  2  Sam.  iv.  5)  ;  and  "the  cool  of  the  day," 
shortly  l^efore  sunset  (Gen.  iii.  8).  The  sun 
also  served  to  fix  the  quarters  of  the  hemi- 
sphere, east,  west,  north,  and  south,  which 
were  represented  respectively  by  the  rising 
sun,  the  setting  sun  (Is.  xlv.  6;  Ps.  1.  i),  the 
dark  quarter  (Gen.  xiii.  14;  Joel  ii.  20),  and 
the  brilliant  quarter  (Deut.  xxxiii.  23 ;  Job 
xxxvii.  17;  Ez.  xl.  24)  ;  or  otherwise  by  their 
position  relative  to  a  person  facing  the  rising 
sun — before,  behind,  on  the  left  hand,  and  on 
the  right  hand  (Job.  xxiii.  8,  9).  The  apparent 
motion  of  the  sun  is  frequently  referred  to 
(Josh.  X.  13;  2  K.  XX.  II ;  Ps.  xix.  6;  Eccl.  i.  5; 
Hab.  iii.  11). — The  worship  of  the  sun,  as  the 
most  prominent  and  powerful  agent  in  the 
kingdom  of  nature,  was  widely  diffused 
throughout  the  countries  adjacent  to  Pales- 
tine. The  Arabians  appear  ot  have  paid  direct 
worship  to  it  without  the  intervention  of  any 
statue  or  symbol  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27),  and  this 
simple  style  of  worship  was  probably  familiar 
to  the  ancestors  of  the  Jews  in  Chaldea  and 
Mesopotamia.  The  Hebrev/s  must  have,  been 
well  acquained  with  tlie  idolatrous  worship  of 
the  sun  during  the  captivity  in  Egj^pt,  both 
from  the  contiguity  of  On,  the  chief  seat  of 
the  worship  of  the  sun  as  implied  in  the  name 
itself  (On  =  the  Hebrew  Bethshemesh,  "house 
of  the  sun,"  Jer.  xliii.  13),  and  also  from  the 
connection  between  Joseph  and  Potipherah 
("he  who  belongs  to  Ra"),  the  priest  of  On 


386 


SUSANNA 


SWEAT,  BLOODY 


(Gen.  xli.  45).  After  their  removal  to  Canaan, 
the  Hebrews  came  in  contact  with  various 
forms  of  idolatry,  which  originated  in  the  wor- 
ship of  the  sun;  such  as  the  Baal  of  the 
Phoenicians,  the  Molech  or  Milcom  of  the 
Ammonites,  and  the  Hadad  of  the  Syrians. 
The  importance  attached  to  the  worship  of  tlie 
sun  by  the  Jewish  kings  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  the  horses  sacred  to  the  sun  were 
stalled  within  the  precincts  of  the  Temple 
(2  K.  xxiii.  11). — In  the  metaphorical  lan- 
guage of  Scripture  the  sun  is  emblematic  of 
the  law  of  God  (Ps.  xix.  7),  of  the  cheering 
presence  of  God  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  11),  of  the  person 
of  the  Saviour  (John  i.  9;  IMal.  iv.  2),  and  of 
the  glory  and  purity  of  heavenly  beings  (Rev. 
i.  16,  X.  I,  xii.  l). 

Susan'na.  i.  The  heroine  of  the  story  of 
the  Judgment  of  Daniel  (see  p.  90).  2.  One 
of  the  women  who  ministered  to  the  Lord 
(Luke  viii.  3). 

Swallow.  The  characters  ascribed  in  the 
passages  where  the  names  occur,  are  strictly 
applicable  to  the  swallow^  viz.  its  swiftness 


Swallow. 

of  flight,  its  nesting  in  the  buildings  of  the 
Temple,  its  mournful,  garrulous  note,  and  its 
regular  migration,  shared  indeed  in  common 
with  several  others.  Many  species  of  swallow 
occur  in  Palestine.  All  those  common  in 
America  are  found. 

Swan.  Thus  rendered  by  A.  V.  in  Lev.  xi. 
18;  Deut.  xiv.  16,  where  it  occurs  in  the  list 
of  unclean  birds.  But  the  renderings  of  the 
LXX.,  "porphyrio"  (purple  water-hen)  and 
"ibis,"  are  either  of  them  more  probable. 
Xeither  of  these  birds  occurs  elsewhere  in  the 
catalogue ;  both  would  be  familiar  to  residents 
in  Egypt,  and  the  original  seems  to  point  to 
some  water-fowl.  The  purple  water-hen  is 
allied  to  our  corn-crake  and  water-hen  and  is 
the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  family 
Rallidae.  It  frequents  marshes  and  the  sedge 
by  the  banks  of  rivers  in  all  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  ]\Iediterranean,  and  is  abun- 
dant in  Lower  Egypt. 

Swearing.  [Oath.] 


Sweat,  Bloody.  One  of  the  physical  phe- 
nomena attending  our  Lord's  agony  in  the 
Garden  of  Gethsemane  is  described  by  St. 
Luke  (xxii.  44)  :  "His  sweat  was  as  it  were 
great  drops  (lit.  clots)  of  blood  falling  down 
to  the  ground."  Of  this  malady,  known  in 
medical  science  by  the  term  diapedesis,  there 
have  been  examples  recorded  both  in  ancient 
and  modern  times.  The  cause  assigned  is 
generally  violent  mental  emotion. 

Swine,  (i.)  The  flesh  of  swine  was  forbid- 
den as  food  by  the  Levitical  law  (Lev.  xi.  7; 
Deut.  xiv.  8)  ;  the  abhorrence  which  the  Jews 
as  a  nation  had  of  it  may  be  inferred  from  Is. 
Ixv.  4,  and  2  Mace.  vi.  18,  19.  No  other  reason 
for  the  command  to  abstain  frorii  swine's  flesh 
is  given  in  the  law  of  Moses  beyond  the  gen- 
eral one  which  forbade  any  of  the  mammalia 
as  food  which  did  not  literally  fulfil  the  terms 
of  the  definition  of  a  "clean  animal,"  viz.  that 
it  was  to  be  a -cloven-footed  ruminant.  It  is, 
however,  probable  that  dietetical  considera- 
tions may  have  influenced  Moses  in  his  pro- 
hibition of  swine's  flesh ;  it  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  its  use  in  hot  countries  is  liable  to 
induce  cutaneous  disorders  ;  hence  in  a  people 
liable  to  leprosy  the  necessity  for  the  observ- 
ance of  a  strict  rule.  Although  the  Jews  did 
not  breed  swine,  during  the  greater  period  of 
their  existence  as  a  nation,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  heathen  nations  of  Palestine 
used  the  flesh  as  food.  At  the  time  of  our 
Lord's  ministry  it  would  appear  that  the  Jews 
occasionally  violated  the  law  of  Moses  with 
regard  to  swine's  flesh.  Whether  "the  herd 
of  swine"  into  which  the  devils  were  allowed 
to  enter  (Matt.  viii.  32;  Mark  v.  13)  were  the 


The  Wild  Boar. 


property  of  the  Jewish  or  Gentile  inhabitants 
of  Gadara  does  not  appear  from  the  sacred 
narrative.  (2.)  The  wild  boar  of  the  wood 
(Ps.  Ixxx.   13)   is  the  common  Sus  scrofa, 


387 


SWORD 


SYNAGOGUE 


which  is  frequently  met  with  in  the  woody 
parts  of  Palestine,  especially  in  Mount  Tabor. 
Sword.  [Arms.] 

Sycamore.  The  Hebrew  word  occurs  in  the 
O.  T.  only  in  the  plural  form  masc.  and  once 
fern.,  Is.  Ixxviii.  47.  The  two  Greek"  words 
occur  only  once  each  in  the  N.  T.  (Luke  xvii. 
6,  xix.  4).  Although  it  may  be  admitted  that 
the  Sycamore  is  properly,  and  in  Luke  xvii. 
6,  the  Mulberry,  and  the  Sycamore  the  Fig- 
mulberry,  or  Sycamore-fig,  yet  the  latter  is 
the  tree  generally  referred  to  in  the  O.  T.,  and 
called  by  the  Sept.  sycamine,  as  i  K.  x.  27; 
I  Chr.  xxvii.  28;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  47;  Am.  vii.  14. 
The  Sycamore,  or  Fig-mulberry,  is  in  Egypt 
and  Palestine  a  tree  of  great  importance  and 
very  extensive  use.  It  attains  the  size  of  a 
walnut-tree,  has  wide-spreading  branches,  and 
affords  a  delightful  shade.    On  this  account 


Ruined  Synagogue  at  Merion. — Site  of  Capernaum. 

it  is  frequently  planted  by  the  waysides.  Its 
leaves  are  heart-shaped,  downy  on  the  under 
side,  and  fragrant.  The  fruit  grows  directly 
from  the  trunk  itself  on  little  sprigs,  and  in 
clusters  like  the  grape.  To  make  it  eatable, 
each  fruit,  three  or  four  days  before  gathering, 
must,  it  is  said,  be  punctured  with  a  sharp 
instrument  or  the  finger-nail.  This  was  the 
original  employment  of  the  prophet  Amos,  as 
he  says,  vii.  14.  So  great  was  the  value  of 
these  trees,  that  David  appointed  for  them  in 
his  kingdom  a  special  overseer,  as  he  did  for 
the  olives  (i  Chr.  xxvii.  28)  ;  and  it  is  men- 
tioned as  one  of  the  heaviest  of  Egypt's  calam- 
ities, that  her  sycamores  were  destroyed  by 
hailstones  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  47). 


Synagogue.  I.  History. — The  word  Syna- 
gogue, which  means  a  "congregation,"  is  used 
in  the  New  Testament  to  signify  -a  recognized 
place  of  worship.  A  knowledge  of  the  history 
and  worship  of  the  synagogues  is  of  great  im- 
portance, since  they  are  the  characteristic  in- 
stitution of  the  later  phase  of  Judaism.  They 
appear  to  have  arisen  during  the  exile,  in  the 
abeyance  of  the  Temple-worship,  and  to  have 
received  their  full  development  on  the  return 
of  the  Jews  from  Captivity.  The  whole  his- 
tory of  Ezra  presupposes  the  habit  of  .solemn, 
probably  of  periodic  meetings  (Ezr.  viii.  15; 
Neh.  viii.  2,  ix.  i  ;  Zech.  vii.  5).  It  is  hardly 
possible  to  overestimate  the  influence  of  the 
system  thus  developed.  To  it  we  may  ascribe 
the  tenacity  with  which,  after  the  Maccabaean 
struggle,  the  Jews  adhered  to  the  religion  of 
their  fathers,  and  never  again  relapsed  into 
idolatry.  II.  Structure. — The  size  of  a  syna- 
gogue varied  with  the  population.  Its  position 
was,  however,  determinate.  It  stood,  if  pos- 
sible, on  the  highest  ground,  in  or  near  the 
city  to  which  it  belonged.  And  its  direction 
too  was  fixed.  Jerusalem  was  the  Kibleh  of 
Jewish  devotion.  The  synagogue  was  so  con- 
structed, that  the  worshippers  as  they  en- 
tered, and  as  they  prayed,  looked  towards  it. 
In  the  internal  arrangement  of  the  synagogue 
we  trace  an  obvious  analogy  to  the  type  of 
the  Tabernacle.  At  the  upper  or  Jerusalem 
end  stood  the  Ark,  the  chest  which,  like  the 
older  and  more  sacred  Ark,  contained  the 
Book  of  the  Law.  It  gave  to  that  end  the 
name  and  character  of  a  sanctuary.  This  part 
of  the  synagogue  was  naturally  the  place  of 
honor.  Here  were  the  "chief  seats,"  after 
which  Pharisees  and  Scribes  strove  so  eagerly 
(Matt,  xxiii.  6),  to  which  the  wealthy  and 
honored  worshipper  was  invited  (James  ii.  2, 
3).  Here  too,  in  front  of  the  Ark,  still  repro- 
ducing the  type  of  the  Tabernacle,  was  the 
eight-branched  lamp,  lighted  only  on  the 
greater  festivals.  Besides  this,  there  was  one 
lamp  kept  burning  perpetually.  A  little  far- 
ther towards  the  middle  of  the  building  was 
a  raised  platform,  on  which  several  persons 
could  stand  at  once,  and  in  the  middle  of  this 
rose  a  pulpit,  in  which  the  Reader  stood  to 
read  the  lesson  or  sat  down  to  teach.  The 
congregation  were  divided,- men  on  one  side, 
women  on  the  other,  a  low  partition,  five  or 
six  feet  high,  running  between  them.  The  ar- 
rangements of  modern  synagogues,  for  many 
centuries,  have  made  the  separation  more 
complete  by  placing  the  women  in  low  side- 
galleries,  screened  off  by  lattice-work.  TIT. 
Officers. — In  smaller  towns  there  was  often 
but  one  Rabbi.    Where  a  fuller  organization 

388 


:  n.t 


SYNAGOGUE 


SYNAGOGUE 


was  possible,  there  was  a  college  of  Elders 
(Luke  vii.  3),  presided  over  by  one  who  was 
"the  chief  of  'the  synagogue"  (Luke  viii.  41, 
49,  xiii.  14;  Acts  xviii.  8,  17).  The  most  prom- 
inent functionary  in  a  large  synagogue  was 
known  as  the  Sheliach,  the  officiating  minister 
who  acted  as  the  delegate  of  the  congregation, 
and  was  therefore  the  chief  reader  of  prayers, 
&c.,  in  their  name.  The  Chazzan  or  "min- 
ister" of  the  synagogue  (Luke  iv.  20)  had 
diities  of  a  lower  kind,  resembli-ng  those  of  the 
Christian  deacon  or  sub-deacon.  He  was  to 
open  the  doors,  to  get  the  building  ready  for 
service.  Besides  these  there  were  ten  men 
attached  to  every  synagogue,  known  as  the 
Batlanim.  The}-  were  supposed  to  be  men  of 
leisure,  not  obliged  to  labor  for  their  liveli- 
hood, able  therefore  to  attend  the  week-day 
as  well  as  the  Sabbath  services.  It  will  be 
seen  at  once  how  closely  the  organization  of 
the  synagogue  was  reproduced  in  that  of  the 
Ecclesia.  Here  also  there  was  the  single  pres- 
byter-bishop in  small  towns,  a  council  of  pres- 
b3  ters  under  one  head  in  large  cities.  The 
legatus  of  the  synagogues  appears  in  the 
Angel  (Rev.  i.  20,  ii.  l),  perhaps  also  in  the 
Apostle  of  the  Christian  Church.  IV.  Wor- 
ship.— It  will  be  enough,  in  this  place,  to 
notice  in  what  way  the  ritual,  no  less  than  the 
organization,  was  connected  with  the  facts  of 
the  X.  T.  history,  and  with  the  life  and  order 
of  the  Christian  Church.  From  the  synagogue 
came  the  use  of  fixed  forms  of  prayer.  To 
that  the  first  disciples  had  been  accustomed 
from  their  youth.  They  had  asked  their  Mas- 
ter to  give  them  a  distinctiv-e  one,  and  he  had 
complied  with  their  request  (Luke  xi.  i),  as 
the  Baptist  had  done  before  for  his  disciple.^, 
as  every  Rabbi  did  for  his.  "Moses"  was  "read 
in  the. synagogues  every  Sabbath-day"  (Acts 
XV.  21),  the  whole  Law  being  read  consecu- 
tively, so  as  to  be  completed,  according  to  one 
cycle,  in  three  years.  The  writings  of  the 
Prophets  were  read  as  second  lessons  in  a 
corresponding  order.  They  were  followed  by 
the  Derash  (Acts  xiii.  15),  the  exposition,  the 
sermon  of  the  synagogue.  The  conformity 
extends  also  to  the  times  of  prayer.  In  the 
hours  of  service  this  was  obviously  the  case. 
The  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours  were  in  the 
times  of  the  N.  T.  (Acts  iii.  i,  x.  3,  9),  and 
had  been  probably  for  some  time  before  (Ps. 
Iv.  17;  Dan.  vi.  10),  the  fixed  times  of  devo- 
tion. The  same  hours,  it  is  well  known,  were 
recognized  in  the  Church  of  the  second,  prob- 
ably in  that  of  the  first  century  also.  The 
solemn  days  of  the  synagogue  were  the  sec- 
ond, the  fifth,  and  the  seventh,  the  last  or  Sab- 
bath being  the  conclusion  of  the  whole.  The 


transfer  of  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath  to  the 
Lord's  Day  involved  a  corresponding  change 
in  the  order  of  the  week,  and  the  first,  the 
fourth,  and  the  sixth  became  to  the  Christian 
society  what  the  other  clays  had  been  to  the 
Jewish.  From  the  synagogue,  lastly,  come 
many  less  conspicuous  practices,  which  meet 
us  in  the  liturgical  life  of  the  first  three  cen- 
turies: Ablution,  entire  or  partial,  before  en- 
tering the  place  of  meeting  (Hel).  x.  22;  John 
xiii.  1-15)  ;  stamling,  and  not  kneeling,  as  the 
attitude  of  prayer  (Luke  xviii.  11)  ;  the  arms 
stretched  out;  the  face  turned  towards  the 


Ituins  ol"  a  Jewish  Synagogue. 

Kibleh  of  the  East;  the  responsive  Amen  of 
the  congregation  to  the  prayers  and  benedic- 
tions of  the  elders  (i  Cor.  xiv.  16).  V. 
Judicial  Functions. — The  language  of  the  N. 


T.  shows  that  the  officers  of  the  synagogue 
exercised  in  certain  cases  a  judicial  power. 
It  is  not  quite  so  easy,  however,  to  define  the 
nature  of  the  tribunal,  and  the  precise  limits 
of  its  jurisdiction.  In  two  of  the  passages  re- 
ferred to  (Matt.  x.  17;  Mark  xiii.  9)  they  are 
carefully  distinguished  from  the  councils.  It 
seems  probal)le  that  the  council  was  the  larger 

389. 


SYNAGOGUE,  THE  GREAT 


SYRIA 


tribunal  of  23,  which  sat  in  every  city,  and 
that  under  the  term  synagogue  we  are  to 
understand  a  smaller  court,  probably  that  of 
the  Ten  judges  mentioned  in  the  Talmud. 
Here  also  we  trace  the  outline  of  a  Christian 
institution.  The  Church,  either  by  itself  or  by 
appointed  delegates,  was  to  act  as  a  Court  of 
Arbitration  in  all  disputes  among  its  mem- 
bers. The  elders  of  the  church  were  not,  how- 
ever, to  descend  to  the  trivial  disputes  of  daily 
life.  For  the  elders,  as  for  those  of  the  syna- 
gogue, were  reserved  the  graver  offences 
against  religion  and  morals. 

Synagogue,  The  Great.  On  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  Babylon,  a  great  council  was 
appointed,  according  to  Rabbinic  tradition,  to 
re-organize  the  religious  life  of  the  people. 
It  consisted  of  120  members,  and  these  were 
known  as  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue, 
the  successors  of  the  prophets,  themselves,  in 
their  turn,  succeeded  by  scribes  prominent, 
individually  as  teachers.  Ezra  was  recognized 
as  president.  Their  aim  was  to  restore  again 
the  crown,  or  glory,  of  Israel.  To  this  end 
they  collected  all  the  sacred  writings  of  former 
ages  and  their  own,  and  so  completed  the 
canon  of  the  O.  T.  They  instituted  the  feast 
of  Purim,  organized  the  ritual  of  the  syna- 
gogue, and  gave  their  sanction  to  the  Shem- 
oneh  Esreh,  the  eighteen  solemn  benedictions 
in  it.  Much  of  this  is  evidently  uncertain. 
The  absence  of  any  historical  mention  of  such 
a  bod3^  not  only  in  the  O.  T.  and  the  Apocry- 
pha, but  in  Josephus,  Philo,  &c.,  have  led  some 
critics  to  reject  the  whole  statement  as  a 
Babbinic  invention.  The  narrative  of  Neh. 
viii.  13  clearly  implies  the  existence  of  a  body 
of  men  acting  as  councillors  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Ezra ;  and  these  may  have  been  an 
assembly  of  delegates  from  all  provincial 
synagogues — a  synod  of  the  National  Church. 

Syr'acuse,  the  celebrated  city  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Sicily.  St.  Paul  arrived  thither  in 
an  Alexandrian  ship  from  Melita,  on  his  voy- 
age to  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  12).  The  site  of 
Syracuse  rendered  it  a  convenient  place  for 
the  African  corn-ships  to  touch  at,  for  the  har- 
bor was  an  excellent  one,  and  the  fountain 
Arethusa  in  the  island  furnished  an  unfailing 
supply  of  excellent  water. 

Syr'ia  is  the  term  used  throughout  our  ver- 
sion for  the  Hebrew  Aram.  Most  probably 
Syria  is  for  Tsyria,  the  country  about  Tsur, 
or  Tyre,  which  was  the  first  of  the  Syrian 
towns  known  to  the  Greeks.  Syria  was 
bounded  by  Amanvis  and  Taurus  on  the  N., 
by  the  Euphrates  and  the  Arabian  desert  on 
the  E.,  by  Palestine  on  the  S.,  by  the  Medi- 
terranean near  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes,  and 


then  by  Phoenicia  upon  the  W.  This  tract  is 
about  300  miles  long  from  the  north  to  south, 
and  from' 50  to  150  miles  broad.  It  contains 
an  area  of  about  30,000  square  miles. — The 
general  character  of  the  tract  is  mountainous. 
The  most  fertile  and  valuable  tract  of  Syria 
is  the  long  valley  intervening  between  Libanus 
and  Anti-Libanus.  Of  the  various  mountain- 
ranges  of  Syria,  Lebanon  possesses  the  great- 
est interest.  It  extends  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Litany  to  Arka,  a  distance  of  nearly  100  miles. 
Anti-Libanus  stands  over  against  Lebanon, 
running  in  the  same  direction,  i.  e.  nearly 
north  and  south,  and  extending  the  same 
length.  [Lebanon.] — The  principal  rivers  of 
Syria  are  the  Litany  and  the  Orontes.  The 
chief  towns  of  Syria  may  be  thus  arranged, 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  order  of  their 
importance:  i.  Antioch ;.  2.  Damascus;  3.  Ap- 
amea ;  4.  Seleucia ;  5.  Tadmor  or  Palmyra;  6. 
Laodicea;  7.  Epiphania  (Hamath)  ;  8.  Samo- 
sata;  9.  Hierapolis  (Mabug)  ;  10.  Chalybon ; 
II.  Emesa;  12.  Heliopolis;  13.  Laodicea  ad 
Libanum ;  14.  Cyrrhus;  15.  Chalcis ;  16.  Po- 
seideum ;  17.  Heraclea ;  18.  Gindarus;  19. 
Zeugma ;  20.  Thapsacus.  Of  these,  Samosata, 
Zeugma,  Thapsacus,  are  on  the  Euphrates ; 
Seleucia, 'Laodicea,  Posiedeum,  and  Heraclea, 
on  the  sea-shore ;  Antioch,  Apamea,  Epiphania, 
and  Emesa  (Hems)  on  the  Orontes;  Heliop- 
olis and  Laodicea  ad  Libanum,  in  Coele-syria ; 
Hierapolis,  Chalybon,  Cyrrhus,  Chalcis,  and 
Gindarus,  in  the  northern  highlands;  Damas- 
cus on  the  skirts,  and  Palmyra  in  the  centre, 
of  the  eastern  desert.  The  first  occupants  of 
Syria  appear  to  have  been  of  Hamitic 
descent. — Hittites,  Jebusites,  Amorites,  &c- 
These  tribes  occupied  not  Palestine  only,  but 
also  Lower  Syria.  Afterwards  they  seem  to 
have  become  possessed  of  Upper  Syria  also. 
After  a  while  the  first  comers,  who  were  still 
to  a  great  extent  norriads,  received  a  Semitic 
infusion,  which  most  probably  came  to  them 
from  the  south-east.  The  only  Syrian  town 
whose  existence  we  find  distinctly  marked  at 
this  time  is  Damascus  (Gen.  xiv.  15;  xv.  2), 
which  appears  to  have  been  already  a  place 
of  some  importance.  Next  to  Damascus  mus_t 
be  placed  Hamath  (Num.  xiii.  21,  xxxiv.  8). 
Syria  at  this  time,  and  for  many  centuries 
afterwards,  seems  to  have  been  broken  up 
among  a  number  of  petty  kingdom's.  The 
Jews  first  come  into  hostile  contact  with  the 
Syrians,  under  that  name,  in  the  time  of 
David.  Claiming  the  frontier  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, which  God  had  promised  to  Abraham 
(Gen.  xv.  18),  David  made  war  on  Hadadezer, 
king  of  Zobah  (2  Sam.  viii.  3,  4,  13).  When, 
a  few  years  later,  the  Ammonites  determined 


.590 


SYRIA 


TABERNACLE 


on  engaging  in  a  war  with  David,  and  applied 
to  the  Syrians  for  aid,  Zobah,  together  with 
Beth-Rehob,  sent  them  20,000  footmen,  and 
two  other  Syrian  kingdoms  furnished  13,000 
{2  Sam.  X.  6).  This  army  being  completely 
defeated  by  Joab,  Hadadezer  obtained  aid 
from  ]\Iesopotamia,  and  tried  the  chance  of  a 
third  battle,  which  likewise  went  against  him, 
and  produced  the  general  submission  of  Syria 
to  the  Jewish  monarch.  The  submission  thus 
begun  continued  under  the  reign  of  Solomon 
(i  K.  iv.  21).  The  only  part  of  Syria  which 
Solomon  lost  seems  to  have  been  Damascus, 
where  an  independent  kingdom  was  set  up  by 
Rezon,  a  native  of  Zobah  (i  K.  xi.  23-25).  On 
the  separation  of  the  two  kingdoms,  soon 
after  the  accession  of  Rehoboam,  the  remain- 
der of  Syria  no  doubt  shook  of¥  the  yoke. 
Damascus  now  became  decidedly  the  leading 
state,  Hamath  being  second  to  it,  and  the 
northern  Hittites,  whose  capital  was  Carchem- 
ish,  near  Bambuk,  third.  [Damascus.]  Syria 
became  attached  to  the  great  Assyrian  empire, 
from  which  it  passed  to  the  Babylonians,  and 
from  them  to  the  Persians.  In  B.  C.  333  it 
submitted  to  Alexander  without  a  struggle. 
Upon  the  death  of  Alexander  Syria  became, 
for  the  first  time,  the  head  of  a  great  kingdom. 
On  the  division  of  the  provinces  among  his 
generals  (B.  C.  321),  Seleucus  Nicator  re- 
ceived Mesopotamia  and  Syria.  Antioch  was 
begun  in  B.  C.  300,  and,  being  finished  in  a 
few  years,  was  made  the  capital  of  Seleucus' 
kingdom.  The  country  grew  rich  with  the 
wealth  which  now  flowed  into  it  on  all 
sides.  Syria  holds  an  important  place,  not 
only  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  in  the 
New.  While  the  country  generally  was 
formed  into  a  Roman  province,  under  gov- 
ernors who  were  at  first  propraetors  or 
quaestors,  then  proconsuls,  and  finally  legates, 
there  were  exempted  from  the  direct  rule  of 
the  governor,  in  the  first  place,  a  number  of 
"free  cities,"  which  retained  the  adfministra- 
tion  of  their  own  af¥airs,  subject  to  a  tributi. 
levied  according  to  the  Roman  principles  of 
taxation ;  and  secondly,  a  number  of  tracts, 
which  were  assigned  to  petty  princes,  com- 
monly natives,  to  be  ruled  at  their  pleasure, 
subject  to  the  same  obligations  with  the  free 
cities  as  to  taxation.  After  the  formal  divi- 
sion of  the  provinces  between  Augustus  and 
the  Senate,  Syria,  being  from  its  exposed 
situation,  was  ruled  by  legates,  who  were  of 
consular  rank.  Judaea  occupied  a  peculiar 
position.  A  special  procurator  was  therefore 
appointed  to  rule  it,  who  was  subordinate  to 
the  governor  of  Syria,  but  within  his  own 
province  had  the  power  of  a  legatus.  Syria 

39 


continued  without  serious  disturbance  from 
the  expulsion  of  the  Parthians  (B.  C.  38)  to 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Jewish  war  (A.  D. 
66).  In  A.  D.  44-47  it  was  the  scene  of  a 
severe  famine.  A  little  earlier  Christianity 
had  begun  to  spread  into  it,  partly  by  means 
of  those  who  "were  scattered"  at  the  time  of 
Stephen's  persecution  (Acts  xi.  19),  partly  by 
the  exertions  of  St„  Paul  (Gal.  i.  21).  The 
Syrian  Church  soon  grew  to  be  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  (Acts  xiii.  i,  xv.  23,  35,  41, 
&c.).  - 


Tabernacle.  The  Tabernacle  was  the  tent 
ot  Jehovah,  called  by  the  same  name  as  the 
tents  of  the  people,  in  the  midst  of  which  it 
stood.  It  was  also  called  the  sanctuary,  and 
the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation.  The  first 
ordinances  given  to  Moses,  after  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  outline  of  the  law  from  Sinai, 
related  to  the  ordering  of  the  Tabernacle,  its 
furniture,  and  its  service,  as  the  type  which 
was  to  be  followed  when  the  people  came  to 
their  own  home,  and  "found  a  place"  for  the 
abode  of  God.  During  the  forty  days  of 
Aloses'  first  retirement  with  God  in  Sinai,  an 
exact  pattern  of  the  whole  was  shown  him, 
and  all  was  made  according  to  it  (Ex.  xxv. 
9,  40,  xxvi.  30,  xxxix.  32,  42,  43 ;  Num.  viii.  4 ; 
Acts  ii.  44;  Heb.  viii.  5).  The  description  of 
this  pJan  is  preceded  by  an  account  of  the 


Soutb(. ;i  L    \  . 


ii  the  Tabernacle  covered  liy  its  Tent. 


freewill-ofiferings  which  the  children  of  Israel 
were  to  be  asked  to  make  for  its  execution. 
The  materials  were: — (a)  Metals:  gold,  sil- 
ver, and  brass,  (b)  Textile  fabrics :  blue,  pur- 
ple, scarlet,  and  fine  (white)  linen,  for  the 
production  of  which  Egypt  was  celebrated : 
also  a  fabric  of  goats'  hair,  the  produce  of 
their  own  flocks,  (c)  Skins :  of  the  ram,  dyed 
red,  and  of  the  badger.  (d)  Wood:  the 
shittim  wood,  the  timber  of  the  wild  acacia 
of  the  desert  itself,  the  tree  of  the  "burning 
I 


TABERNACLE 


TABERNACLE 


bush."  (e)  Oil,  spices,  and  incense,  for 
anointing  the  priests,  and  burning  in  the 
tabernacle,  (f)  Gems:  onyx  stones,  and  the 
precious  stones  for  the  breastplate  of  the 
High-Priest.  The  people  gave  jewels,  and 
plates  of  gold,  and  silver,  and  brass ;  wood, 
skins,  hair,  and  linen :  the  women  wove ;  the 
rulers  ofiEered  precious  stones,  oil,  spices,  and 
incense ;  and  the  artists  soon  had  more  than 
they  needed  (Ex.  xxv.  i-8;  xxxv.  4-29;  xxxvi. 
5-7).  The  tabernacle  was  a  portable  building, 
designed  to  contain  the  sacred  ark,  the  special 
symbol  of  God's  presence,  and  was  surrounded 
by  an  outer  court,  (i.)  The  Court  of  the 
Tabernacle,  in  which  the  Tabernacle  itself 
stood,  was  an  oblong  space,  100  cubits  by  50 
(i.  e.  150  feet  by  75),  having  its  longer  axis 
east  and  west,  with  its  front  to  the  east.  It 
was  surrounded  by  canvas  screens — in  the 
East  called  Kannauts— 5  cubits  in  height,  and 


General  View  of  the  Tabernacle. 

supported  by  pillars  of  brass  5  cubits  apart,  to 
which  the  curtains  were  attached  by  hooks 
and  fillets  of  silver  (Ex.  xxvii.  9,  &c.).  This 
enclosure  was  only  broken  on  the  eastern  side 
by  the  entrance,  which  was  20  cubits  wide, 
and  closed  by  curtains  of  fine  twined  linen 
wrought  with  needlework,  and  of  the  most 
gorgeous  colors.  In  the  outer  or  eastern  half 
of  the  court  was  placed  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering,  and  between  it  and  the  Tabernacle 
itself,  the  laver  at  which  the  priests  washed 
their  hands  and  feet  on  entering  the  Temple, 
(ii.)  The  Tabernacle  itself  was  placed  to- 
wards the  western  end  of  this  enclosure.  It 
was  an  oblong  rectangular  structure,  30  cubits 
in  length  by  10  in  width  (45  feet  by  15),  and 
10  in  height ;  the  interior  being  divided  into 
two  chambers,  the  first  or  outer  of  20  cubits 
in  length,  the  inner  of  10  cubits,  and  conse- 
quently an  exact  cube.  The  former  was  the 
Holy  Place,  or  First  Tabernacle  (Heb.  ix.  2), 


containing  the  golden  candlestick  on  one  side, 
the  table  of  shew-bread  opposite,  and  between 
them  in  the  centre  the  altar  of  incense.  The 
latter  was  the  Most  Holy  Place,  or  the  Holy 
of  Holies,  containing  the  ark,  surmounted  by 
the  cherubim,  with  the  Two  Tables  inside. 
The  two  sides,  and  the  farther  or  western  end, 
were  enclosed  by  boards  of  shittim  wood 
overlaid  with  gold,  twenty  on  the  north  and 
south  side,  six  on  the  western  side,  and  the 
corner-boards  doubled.  They  stood  upright, 
edge  to  edge,  their  lower  ends  being  made 
with  tenons,  which  dropped  into  sockets  of 
silver,  and  the  corner-l^oards  being  coupled  at 
the  top  with  rings.  They  were  furnished  with 
golden  rings,  through  which  passed  bars  of 
shittim  wood,  overlaid  with  gold,  five  to  each 
side,  and  the  middle  bar  passing  from  end  to 
end,  so  as  to  brace  the  whole  together.  Four 
successive  coverings  of  curtains  looped  to- 
gether were  placed  over  the  open  top,  and  fell 
down  over  the  sides.  The  first,  or  inmost,  was 
a  splendid  fabric  of  linen,  embroidered  with 
figures  of  cherubim,  in  blue,  purple,  and  scar- 
let, and  looped  together  by  golden  fastenings, 
It  seems  probable  that  the  ends  of  this  set  of 
curtains  hung  down  within  the  Tabernacle, 
forming  a  sumptuous  tapestry.  The  next  was 
a  woollen  covering  of  goats'  hair;  the  third, 
of  rams'  skins  dyed  red ;  and  the  outermost, 
of  badgers'  skins  (so  called  in  our  version ; 
but  the  Hebrew  word  probably  signifies  seal- 
skins). [Badger-skins.]  It  has  been  usually 
supposed  that  these  coverings  were  thrown 
over  the  wall,  as  a  pall  is  thrown  over  a  coffin ; 
but  this  would  have  allowed  every  drop  of 
rain  that  fell  on  the  Tabernacle  to  fall 
through ;  for,  however  tightly  the  curtains 
might  be  stretched,  the  water  could  never  run 
over  the  edge,  and  the  sheep-skins  would  only 
make  the  matter  worse,  as  when  wetted  their 
weight  would  depress  the  centre,  and  prob- 
ably tear  any  curtain  that  could  be  made. 
There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the 
tent  had  a  ridge,  as  all  tents  have  had  from 
the  days  of  Moses  down  to  the  present  day. 
The  front  of  the  Sanctuary  was  closed  by  a 
hanging  of  fine  linen,  embroidered  in  blue, 
purple,  and  scarlet,  and  supported  by  golden 
hooks,  on  five  pillars  of  shittim  wood  overlaid 
with  gold,  and  standing  in  brass  sockets ;  and 
the  covering  of  goats'  hair  was  so  made  as  to 
fall  down  over  this  when  required.  A  more 
sumptuous  curtain  of  the  same  kind,  embroi- 
dered with  cherubim,  hung  on  four  such  pil- 
lars, with  silver  sockets,  divided  the  Holy 
from  the  Most  Holy  Place.  It  was  called  the 
Veil,  as  it  hid  from  the  eyes  of  all  but  the 
High   Priest   the   inmost   sanctuary,  where 


392 


TABERNACLES,  THE  FEAST  OF 


TABERNACLES,  THE  FEAST  OF 


Jehovah  dwelt  on  his  mercy  seat,  between  the 
cherubim  above  the  ark.  Hence  "to  enter 
within  the  veil"  is  to  have  the  closest  access 
to  God.  It  was  only  passed  by  the  High- 
Priest  once  a  year,  on  the  Day  of  Atonement, 
in  token  of  the  mediation  of  Christ,  who,  with 
his  own  blood,  hath  entered  for  us  within  the 
veil  which  separates  God's  own  abode  from 
earth  (Heb.  vi.  19).  In  the  temple,  the  sol- 
emn barrier  was  at  length  profaned  by  a  Ro- 
man conqueror,  to  warn  the  Jews  that  the 
privileges  they  had  forfeited  were  "ready  to 
vanish  away ;"  and  the  veil  was  at  last  rent  by 
the  hand  of  God  himself,  at  the  same  moment 
that  the  body  of  Christ  was  rent  upon  the 
cross,  to  indicate  that  the  entrance  into  the 
holiest  of  all  is  now  laid  open  to  all  believers 
"by  the  blood  of  Jesus,  by  a  new  and  living 
way  which  He  hath  consecrated  for  us, 
through  the  veil,  that  is  to  say,  His  flesh" 
(Heb.  X.  19,  20).  The  Holy  Place  was  only 
entered  by  the  priests  daily,  to  offer  incense 
at  the  time  of  morning  and  evening  prayer, 
and  to  renew  the  lights  on  the  golden  candle- 
stick ;  and  on  the  Sabbath,  to  remove  the  old 
shew-bread,  and  to  place  the  new  upon  the 
table,  (iii.)  The  Sacred  Furniture  and  Instru- 
ments of  the  Tabernacle.— These  are  described 
in  separate  articles,  and  therefore  it  is  only 
necessary  to  give  a  list  of  them  here.  i.  In 
the  Outer  Court.  The  Altar  of  Burnt-Offer- 
ing, and  the  Brazen  Laver.  [Altar;  Laver.] 
2.  In  the  Holy  Place.  The  furniture  of  the 
court  was  connected  with  sacrifice,  that  of  the 
sanctuary  itself  with  the  deepier  mysteries  of 
mediation  and  access  to  God.  The  First 
Sanctuary  contained  three  objects:  the  altar 
of  incense  in  the  centre,  so  as  to  be  directly 
in  front  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant  (i  K.  vi. 
22),  the  table  of  shew-bread  on  its  right  or 
north  side,  and  the  golden  candlestick  on  the 
left  or  south  side.  These  objects  were  all  con- 
sidered as  being  placed  before  the  presence  of 
Jehovah,  who  dwelt  in  the  holiest  of  all, 
though  with  the  veil  between.  [Altar;  Shew- 
bread;  Candlestick.]  3.  In  the  Holy  of  Holies, 
within  the  veil,  and  shrouded  in  darkness, 
there  was  but  one  object,  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant,  containing  the  two  tables  of  stone, 
inscribed  with  the  Ten  Commandments. 
[Ark.] 

Tabernacles,  The  Feast  of  (Ex.  xxiii.  16, 
"the  feast  of  in-gathering"),  the  third  of  the 
three  great  festivals  of  the  Hebrews,  which 
lasted  from  the  15th  till  the  22d  of  Tisri.  The 
following  are  the  principal  passages  in  the 
Pentateuch  which  refer  to  it:  Exod.  xxiii.  16; 
Lev.  xxiii.  34-36,  39-43:  Num.  xxix.  12-38; 
Deut.  xvi.  13-15,  xxxi.  10-13.    I"  Neh.  viii. 


there  is  an  account  of  the  observance  of  the 
least  by  Ezra.  The  time  of  the  festival  fell 
in  the  autumn,  when  the  whole  of  the  chief 
fruits  of  the  ground,  the  corn,  the  wine,  and 
the  oil,  were  gathered  in  (Ex.  xxiii.  16;  Lev. 
xxiii.  39;  Deut.  xv.  13-15).  Its  duration  was 
strictly  only  seven  days  (Deut.  xvi.  13;  Ez. 
xlv.  25).  But  it  was  followed  by  a  day  of 
holy  convocation,  distinguished  by  sacrifices 
of  its  own,  which  was  sometimes  spoken  of 
as  an  eighth  day  (Lev.  xxiii.  36;  Neh.  viii.  18). 
There  are  two  particulars  in  the  observance 
of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  which  appear  to 
be  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament,  but  are 
not  noticed  in  the  Old.  These  were,  the  cere- 
mony of  pouring  out  some  water  of  the  pool 
of  Siloam,  and  the  display  of  some  great  lights 
in  the  court  of  the  women.  We  are  told  that 
each  Israelite,  in  holiday  attire,  having  made 
up  his  lulab,  before  he  broke  his  fast,  repaired 
to  the  Temple  with  the  lulab  in  one  hand  and 
the  citron  in  the  other,  at  the  time  of  the 
ordinary  morning  sacrifice.  The  parts  of  the 
victim  were  laid  upon  the  altar.  One  of  the 
priests  fetched  some  water  in  a  golden  ewer 
from  the  pool  of  Siloam,  which  he  brought 
into  the  court  through  the  water-gate.  As  he 
entered  the  trumpets  sounded,  and  he  ascend- 
ed the  slope  of  the  altar.  At  the  top  of  this 
were  fixed  two  silver  basins  with  small  open- 
ings at  the  bottom.  Wine  Avas  poured  into 
that  on  the  eastern  side,  and  the  water  into 
tlirat  on  the  western  side,  whence  it  was  con- 
ducted by  pipes  into  the  Cedron.  In  the  even- 
ing, both  men  and  women  assembled  in  the 
court  of  the  women,  expressly  to  hold  a  re- 
joicing for  the  drawing  of  the  water  of  Siloam. 
At  the  same  time  there  were  set  up  in  the 
court  two  lofty  stands,  each  supporting  four 
great  lamps.  These  were  lighted  on  each 
night  of  the  festival.  It  appears  to  be  gen- 
erally admitted  that  the  words  of  our  Saviour 
(John  vii.  37,  38) — "If  any  man  thirst,  let  him 
come  unto  me  and  drink.  He  that  believeth 
on  me,  as  the  Scripture  hath  said  out  of  his 
belly  shall  flow  rivers  of  living  water" — were 
suggested  by  the  pouring  out  of  the  water  of 
.Siloam.  But  it  is  very  doubtful  what  is  meant 
by  "the  last  day,  that  great  day  of  the  feast." 
It  would  seem  that  either  the  last  day  of  the 
feast  itself,  that  is,  the  seventh,  or  the  last 
day  of  the  religious  observances  of  the  series 
of  annual  festivals,  the  eighth,  must  be  in- 
tended. The  eighth  day  may  be  meant,  and 
then  the  reference  of  our  Lord  would  be  to 
an  ordinary  and  well-known  observance  of  the 
feast,  though  it  was  not,  at  the  very  time, 
going  on._  We  must  resort  to  some  such  ex- 
planation, if  we  adopt  the  notion  that  our 


393 


TABITHA 


TAMAR 


Lord's  words  (John  viii.  12) — "I  am  the  light 
of  the  world" — refer  to  the  great  lamps  of  the 
festival.  Though  all  the  Hebrew  annual  fes- 
tivals were  seasons  of  rejoicing,  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  was,  in  this  respect,  distinguished 
above  them  all.  Hence  it  was  evidently 
fitting  that  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  should  be 
kept  with  an  unwonted  degree  of  observance 
at  the  dedication  of  Solomon's  Temple  (i  K. 

viii.  2,  65 ;  Joseph.  Ant.  viii.  4.  §  5)  ;  again, 
after  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  by  Ezra 
(Neh.  viii.  13-18),  and  a  third  time  by  Judas 
Maccabaeus  when  he  had  driven  out  the 
Syrians  and  restored  the  Temple  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Jehovah  (2  Mace.  v.  5-8). 

Tab'itha,  also  called  Dorcas  by  St.  Luke; 
a  female  disciple  of  Joppa,  "full  of  good 
works,"  among  which  that  of  making  clothes 
for  the  poor  is  specifically  mentioned.  St. 
Peter  raised  her  from  the  dead  after  the  de- 
ceased had  been  prepared  for  burial.  (Acts 

ix.  36-42.)  The  name  "Tabitha"  is  an 
Aramaic  word,  signifying  a  "female  gazelle." 
St.  Luke  gives  "Dorcas"  as  the  Greek  equiva- 
lent of  the  name. 

Ta'bor  and  Mount  Tabor,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  remarkable  of  the  single 
mountains  in  Palestine.  It  rises  abruptly 
from  the  north-eastern  arm  of  the  Plain  of 
Esdraelon,  and  stands  entirely  insulated,  ex- 
cept on  the  west,  where  a  narrow  ridge  con- 
nects it  with  the  hills  of  Nazareth.  It  pre- 
sents to  the  eye,  as  seen  from  a  distance,  a 
beautiful  appearance,  being  so  symmetrical  in 
its  proportions,  and  rounded  off  like  a  hemi- 
sphere or  the  segment  of  a  circle,  3^et  varying 
somewhat  as  viewed  from  different  directions. 
The  body  of  the  mountain  consists  of  the 
peculiar  limestone  of  the  country.  It  is  now 
called  Jebel-et-Tvir.  It  lies  about  6  or  8  miles 
almost  due  east  from  Nazareth.  The  ascent 
is  usually  made  on  the  west  side,  near  the 
little  village  of  Deburieh,  probably  the  an- 
cient Daberath  (Josh.  xix.  12),  though  it  can 
be  made  with  entire  ease  in  other  places.  It 
requires  three  quarters  of  an  hour  or  an  hour 
to  reach  the  top.  The  top  of  Tabor  consists 
of  an  irregular  platform,  embracing  a  circuit 
of  half  an  hour's  walk,  and  commanding  wide 
views  of  the  subjacent  plain  from  end  to  end. 
Tabor  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Testament, 
but  makes  a  prominent  figure  in  the  Old.  The 
Book  of  Joshua  (xix.  22)  mentions  it  as  the 
boundary  between  Ibbachar  and  Zebulun  (see 
ver.  12).  Barak,  at  the  command  of  Deborah, 
assembled  his  forces  on  Tabor,  and  descended 
thence,  with  "ten  thousand  men  after  him," 
into  the  plain,  and  conquered  Sisera  on  the 
banks  of  the  Kishon  (Judg.  iv.  6-15).  The 


brothers  of  Gideon,  each  of  whom  "resembled 
the  children  of  a  king,"  were  murdered  here 
by  Zebah  and  Zalmunna  (Judg.  viii.  18,  19). 
There  are  at  present  ruins  of  a  fortress  round 
all  the  top  of  the  summit  of  Tabor.  The 
Latin  Christians  have  now  an  altar  here,  at 
which  their  priests  from  Nazareth  perform  an 
annual  mass.  The  Greeks  also  have  a  chapel, 
where,  on  certain  festivals,  they  assemble  for 
the  celebration  of  religious  rites.  The  idea 
that  our  Saviour  was  transfigured  on  Tabor 
prevailed  extensively  among  the  early  Chris- 
tians, and  reappears  often  still  in  popular  re- 
ligious works.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to 
acquiesce  in  the  correctness  of  this  opinion. 

Talmud  (i.  e.  doctrine,  from  the  Hebrew 
word  "to  learn")  is  a  large  collection  of  writ- 
ings, containing  a  full  account  of  the  civil  and 
religious  laws  of  the  Jews.  It  was  a  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  Pharisees,  coitimpn  to 
them  with  all  orthodox  modern  Jews,  that  by 
the  side  of  the  written  law,  regarded  as  a 
summary  of  the  principles  and  general  laws 
of  the  Hebrew  people,  there  was  an  oral  law, 
to  complete  and  to  explain  the  written  law. 
It  was  an  article  of  faith  that  in  the  Penta- 
teuch there  was  no  precept,  and  no  regulation, 
ceremonial,  doctrinal,  or  legal,  of  which  God 
had  not  given  to  Moses  all  explanations  neces- 
sary for  their  application,  with  the  order  to 
transmit  them  by  word  of  mouth.  The  classi- 
cal passage  in  the  Mishna  on  this  subject  is 
the  following:  "Moses  received  the  (oral) 
law  from  Sinai,  and  delivered  it  to  Joshua,  and 
Joshua  to  the  elders,  and  the  elders  to  the 
prophets,  and  the  prophets  to  the  men  of  the 
Great  Synagogue."  This  oral  law,  with  the 
numerous  commentaries  upon  it,  forms  the 
Talmud.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  tjie  Mishna 
and  Gemara. 

Ta'mar  (palm-tree),  i.  The  wife  succes- 
sively of  the  two  sons  of  Judah,  Er  and  Onan 
(Gen.  xxxviii.  6-30).  Her  importance  in  the 
sacred  narrative  depends  on  the  great  anxiety 
to  keep  up  the  lineage  of  Judah.  It  seemed 
as  if  the  family  were  on  the  point  of  extinc- 
tion. Er  and  Onan  had  successively  perished 
suddenly.  Judah's  wife  Bathshuah  died ;  and 
there  only  remained  a  child  Shelah,  whom 
Judah  was  unwilling  to  trust  to  the  dangerous 
union,  as  it  appeared,  with  Tamar,  lest  he 
should  meet  with  the  same  fate  as  his 
brothers.  Accordingly  she  resorted  to  the  des- 
perate expedient  of  intrapping  the  father  him- 
self into  the  union  which  he  feared  for  his 
son.  The  fruits  of  this  intercourse  were  twins, 
Pharez  and  Zarah,  and  through  Pharez  the 
sacred  line  was  continued.  2.  Daughter  of 
David  and  MaachaJi  the   Geshurite  princess, 


394 


TARES 


TEMPLE 


and  thus  sister  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xiii.  1-32; 
I  Chr.  iii.  9).  She  and  her  brother  wore  ahke 
remarkable  for  their  extraordinary  beauty. 
This  fatal  beauty  inspired  a  frantic  passion  in 
her  half-brother  Amnon,  the  oldest  son  of 
David  by  Ahinoam.  In  her  touching  remon- 
strance two  points  are  remarkable.  First,  the 
expression  of  the  infamy  of  such  a  crime  "in 
Israel,"  implying  the  loftier  standard  of  morals 
that  prevailed,  as  com^jared  with  other  coun- 
tries at  that  time,  and,  secondly,  the  belief  that 
even  this  standard  might  be  overborne  law- 
fully by  royal  authority — "Speak  to  the  king, 
for  he  will  not  withhold  me  from  thee."  The 
brutal  hatred  of  Amnon  succeeding  to  his 
brutal  passion,  and  the  indignation  of  Tamar 
at  his  barbarous  insult  even  surpassing  her 
indignation  at  his  shameful  outrage,  are  pa- 
thetically and  graphically  told. 

Tares.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
zizania  of  the  parable  (Matt.  xiii.  25)  denote 
the  weed  called  "darnel."  The  darnel  before 
it  comes  into  ear  is  very  similar  in  appearance 
to  wheat ;  hence  the  command  that  the  zizania 
should  be  left  to  the  harvest,  lest  while  men 
plucked  uo  the  tares, "they  should  root  up  also 


Tares. 


the  wheat  with  them."  Dr.  Stanley,  however, 
speaks  of  women  and  children  picking  up  from 
the  wheat  in  the  cornfields  of  Samaria  the  tall 
green  stalks,  still  called  by  the  Arabs  zuwan. 
"These  stalks,"  he  continues,  "if  sown  design- 
edly throughout  the  fields,  would  be  insep- 
arable from  the  wheat,  from  which,  even  when 
growing  naturally  and  by  chance,  they  are  at 
first  sight  hardly  distinguishable."  The  grain- 
growers  in  Palestine  believe  that  the  zuwan 
is  merely  a  degenerate  wheat ;  that  in  wet  sea- 
sons the  wheat  turns  to  tares.    Dr.  Thomson 


asserts  that  this  is  their  fixed  opinion.  It  is 
curious  to  observe  the  retention  of  the  fallacy 
through  many  ages. 

Tar'sus,  the  chief  town  of  Cilicia,  "no  mean 
city"  in  other  respects,  but  illustrious  to  all 
time  as  the  birthplace  and  early  residence  of 
the  Apostle  Paul  (Acts  ix.  11,  xxi.  39,  xxii. 
3).  Even  in  the  flourishing  period  of  Greek 
history  it  was  a  city  of  some  considerable  con- 


Tarsus,  Birthplace  at  St.  Paul.    Mount  Taurus  in  the  back- 
ground. 

sequence.  In  the  civil  wars  of  Rome  it  took 
Caesar's  side,  and  on  the  occasion  of  a  visit 
from  him  had  its  name  changed  to  Juliopolis. 
Augustus  made  it  a  "free  city."  It  was  re- 
nowned as  a  place  of  education  under  the 
early  Roman  emperors.  Strabo  compares  it  in 
this  respect  to  Athens  and  Alexandria.  Tarsus 
also  was  a  place  of  much  commerce.  It  was 
situated  in  a  wild  and  fertile  plain  on  the 
banks  of  the  Cydnus.  No  ruins  of  any  import- 
ance remain. 

Temple.  There  is  perhaps  no  building  of 
the  ancient  world  which  has  excited  so  much 
attention  since  the  time  of  its  destruction  as 
the  Temple  which  Solomon  built  at  Jerusalem, 
and  its  successor  as  rebuilt  by  Herod.  Its 


Level  of  the  Temple  Platform. 


spoils  were  considered  worthy  of  forming  the 
principal  illustration  of  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  Roman  triumphal  arches,  and  Jus- 
tinian's  highest   architectural   ambition  was 


.TEMPLE 


TEMPLE 


that  he 


might 


surpass  it.    Throughout  the 


middle  ages  it  influenced  to  a  considerable  de- 
gree the  forms  of  Christian  churches,  and  its 
peculiarities  were  the  watchwords  and  rally- 
ing-points  of  all  associations  of  builders.  When 
the  French  expedition  to  Egypt,  in  the  first 
years  of  the  19th  century,  had  made  the  world 
familiar  with  the  wonderful  architectural  re- 
mains of  that  country,  every  one  jumped  to 
the  conclusion  that  Solomon's  Temple  must 
have  been  designed  after  an  Egyptian  model. 


On  the  site  of  Solomon's  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 

The  Assyrian  discoveries  of  Botta  and  Layard 
have  within  the  last  twenty  years  given  an 
entirely  new  direction  to  the  researches  of  the 
restorers.  Unfortunately,  however,  no  As- 
syrian temple  has  yet  been  exhumed  of  a  na- 
ture to  throw  much  light  on  this  subject,  and 
we  are  still  forced  to  have  recourse  to  the  later 
buildings  at  Persepolis,  or  to  general  deduc- 
tions from  the  style  of  the  nearly  contempo- 
rary secular  buildings  at  Nineveh  and  else- 
where, for  such  illustrations  as  are  available. 

The  Temple  of  Solomon. — It  was  David  who 
first  proposed  to  replace  the  Tabernacle  by  a 
more  permanent  building,  but  was  forbidden 
for  the  reasons  assigned  by  the  prophet 
Nathan  (2  Sam.  vii.  5,  &c.),  and  though  he 
collected  materials  and  made  arrangements, 
the  execution  of  the  task  was  left  for  his  son 
Solomon.  He,  with  the  assistance  of  Hiram 
king  of  Tyre,  commenced  this  great  undertak- 
ing in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign  (B.  C.  1012), 
and  completed  it  in  seven  years  (B.  C.  1005). 
It  occupied  the  site  prepared  for  it  by  David, 
which  had  formerly  been  the  threshing-floor 
of  the  Jebusite  Ornan  or  Araunah,  on  Mount 
Moriah.  The  whole  area  enclosed  by  the  outer 
walls  formed  a  square  of  about  600  feet;  but 
the  sanctuary  itself  was  comparatively  small, 
inasmuch  as  it  was  intended  only  for  the  min- 
istrations of  the  priests,  the  congregation  of 
the  people  assembling  in  the  courts.    In  this 


and  all  other  essential  points,  the  Temple  fol- 
lowed the  model  of  the  Tabernacle,  from 
which  it  differed  chiefly  by  having  chambers 
built  about  the  sanctuary  for  the  abode  of  the 
priests  and  attendants,  and  the  keeping  of 
treasures  and  stores.  In  all  its  dimensions, 
length,  breadth,  and  height,  the  sanctuary  it- 
self was  exactly  double  of  the  Tabernacle,  the 
ground-plan  measuring  80  -cubits  by  40, 
whilst  that  of  the  Tabernacle  was  40  by  20, 
and  the  height  of  the  Temple  being  30  cubits, 
while  that  of  the  Tabernacle  was  15.  (The 
reader  should  compare  the  following  account 
with  the  article  Tabernacle.)  As  in  the  Taber- 
nacle, the  Temple  consisted  of  three"  parts,  the 
Porch,  the  Holy  Place,  and  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
The  Porch  of  the  Temple  was  10  cubits  deep 
(in  the  Tabernacle  5  cubits),  the  width  in  both 
instances  being  the  width  of  the  house.  The 
front  of  the  porch  was  supported,  after  the 
manner  of  some  Egyptian  temples,  by  the  two 
great  brazen  pillars,  Jachin  and  Boaz,  18  cubits 
high,  with  capitals  of  5  cubits  more,  adorned 
with  lily-work  and  pomegranates  (i  K.  vii. 
15-22).  The  places  of  the  two  "veils"  of  the 
Tabernacle  were  occupied  by  partitions,  in 
which  were  folding-doors.  The  whole  interior 
was  lined  with  woodwork  richly  carved  and 
overlaid  with  gold.  Indeed,  both  within  and 
without,  the  building  was  conspicuous  chiefly 
by  the  lavish  use 'of  the  gold  of  Ophir  and 


Solomon's  Porch. 

Parvaim.  It  glittered  in  the  morning  sun  (it 
has  been  well  said)  like  the  sanctuary  of  an 
El  Dorado.  Above  the  sacred  ark.  which  was 
placed,  as  of  old,  in  the  Most  Holy  Place, 
were  made  new  cherubim,  one  pair  of  whose 
wings  met  above  the  ark,  and  another  pair 
reached  to  the  walls  behind  them.  In  the  Holy 
Place,  besides  the  Altar  of  Incense,  which  was 
made  of  cedar,  overlaid  with  gold,  there  were 
seven  golden  candlesticks  instead  of  one,  and 
the  table  of  shew-bread  was  replaced  by  ten 


396 


...\ 


TEMPLE 


TEMPLE 


golden  tables,  bearing,  besides  the  shew-bread, 
the  innumerable  golden  vessels  for  the  serv- 
ice of  the  sanctuary.  The  Outer  Court  was 
no  doubt  doable  the  size  of  that  of  the  Taber- 
nacle ;  and  we  may  therefore  safely  assume 
that  it  was  lO  cubits  in  height,  lOO  cubits  north 
and  south,  and  200  east  and  west.  It  contained 
an  inner  court,  called  the  "court  of  the 
priests ;"  but  the  arrangement  of  the  courts 
and  of  the  porticos  and  gateways  of  the  en- 
closure, though  described  by  Josephus,  belong 
apparently  to  the  Temple  of  Herod.  In  the 
outer  court  there  was  a  new  altar  of  burnt- 
offering  much  larger  than  the  old  one. 
[Altar.]  Instead  of  the  brazen  laver  there 
\\4as  "a  molten  sea"  of  brass,  a  masterpiece 
of  Hiram's  skill,  for  the  ablution  of  the  priests. 
It  was  called  a  "sea"  from  its  great  size.  [Sea, 
Molten.]  The  chambers  for  the  priests  were 
arranged  in  successive  stories  against  the  sides 
of  the  sanctuary ;  not,  however,  reaching  to 
the  top,  so  as  to  leave  space  for  the  windows 
to  light  the  Holy  and  Most  Holy  Places.  We 
are  told  by  Josephus  and  the  Talmud  that 
there  was  a  superstructure  on  the  Temple 
equal  in  height  to  the  lower  part ;  and  this  is 
confirmed  by  the  statement  in  the  Books  of 
Chronicles  that  Solomon  "overlaid  the  upper 
chambers  with  gold"'  (2  Chr,  iii.  9).  More- 
over, "the  altars  on  the  top  of  the  upper  cham- 
ber," mentioned  in  the  Books  of  the  Kings  (2 
K.  xxiii.  12),  were  apparently  upon  the  Tem- 
ple. The  dedication  of  the  Temple  was  the 
grandest  ceremony  ever  performed  under  the 
^Mosaic  dispensation.  This  Temple  was  de- 
stroyed on  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  B.  C.  586. 

Temple  of  Zerubbabel.  We  have  very  few 
particulars  regarding  the  Temple  which  the 
Jews  erected  after  their  return  from  the  Cap- 
tivity (about  B.  C.  520),  and  no  description 
that  would  enable  us  to  realize  its  appearance. 
But  there  are  some  dimensions  given  in  the 
Bible  and  elsewhere  which  are  extremely  in- 
teresting, as  affording  points  of  comparison 
between  it  and  the  Temple  which  preceded 
it,  and  the  one  erected  after  it.  The  first  and 
most  authentic  are  those  given  in  the  Book 
of  Ezra  (vi.  3),  when  quoting  the  decree  of 
Cyrus,  wherein  it  is  said,  "Let  the  house  be 
builded,  the  place  where  they  offered  sacri- 
fices, and  let  the  foundations  thereof  be  strong- 
ly laid ;  the  height  thereof  threescore  cubits, 
and  the  breadth  thereof  threescore  cubits,  with 
three  rows  of  great  stones  and  a  row  of  new 
timber." 

Temple  of  Ezekiel. — The  vision  of  a  Temple 
which  the  prophet  Ezekiel  saw  while  residing 
on  the  banks  of  the  Chebar  in  Babylonia  in 


the  25th-  year  of  the  Captivity,  does  not  add 
much  to  our  knowledge  of  the  subject.  It  is 
not  a  description  of  a  Temple  that  ever  was 
built  or  ever  could  be  erected  at  Jerusalem, 
and  can  consequently  only  be  considered  as 
the  beau  ideal  of  what  a  Shemitic  Temple 
ought  to  be. 

Temple  of  Herod. — Herod  announced  to  the 
people  assembled  at  the  Passover  (B.  C.  20  or 
19)  his  intention  of  restoring  the  Temple.  If 


I] 


Plan  of  Herod's  Temple. 

1.  The  Holy  of  Holies.  4.  Altai-  of  Burnt  Offering. 

2.  The  Holy  I'lace.  5.  Inner  Gate  of  Temple. 

3.  The  Court  of  the  I'riests.    6.  Court  of  the  Women. 

we  may  believe  Josephus,  he  pulled  down  the 
whole  edifice  to  its  foundations,  and  laid  them 
anew  on  an  enlarged  scale ;  but  the  ruins  still 
exhibit,  in  some  parts,  what  seem  to  be  the 
foundations  laid  by  Zerubbabel,  and  beneath 


The  Temple  of  Herod. 

them  the  more  massive  substructions  of  Solo- 
mon. The  new  edifice  was  a  stately  pile  of 
Graeco-Roman  architecture,  built  in  white 
marble  with  gilded  acroteria.  It  is  minutely 
described  by  Josephus,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment has  made  us  familiar  with  the  pride  of 
the  Jews  in  its  magnificence.  At  the  time 
when  Herod  rebuilt  it,  he  enclosed  a  space 


397 


TEN  COM.MANDMENTS 


TENT 


"twice  as  large"  as  that  before  occupied  by 
the  Temple  and  its  courts — an  expression  that 
probably  must  not  be  taken  too  literally,  at 
least  if  we  are  to  depend  on  the  measurements 
of  Hecataeus.  According  to  them,  the  whole 
area  of  Herod's  Temple  was  between  four  and 
five  times  greater  than  that  which  preceded 
it.  What  ^Herod  did,  apparently,  was  to  take 
in  the  whole  space  between  the  Temple  and 
the  city  wall  on  its  eastern  side,  and  to  add 
a  considerable  space  on  the  north  and  'south, 
to  support  the  porticos  which  he  added  there. 
As  the  Temple  terrace  thus  became  the  prin- 
cipal defence  of  the  city  on  the  east  side,  there 
were  no  gates  or  openings  in  that  direction, 
and  being  situated  on  a  sort  of  rocky  brow — 
as  evidenced  from  its  appearance  in  the  vaults 
that  bound  it  on  this  side,  as  it  was  at  all 
later  times  considered  unattackable  from  the 
eastward.  The  north  side,  too,  where  not  cov- 
ered by  the  fortress  Antonia,  became  part  of 
the  defences  of  the  city,  and  was  likewise  with- 
out external  gates.  On  the  south  side,  which 
was  enclosed  by  the  wall  of  Ophel,  there  were 
double  gates  nearly  in  the  centre.  There  is  no 
reason  for  doubting  that  the  Sanctuary  al- 
ways stood  on  the  identically  same  spot  in 
which  it  had  been  placed  by  Solomon  a  thou- 
sand years  before  it  was  rebuilt  by  Herod. 

Ten  Commandments.  The  popular  name  in 
this,  as  in  so  many  instances,  is  not  that  of 
Scripture.  There  we  have  the  "Ten  Words" 
(Ex.  xxxiv.  28;  Deut.  iv.  13,  x.  4),  the 
"Covenant"  (Ex.  Deut.,  11.  cc. ;  i  K.  viii.  21; 
2  Chr.  vi.  II,  &c.),  or,  very  often,  as  the  sol- 
emn attestation  of  the  divine  will,  the  Testi- 
mony (Ex.  XXV.  16,  21;  xxxi.  -18,  &c.),  The 
circumstances  in  which  the  Ten  great  Words 
were  first  given  to  the  people  surrounded  them 
with  an  awe  which  attached  to  no  other  pre- 
cept. In  the  midst  of  the  cloud,  and  the  dark- 
ness, and  the  flashing  lightning,  and  the  fiery 
smoke,  and  the  thunder  like  the  voice  of  a 
trumpet,  Moses  was  called  to  receive  the  Law 
without  Avhich  the  people  would  cease  to  be  a 
holy  nation.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  Scripture 
vmites  two  facts  which  men  separate.  God 
and  not  man,  was  speaking  to  the  Israelites 
in  those  terrors,  and  yet,  in  the  language  of 
later  inspired  teachers,  other  instrumentality 
was  not  excluded.  No  other  words  were  pro- 
claimed in  like  manner.  And  the  record  was 
as  exceptional  as  the  original  revelation.  Of 
no  other  words  could  if  be  said  that  they  were 
written  as  these  were  written,  engraved  on  the 
Tables  of  Stone,  not  as  originating  in  man's 
contrivance  or  sagacit}^  but  by  the  power  of 
the  Eternal  Spirit,  by  the  "finger  of  God"  (Ex. 
xxxi.  18,  xxxii.  16).   The  number  Ten  was,  we 


can  hardly  doubt,  itself  significant  to  Moses 
and  the  Israelites.  The  received  symbol,  then 
and  at  all  times,  of  completeness,  it  taught  the 
people  that  the  Law  of  Jehovah  was  perfect 
(Ps.  xix.  7).  The  term  "Commandments"  had 
come  into  use  in  the  time  of  Christ  (Luke 
xviii.  20).  Their  division  into  Two  Tables  is 
not  only  expressly  mentioned,  but  the  stress 
laid  upon  the  two  leaves  no  doubt  that  the 
distinction  was  important,  and  that  it 
answered  to  that  summary  of  the  law  which 
was  made  both  by  Moses  and  by  Christ  into 
two  precepts ;  so  that  the  First  Table  con- 
tained Duties  to  God,  and  the  Second,  Duties 
to  our  Neighbor,  There  are  three  principal 
divisions  of  the  Two  Tables:  (i.)  That  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  making  the  First 
Table  contain  three  commandments,  and  the 
Second  the  other  seven,  (ii.)  The  familiar 
division,  referring  the  first  four  to  our  duty 
towards  God,  and  the  six  remaining  to  our 
duty  towards  man.  (iii.)  The  division  recog- 
nized by  the  old  Jewish  writers,  Josephus  and 
Philo,  which  places  five  commandments  in 
each  Table.  It  has  been  maintained  that 
the  law  of  filial  duty,  being  a  close  conse- 
quence of  God's  fatherly  relation  to  us,  may 
be  referred  to  the  First  Table.  But  this  is 
to  place  human  parents  on  a  level  with 
God,  and,  by  parity  of  reasoning,  the  Sixth 
Commandment  might  be  added  to  the  First 
Table,  as  murder  is  the  destruction  of  God's 
fmage  in  man.  Far  more  reasonable  is  the 
view  which  regards  the  authority  of  parents 
as  heading  the  Second  Table,  as  the  earthly 
reflex  of  that  authority  of  the  Father  of  His 
people  and  of  all  men  which  heads  the  First 
and  as  the  first  principle  of  the  whole  law  of 
love  to  our  neighbors,  because  we  are  all 
brethren ;  and  the  family  is,  for  good  and  ill, 
the  model  of  the  state. 

Tent.  Among  the  leading  characteristics  of 
the  nomad  races,  those  two  have  always 
■been  numbered  whose  origin  has  been  ascribed 
to  Jabal  the  son  of  Lamech  (Gen.  iv.  20),  viz. 


Arab  Tents. 


to  be  tent-dwellers  and  keepers  of  cattle.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  forefathers  of  the 
Hebrew  race ;  nor  was  it  until  the  return  into 


398 


TERAPHIM 


THEATRE 


-Canaan  from  Egypt  that  the  Hebrews  became 
inhabitants  of  cities.  An  Arab  tent  is  called 
beit,  "house ;"  its  covering  consists  of  stufif, 
about  three-quarters  of  a  yard  broad,  made  of 
black  goats'-hair  (Cant.  i.  5),  laid  parallel  with 
the  tent's  length.  This  is  sufficient  to  resist 
the  heaviest  rain.  The  tent-poles,  or  columns, 
are  usually  nine  in  number,  placed  in  three 
groups,  but  many  tents  have  only  one  pole, 
others  two  or  three.  The  ropes  which  hold 
the  tent  in  its  place  are  fastened,  not  to  the 
tent-cover  itself,  but  to  loops  consisting  of  a 
leathern  thong  tied  to  the  ends  of  a  stick, 
round  which  is  twisted  a  piece  of  old  cloth, 
which  is  itself  sewed  to  the  tent  cover.  The 
ends  of  the  tent-ropes  are  fastened  to  short 
sticks  or  pins,  which  are  driven  into  the 
ground  with  a  mallet  (Judg.  iv.  21).  Round 
the  back  and  sides  of  the  tent  runs  a  piece  of 
stuff  removable  at  pleasure  to  admit  air.  The 
tent  is  divided  into  two  apartments,  separated 
by  a  carpet  partition  drawn  across  the  middle 
of  the  tent  and  fastened  to  the  three  middle 
posts.  "When  the  pasture  near  an  encampment 
is  exhausted,  the  tents  are  taken  down,  packed 
on  camels,  and  removed  (Is.  xxxviii.  12;  Gen. 
xxvi.  17,  22,  25).  In  choosing  places  for  en- 
campment, Arabs  prefer  the  neighborhood  of 
trees,  for  the  sake  of  the  shade  and  coolness 
which  they  afford  (Gen.  xviii.  4,  8). 

Ter'aphim,  only  in  plural,  images  connected 
with  magical  rites.  The  derivation  of  the 
name  is  obscure.  In  one  case  a  single  statue 
seems  to  be  intended  by  the  plural  (i  Sam. 
xix.     13,     16).     The    teraphim,  translated 


Tcraphim. 


"images"  in  A.  V.,  carried  away  from  Laban 
by  Rachel,  were  regarded  by  Laban  as  gods, 
and  it  would  therefore  appear  that  they  were 
used  by  those  who  added  corrupt  practices  to 
the  patriarchal  religion.    Teraphim  again  are 


included  among  Micah's  images  (Judg.  xvii. 
3-5,  xviii.  17,  18,  20).  Teraphim  were  con- 
sulted for  oracular  answers  by  the  Israelites 
(Zech.  X.  2;  comp.  Judg.  xviii.  5,  6;  i  Sam.  xv. 
22,  23,  xix.  13,  16,  LXX. ;  arid  2  K.  xxiii.  24), 
and  by  the  Babylonians,  in  the  case  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  (Ez.  xxi.  19-22). 
Testament,  New.  [New  Testament;  Bible.] 
Testament,  Old.  [Old  Testament;  Bible.] 
Tetrarch,  properly  the  sovereign  or  gov- 
ernor of  the  fourth  part  of  a  country.  The  title 
of  tetrarch  probably  was  applied  to  petty 
tributary  princes  without  any  such  determi- 
nate meaning.  But  it  appears  from  Josephus 
that  the  tetrarchies  of  Antipas  and  Philip  were 
regarded  as  constituting  each  a  fourth  part  of 
their  father's  kingdom. 

Tha'mar.  Tamar  i  (Matt.  i.  3). 
Thank-offering,  or  Peace-offering,  the  prop- 
erly eucharistic  offering  among  the  Jews,  in 
its  theory  resembling  the  Meat-offering,  and 
therefore  indicating  that  the  offerer  was 
already  reconciled  to,  and  in  covenant  with, 
God.  Its  ceremonial  is  described  in  Lev.  iii. 
The  peace-offerings,  unlike  other  sacrifices, 
were  not  ordained  to  be  offered  in  fixed  and 
regular  course.  The  only  constantly  recur- 
ring peace-offering  appears  to  have  been  that 
of  the  two  firstling  lambs  at  Pentecost  (Lev. 
xxiii.  19).  The  general  principle  of  the  peace- 
offering  seems  to  have  been  that  it  should  be 
entirely  spontaneous,  offered  as  occasion 
should  arise,  from  the  feeling  of  the  sacrificer 
himself  (Lev.  xix.  5).  On  the  first  institu- 
tion (Lev.  vii.  11-17),  peace-offerings  are  di- 
vided into  "offerings  of  thanksgiving,"  and 
"vows  or  freewill-offerings ;"  of  which  latter 
class  the  offering  by  a  Nazarite,  on  the  com- 
pletion of  his  vow,  is  the  most  remarkable 
(Num.  vi.  14).  We  find  accordingly  peace- 
offerings  offered  for  the  people  on  a  great  scale 
at  periods  of  unusual  solemnity  or  rejoicing. 
In  two  cases  only  (Judg.  xx.  26;  2  Sam.  xxiv. 
25)  peace-offerings  are  mentioned  as  offered 
with  burnt-offerings  at  a  time  of  national  sor- 
row and  fasting. 

Theatre.  For  the  explanation  of  the  Bib- 
lical allusions,  two  or  three  points  only  require 
notice.  The  Greek  term,  like  the  correspond- 
ing English  term,  denotes  the  place  where 
dramatic  performances  are  exhibited,  and  also ' 
the  scene  itself  or  spectacle  which  is  witnessed 
there.  It  occurs  in  the  first  or  local  sense  in 
Acts  xix.  29.  It  was  in  the  theatre  at  Caesarea 
that  Herod  Agrippa  I.  gave  audience  to  the 
Tyrian  deputies,  and  was  himself  struck  with 
death,  because  he  heard  so  gladly  the  impious 
acclamations  of  the  people  (Acts  xii.  21-23). 
The  other  sense  of  the  term  "theatre"  occurs 


399 


THEBES 


THEBES 


in  I  Cor.  iv.  9,  where  the  A.  V.  renders,  "God 
hath  set  forth  us  the  apostles  last,  as  it  were 
appointed  to  death;  for  we  are  made  a 
spectacle  unto  the  world,  and  to  angels,  and 
to  men."  Instead  of  "spectacle,"  some  might 
prefer  the  more  energetic  Saxon,  "gazing- 
stock,"  as  in  Tyndale,  Cranmer,  and  the 
Geneva  version. 

Thebes  (A.  V.  No,  the  multitude  of  No, 
populous  No),  a  chief  city  of  ancient  Egypt, 
long  the  capital  of  the  upper  country,  and  the 
seat  of  the  Diospolitan  dynasties,  that  ruled 
over  all  Egypt  at  the  era  of  its  highest 
splendor.  The  sacred  name  of  Thebes  was 
Plamen,  "the  abode  of  Amon,"  which  the 
Cireeks  reproduced  in  their  Diospolis,  espe- 
cially with  the  addition  the  Great.  No-Amon 


hums  ;U  i  hcbe 


is  the  name  of  Thebes  in  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures (Jer.  xlvi.  25;  Nah.  iii.  8).  Ezekiel  uses 
No  simply  to  designate  the  Egyptian  seat  of 
Ammon  (Ez.  xxx.  14,  16).  The  origin  of 
the  city  is  lost  in  antiquity.  Niebuhr  is  of 
opinion  that  Thebes  was  much  older  than 
Memphis,  and  that,  "after  the  centre  of 
Egyptian  life  was  transferred  to  Lower 
Egypt,  Memphis  acquired  its  greatness 
through  the  ruin  of  Thebes."  But  both  cities 
date  from  our  earliest  authentic  knowledge  of 
Egyptian  history.  The  first  allusion  to  Thebes 
in  classical  literature  is  the  familiar  passage 
of  the  Iliad  (ix.  381-385)  : — "Egyptian  Thebes, 
where  are  vast  treasures  laid  up  in  the  houses ; 
where  are  a  hundred  gates,  and  from  each  two 
hundred  men  go  forth  with  horses  and 
chariots."  The  monuments  of  Thebes  are  the 
most  reliable  witnesses  for  the  ancient  gran- 
deur of  the  city.  These  are  found  in  almost 
equal  proportions  upon  both  sides  of  the  river. 
The  plan  of  the  city,  as  indicated  by  the  prin- 
cipal monuments,  was  nearly  quadrangular, 
measuring  two  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
four  from  east  to  west.  Its  four  great  land- 
marks were,  Karnak  and  Luxor  upon  the  east- 
ern or  Arabian  side,  and  Ooornah  and  Medee- 
nct  Haboo  upon  the  western  or  Libyan  side. 


There  are  indications  that  each  of  these  tem- 
ples may  have  been  connected  with  those  fac- 
ing it  upon  two  sides  by  grand  dromoi,  lined 
with  sphinxes  and  other  colossal  figures.  Upon 
the  western  bank  there  was  almost  a  con- 
tinuous line  of  temples  and  public  edifices  for 
a  distance  of  two  miles,  from  Qoornah  to 
Medeenet  Llaboo ;  and  Wilkinson  conjectures 
that  from  a  point  near  the  latter,  perhaps  in 
the  line  of  the  colossi,  the  "Royal  street"  ran 
even  to  the  river,  which  was  crossed  by  a 
ferry  terminating  at  Liixor  on  the  eastern 
side.  Beginning  at  the  northern  extreriiity  on 
the  western  bank,  the  first  conspicuous  ruins 
are  those  of  the  Menephtheion,  a  palace- 
temple  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  and  there- 
fore belonging  to  the  middle  style  of  Egyptian 
architecture.  Nearly  a  mile  southward  from 
the  Menephtheion  are  the  remains  of  the  com- 
bined palace  and  temple  known  since  the  days 
of  Strabo  as  the  Memnonium.  Proceeding 
again  towards  the  south  for  about  the  same 
distance,  we  find  at  Medeenet  Haboo  ruins 
upon  a  more  stupendous  scale  than  at  any 
other  point  upon  the  western  bank  of  Thebes. 
These  consist  of  a  temple  founded  by 
Thothmes  I.,  which  presents  some  of  the 
grandest  effects  of  the  old  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture, and  its  battle-scenes  are  a  valuable 
contribution  to  the  history  of  Rameses  III. 
Behind  this  long  range  of  temples  and  palaces 


Temple  of  Karnak  (Thebes).    Column.s  in  the  Great  Hall. 

are  the  Libyan  hills,  which,  for  a  distance  of 
five  miles,  are  excavated  to  the  depth  of  sev- 
eral hundred  feet  for  sepulchral  chambers. 
Some  of  these,  in  the  number  and  variety  of 
their  chambers,  the  finish  of  their  sculptures, 
and  the  beauty  and  freshness  of  their  frescoes, 
are  among  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of 


400 


THESSALONIANS,  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO    THESSALONIANS,  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO 


Egyptian  grandeur  and  skill.  The  eastern  side 
of  the  river  is  distinguished  by  the  remains  of 
Luxor  and  Karnak.  the  latter  being  of  itself  a 
citv  of  temples.  The  approach  to  Karnak  from 
the  south  is' marked  by  a- series  of  majestic 
gateways  and  towers,  which  were  the  ap- 
pendages of  later  times  to  the  original  struc- 
ture. The  temple  properly  faces  the  river,  i.  e. 
towards  the  north-west.  The-  courts  and 
propylaea  connected  with  this  structure  oc- 
cupy a  space  nearly  1800  feet  scjuare,  and  the 
buildings  represent  almost  every  dynasty  of 
Eg}-pt.  from  Sesortasen  I.  to  Ptolemy  Euer- 
getes  I.  Courts,  pylons,  obelisks,  statues,  pil- 
lars, everything  pertaining  to  Karnak,  are  on 
the  grandest  scale.    The  grandeur  of  Egypt 


.\venuf  of  Sphinxes  and  PropyliBa  at  Karnak. 

is  here  in  its  architecture,  and  almost  every 
pillar,  obelisk,  and  stone  tells  its  historic 
legend  of  her  greatest  monarchs.  Ezekiel  pro- 
*  claims  the  destruction  of  Thebes  by  the  arm  of ! 
Babylon  (Ez.  xxx.  14-16).  The  Persian  in- 
vader completed  the  destruction  that  the  Baby- 
lonian had  begun. 

Thessalo'nians,  First  Epistle  to  the,  was 
written  by  the  Apostle  Paul  at  Corinth,  a  few 
months  after  he  had  founded  the  Church  at 
Thessalonica,  at  the  close  of  the  year  52  or 
the  Ijeginning  oi  53.  The  Epistles  to  the  Thes- 
salonians  then  (for  the  second  followed  the 
first  after  no  long  interval)  are  the  earliest  of 
St.  Paul's  writings — perhaps  the  earliest  writ- 
ten records  of  Christianity.  It  is  interesting 
therefore  to  compare  the  Thessalonian  Epistles 
with  the  later  letters,  and  to  note  the  points 
of  difference.  These  differences  are  mainly 
threefold,  (i.)  In  the  general  style  of  these 
earlier  letters  there  is  greater  simplicity  and 
less  exuberance  of  language.  The  brevity  of 
the  opening  salutation  is  an  instance  of  this. 
The  closing  benediction  is  correspondingly 
brief.  And  throughout  the  Epistles  there  is 
much  more  evenness  of  style.  (2.)  The  antag- 
onism to  St.  Paul  is  not  the  same.    Here  the 


opposition  comes  from  Jews.  A  period  of  five 
years  changes  the  aspect  of  the  controversy. 
The  opponents  of  St.  Paul  are  then  no  longer 
Jews,  so  much  as  Judaizing  Christians.  (3.) 
Many  of  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity were  yet  not  evolved  and  distinctly 
enunciated  till  the  needs  of  the  Church  drew 
them  out  into  prominence  at  a  later  date.  It 
has  often  been  observed,  for  instance,  that 
there  is  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians 
no  mention  of  the  characteristic  contrast  of 
"faith  and  works;"  that  the  word  "justifica- 
tion" does  not  once  occur ;  that  the  idea  of 
dying  with  Christ  and  living  with  Christ,  so 
frequent  in  St.  Paul's  later  writings,  is  absent 
in  these.  In  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians, 
the  Gospel  preached  is  that  of  the  coming  of 
Christ,  rather  than  of  the  cross  of  Christ. 
The  external  evidence  in  favor  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians 
is  chiefly  negative,  but  this  is  important 
enough.  There  is  no  trace  that  it  was  ever 
disputed  at  any  age  or  in  any  section  of  the 
Church,  or,  even  by  any  individual,  till  the 
last  century.  On  the  other  hand,  the  allu- 
sions to  it  in  writers  before  the  close  of  the  2d 
century  are  confessedly  faint  and  uncertain. 
It  is  more  important  to  observe  that  the 
Epistle  was  included  in  the  old  Latin  and 
Syriac  Versions,  that  it  is  found  in  the  Canon 
of  the  Muratorian  fragment,  and  that  it  was 
also  contained  in  that  of  Marcion.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  2d  century  from  Irenaeus 
downwards,  we  find  this  Epistle  directly 
quoted  and  ascribed  to  St.  Paul.  The  evidence 
derived  from  the  character  of  the  Epistle  it- 
self is  so  strong  that  it  may  fairly  be  called 
irresistible. 

Thessalo'nians,  Second  Epistle  to  the,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  written  from  Corinth  not 
very  long  after  the  First,  for  Silvanus  and 
Timotheus  were  still  with  St.  Paul  (i.  i).  In 
the  former  letter  we  saw  chiefly  the  outpour- 
ing of  strong  personal  affection,  occasioned  by 
the  renewal  of  the  Apostle's  intercourse  with 
the  Thessalonians,  and  the  doctrinal  and 
hortatory  portions  are  there  subordinate.  In 
the  Second  Epistle,  on  the  other  hand,  his 
leading  motive  seems  to  have  been  the  desire 
of  correcting  errors  in  the  Church  of  Thessalo- 
nica. We  notice  two  points  especially  which 
call  for  his  rebuke.  First,  it  seems  that  the 
anxious  expectation  of  the  Lord's  advent,  in- 
stead of  subsiding,  had  gained  ground  since 
the  writing  of  the  First  Epistle.  Secondly,  the 
Apostle  had  also  a  personal  ground  of  com- 
I)laint.  His  authority  was  not  denied  by  any, 
but  it  was  tampered  with,  and  an  unauthorized 
use  was  made  of  his  name.  It  will  be  seen, 
•  I 


THESSALONICA 


THIEVES,  THE  TWO 


then,  that  the  teaching  of  the  Second  Epistle 
is  corrective  of,  or  rather  supplemental  to, 
that  of  the  First,  and  therefore  presupposes  it. 
This  Epistle,  in  the  range  of  subject  as  well 
as  in  style  and  general  character,  closely  re- 
sembles the  First ;  and  the  remarks  made  on 
that  Epistle  apply  for  the  most  part  equally 
well  to  this.  The  internal  character  of  the 
Epistle  too,  as  in  the  former  case,  bears  the 
strongest  testimony  to  its  Pauline  origin.  Its 
genuineness,  in  fact,  was  never  questioned 
until  the  beginning  of  the  last  century. 

Thessaloni'ca.  The  original  name  of  this 
city  was  Therma ;  and  that  part  of  the  Mace- 
donian shore  on  which  it  was  situated  re- 
tained through  the  Roman  period  the  designa- 
tion of  the  Thermaic  Gulf.  Cassander  the  son 
of  Antipater  rebuilt  and  enlarged  Therma,  and 
named  it  after  his  wife  Thessalonica,  the  sister 
of  Alexander  the  Great.-  The  name  ever  since, 
under  various  slight  modifications,  has  been 
continuous,  and  the  city  itself  has  never  ceased 
to  be  eminent.  Saloniki  is  still  the  most  im- 
portant town  of  European  Turkey,  next  after 
Constantinople.  Strabo  in  tlie  first  century 
speaks  of  Thessalonica  as  the  most  populous 
city  in  Macedonia.  Thus  we  are  brought  to 
St.  Paul's  visit  (with  Silas  and  Timothy)  dur- 
ing his  second  missionary  journey,  and  to  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  into  Thessalonica. 


Thessalonica. 


The  first  scene  of  the  Apostle's  work  at  Thes- 
salonica was  the  synagogue  (Acts  xvii.  2,  3). 
It  is  stated  that  the  ministrations  among  the 
Jews  continued  for  three  weeks  (ver.  2).  Not 
that  we  are  obliged  to  limit  to  this  time  the 
whole  stay  of  the  Apostle  at  Thessalonica.  A 
flourishing  Church  was  certainly  formed 
there;  and  the  Epistles  show  that  its  elements 
were  much  more  Gentile  than  Jewish.  The 
narrative  in  the  Acts  af¥ords  a  singularly  ac- 
curate illustration  of  the  political  constitution 
of  Thessalonica.  Not  only  is  the  demus  men- 
tioned (Acts  xvii.  5)  in  harmony  with  what 
has  been  above  said  of  its  being  a  "free  city," 
but  the  peculiar  title  politarchs  (ib.  6),  of  the 


chief  magistrates.  This  term  occurs  in  no 
other  writing;  but  it  may  be  read  to  this  day 
conspicuously  on  an  arch  of  the  early  Im- 
perial times,  which  spans  the  main  street  of 
the  city.  The  arch  just  mentioned  (called  the 
Vardar  gate)  is  at  the  western  extremity  of 
the  town.  At  its  eastern  extremity  is  another 
Roman  arch  of  later  date,  and  probably  com- 
memorating some  victory  of  Constantine.  The 
main  street,  which  both  these  arches  cross, 
and  which  intersects  the  city  from  east  to 
west,  is  undoubtedly  the  line  of  the  Via 
Egnatia. — A  word  must  be  said,  in  conclusion, 
on  the  later  ecclesiastical  history  of  Thes- 
salonica. For  during  several  centuries  this 
city  was  the  bulwark,  not  simply  of  the  later 
Greek  Empire,  but  of  Oriental  Christendom, 
and  was  largely  instrumental  in  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Slavonians  and  Bulgarians.  Thus 
it  received  the  designation  of  "the  Orthodox 
City ;"  and  its  struggles  are  very  prominent  in 
the  writings  of  the  Byzantine  historians. 

Thieves,  The  two.  The  men  who  under  this 
name  appear  in  the  history  of  the  crucifixion 
were  robbers  rather  than  thieves,  belonging  to 
the  lawless  bands  by  which  Palestine  was  at 
that  time  and  afterwards  infested.  Against 
these  brigands  every  Roman  procurator  had 
to  wage  continual  war.  It  was  necessary  to 
use  an  armed  police  to  encounter  them  (Luke 
xxii.  52).  Of  the  previous  history  of  the  two 
who  suffered  on  Golgotha  we  know  nothing. 
They  had  been  tried  and  condemned,  and  were 
waiting  their  execution  before  our  Lord  was 
accused.  It  is  probable  enough,  as  the  death 
of  Barabbas  was  clearly  expected  at  the  same 
time,  that  they  had  taken  part  in  his  insiirrec- 
tion.  They  had  expected  to  die  with  Jesus 
Barabbas.  They  find  themselves  with  one 
who  bore  the  same  name,  but  who  was  de- 
scribed in  the  superscription  on  his  cross  as 
Jesus  of  Nazareth.  They  could  hardly  fail  to 
have  heard  something  of  his  fame  as  a 
prophet,  of  his  triumphal  entry  as  a  king. 
They  catch  at  first  the  prevailing  tone  of 
scorn.  But  over  one  of  them  there  came  a 
change.  He  looked  back  upon  his  past  life, 
and  saw  an  infinite  evil.  He  looked  to  the 
man  dying  on  the  cross  beside  him,  and  saw 
an  infinite  compassion.  There  indeed  was  one 
unlike  all  other  "kings  of  the  Jews"  whom  the 
robber  had  ever  known.  Such  a  one  must  be 
all  that  He  had  claimed  to  be.  To  be  for- 
gotten by  that  king  seems  to  him  now  the 
most  terrible  of  all  punishments;  to  take  part 
in  the  triumph  of  His  return,  the  most  blessed 
of  all  hopes.  The  yearning  prayer  was 
answered,  not  in  the  letter,  but  in  the  spirit. 
We  cannot  wonder  that  a  history  of  such  mar- 


I 

i 


i 


1 

i 

i 


THISTLE 


THRONE 


vcllous  interest  should  at  all  times  have  fixed 
itself  on  men's  minds,  and  led  them  to  specu- 
late and  ask  questions  which  we  have  no  data 
to  answer.  The  simplest  and  truest  way  of 
looking  at  it  has  been  that  of  those  who  have 
seen  in  the  "dying  thief"  the  first  great  typical 
instance  that  "a  man  is  justified  by  faith  with- 
out the  deeds  of  the  law."  Other  conjectures 
turn  more  on  the  circumstances  of  the  his- 
tor}'.  Bengel  finds  in  the  Lord's  words  to  him 
an  indication  that  the  penitent  thief  was  a 
Gentile,  the  impenitent  a  Jew,  and  that  thus 
the  scene  on  Calvary  was  typical  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  two  Churches.  Stier  reads  in  the 
words  of  reproof  the  language  of  one  who  had 
all  along  listened  with  grief  and  horror  to  the 
revilings  of  the-  multitude,  the  burst  of  an  in- 
dignation previously  suppressed.  The  Apo- 
cryphal Gospels,  as  usual,  do  their  best  to 
lower  the  divine  history  to  the  level  of  a 
legend. 

Thistle.    [Thorns  and  Thistles.] 

Thom'as,  one  of  the  Apostles.  According 
to  Eusebius,  his  real  name  was  Judas.  This 
may  have  been  a  mere  confusion  with  Thad- 
deus,  who  is  mentioned  in  the  extract.  But  it 
may  also  be  that  Thomas  was  a  surname.  The 
word  means  "a  twin ;"  and  so  it  is  translated 
in  John  xi.  i6,  xxi.  2  (Didymus).  Out  of  this 
name  has  grown  the  tradition  that  he  had  a 
twin-sister,  Lydia,  or  that  he  was  a  twin- 
brother  of  our  Lord ;  which  last,  again,  would 
confirm  his  identification  with  Judas  (comp. 
Matt.  xiii.  55).  He  is  said  to  have  been  born 
at  Antioch.  In  the  catalogue  of  the  Apostles 
he  is  coupled  with  Matthew  in  Matt.  x.  3 ; 
Mark  iii.  18;  Luke  vi.  15;  and  with  Philip  in 
.■\cts  i.  13.  All  that  we  know  of  him  is  de- 
rived from  the  Gospel  of  St.  John ;  and  this 
amounts  to  three  traits,  which,  however,  so 
exactly  agree  together,  that,  slight  as  they 
are,  they  place  his  character  before  us  with  a 
precision  which  belongs  to  no  other  of  the 
twelve  Apostles,  except  Peter,  John,  and 
Judas  Iscariot.  This  character  is  that  of  a 
man  slow  to  believe,  seeing  all  the  difficulties 
of  a  case,  subject  to  despondency,  viewing 
things  on  the  darker  side,  and  yet  full  of 
ardent  love  of  his  Master.  The  earlier  tradi- 
tions, as  believed  in  the  4th  century,  represent 
him  as  preaching  in  Parthia  or  Persia,  and  as 
finally  buried  at  Edessa.  The  later  traditions 
carry  him  farther  east.  His  martyrdom 
(whether  in  Persia  or  India)  is  said  to  have 
been  occasioned  by  a  lance,  and  is  commemo- 
rated by  the  Latin  Church  on  Dec.  21,  by  the 
Greek  Church  on  Oct.  6,  and  by  the  Indians 
on  July  I. 

Thorns  and  Thistles.    There  appear  to  be 


eighteen  or  twenty  Hebrew  words  which  point 
to  dift'erent  kinds  of  prickly  of  thorny  shrubs. 
These  words  are  variously  rendered  in  the  A. 
V.  by  "thorns,"  "briers,"  "thistles,"  &c.  It 
were  a  hopeless  task  to  enter  into  a  discussion 
of  these  numerous  Hebrew  terms;  but  it  is 
necessary  to  make  a  few  remarks  upon  the 
"crown  or  thorns"  (Matt,  xxvii.  29),  which 
was  put  in  derision  upon  our  Lord's  head  be- 
fore his  crucifixion.  The  Rhamnus,  or  Spina 
Christi,  although  abundant  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Jerusalem,  cannot  be  the  plant  in- 
tended, because  its  thorns  are  so  strong  and 
large  that  it  could  not  have  been  woven  into 
a  wreath.  The  large-leaved  acanthus  (bear's- 
foot)  is  totally  unsuited  for  the  purpose. 
Obviously  some  small,  flexile,  thorny  shrub  is 


Palestine  Thorn. 

meant";  perhaps  cappares  spinosae.  Hassel- 
quist  (Travels,  p.  260)  says  that  the  thorn 
used  was  the  Arabian  Nabk.  "It  was  very 
suitable  for  their  purpose,  as  it  has  many 
sharp  thorns,  which  inflict  painful  wounds; 
and  its  flexible,  pliant,  and  round  branches 
might  easily  be  plaited  in  the  form  of  a 
crown."  It  also  resembles  the  rich  dark  green 
of  the  triumphal  ivy-wreath,  which  would  give 
additional  pungency  to  its  ironical  purpose. 

Threshing.  [Agriculture.] 

Threshold.  Of  the  two  words  so  rendered 
in  A.  v.,  one,  miphthan,  seems  to  mean  some- 
times a  projecting  beam  or  corbel  (Ez.  ix.  3, 
X.  4,  18). 

Thresholds,  The,  This  word,  Asuppe,  ap- 
pears to  be  inaccurately  rendered  in  Neh.  xii. 
25,  though  its  real  force  has  perhaps  not  yet 
been  discovered.  The  "house  of  the  Asup- 
pim,"  or  simply  "the  Asuppim,"  is  mentioned 
in  I  Chr.  xxvi.  15,  17,  as  a  part,  probably  a 
gate,  of  the  enclosure  of  the  "house  of 
Jehovah,"  apparently  at  its  S.  W.  corner.  The 
allusion  in  Neh.  xii.  25  is  undoubtedly  to  the 
same  place.  [Gate.] 

Throne.  The  Hebrew  word,  so  translated, 
applies  to  any  elevated  seat  occupied  by  a  per- 
.son  in  authority,  whether  a  high-priest  (i 
Sam.  i.  9),  a  judge  (Ps.  cxxii.  5),  or  a  mili- 
tary chief  (Jer.  i.  15).    The  use  of  a  chair  in 


403 


THUMMIM 


TIBERIAS 


a  country  where  the  usual  postures  were 
squatting  and  reclining  was  at  all  times  re- 
garded as  a  symbol  of  dignity  (2  K.  iv.  10; 
Prov.  ix.  14).  In  order  to  specify  a  throne  in 
our  sense  of  the  term,  it  was  necessary  to  add 
to  the  word  the  notion  of  royalty ;  hence  the 
frequent  occurrence  of  such  expressions  as 
"throne  of  the  kingdom"  (Deut.  xvii.  18;  I  K. 
i.  46;  2  Chr.  vii.  18).  The  characteristic  feature 
in  the  royal  throne  was  its  elevation :  Solo- 
mon's throne  was  approached  by  six  steps  (i 
K.  x.  19;  2  Chr.  ix.  18)  ;  and  Jehovah's  throne 
is  described  as  "high  and  lifted  up"  (Is.  vi.  i). 
The  materials  and  workmanship  were  costly. 
It  was  furnished  with  arms  or  "stays."  The 


Assyrian  Throne  or  Cbair  of  State. 

steps  were  also  lined  with  pairs  of  lions.  As 
to  the  form  of  chair,  we  are  only  informed  in 
I  K.  x.  19  that  "the  top  was  round  behind." 
The  king  sat  on  his  throne  on  state  occasions. 
At  such  times  he  appeared  in  his  royal  robes. 
The  throne  was  the  symbol  of  supreme  power 
and  dignity  (Gen.  xli.  40).  Similarly,  "to  sit 
upon  the  throne,"  implied  the  exercise  of  regal 
power  (Deut.  xvii.  18;  i  K.  xvi.  11). 
Thum'mim.  [Urim  and  Thummim.] 
Thunder  is  hardly  ever  heard  in  Palestine 
from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember. Hence  it  was  selected  by  Samuel  as 
a  striking  expression  of  the  Divine  displeasure 
towards  the  Israelites  (i  Sam.  xii.  17).  Rain 
in  harvest  was  deemed  as  extraordinary  as 
snow  in  summer  (Prov.  xxvi.  i),  and  Jerome 
asserts  that  he  had  never  witnessed  it  in  the 
latter  part  of  June,  or  in  July  (Comm.  on  Am. 
iv.  7).  'In  the  imaginative  philosophy  of  the 
Hebrev/s,  thunder  was  regarded  as  the  voice 
of  Jehovah  (Job  xxxvii.  2,  4,  5,  xl.  9;  Ps.  xviii. 
13,  xxix.  3-9;"  Is.  XXX.  30,  31),  who  dwelt 
bekind  the  thunder-cloud  (Ps.  Ixxxi.  7). 
Thunder  was,  to  the  mind  of  the  Jew,  the 


symbol  of  Divine  power  (Ps.  xxix.  3,  &c.),  and 
vengeance  (i  Sam.  ii.  10;  2  Sam.  icxii.  14). 

Thyati'ra,  a  city  on  the  Lycus,  founded  by 
Seleucus  Nicator,  lay  to  the  left  of  the  road 
from  Pergamus  to  Sardis,  on  the  very  con- 
fines of  Mysia  and  Ionia,  so  as  to  be  some- 
times reckoned  within  the  one,  and  sometimes 
within  the  other.    Dyeing  apparently  formed 


I 


Tliyatira. 


an  important  part  of  the  industrial  activity  of 
Thyatira,  as  it  did  of  that  of  Colossae  and 
Laodicea  (Acts  xvi.  14).  The  principal  deity 
of  the  city  was  Apollo. 

Tibe'rias,  a  city  in  the  ti'ne  of  Christ,  on 
the  Sea  of  Galilee ;  first  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament  (John  vi.  i,  23,  xxi.  i),  and  then  by 
Josephus,  who  states  that  it  was  built  by 
Herod  Antipas,  and  was  named  by  him  in 
honor  of  the  emperor  Tiberius.  Tiberias  was 
the  capital  of  Galilee  from  the  time  of  its 


Tiberias  auil  the  Lake  ui  Galilee. 


origin  until  the  reign  of  Herod  Agrippa  II., 
who  changed  the  seat  of  power  back  again  to 
Sepphoris,  where  it  had  been  before  the  found- 
ing of  the  new  city.  Many  of  the  inhabitants 
were  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  foreign  cus- 
toms prevailed  there  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
give  ofl^ence  to  the  stricter  Jews.  It  is  re- 
markable that  the  Gospels  give  us  no  informa- 


TIBERIAS,  THE  SEA  OF 


TIMBREL,  TABRET 


tion,  that  the  Saviour,  who  spent  so  much  of 
his  pubHc  Hfe  in  Galilee,  ever  visited  Tiberias. 
Tiberias  has  an  interesting  history,  apart  from 
its  strictly  Biblical  associations.  It  bore  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  wars  between  the  Jews 
and  the  Romans.  The  Sanhedrim,  subse- 
quently to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  after  a  tempo- 
rary sojourn  at  Jamnia  and  Sepphoris,  became 
fixed  there  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  Celebrated  schools  of  Jewish  learn- 
ing flourished  there  through  a  succession  of 
several  centuries..  The  [Nlishna  was  compiled 
at  this  place  by  the  great  Rabbi  Judah  Hak- 
kodesh  (A.  D.  190).  It  has  been  possessed 
successively  by  Romans,  Persians,  Arabs,  and 
Turks;  and  contains  now,,  under  the  Turkish 
rule,  a  mixed  population  of  IMohammedans, 
Jews,  and  Christians,  variously  estimated  at 
from  two  to  four  thousand. 

Tibe'rias,  The  Sea  of  (John  xxi,  i).  [Gen- 
nesaret.  Sea  of.] 

Tibe'rius  (in  full,  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero), 
the  2d  Roman  emperor,  successor  of  Augustus, 
who  began  to  reign  A.  D.  14,  and  reigned  until 
A.  D.  37.  He  was  the  son  of  Tiberius  Claud- 
ius Nero  and  Livia,  and  hence  a  step-son  of 
Augustus.  He  was  born  at  Rome  on  the  i6th 
of  November,  B.  C.  45.  He  became  emperor 
in  his  55th  year,  after  having  distinguished 


Head  of  Emperor  Tiberius. 

himself  as  a  commander  in  various  wars,  and 
having  evinced  talents  of  a  high  order  as  an 
orator,  and  an  administrator  of  civil  af¥airs. 
He  even  gained  the  reputation  of  possessing 
the  sterner  virtues  of  the  Roman  character, 
and  was  regarded  as  entirely  worthy  of  the 
imperial  honors  to  which  his  birth  and  sup- 
posed personal  merits  at  length  opened  the 
way.    Yet,  on  being  raised  to  the  supreme 


power,  he  suddenly  became,  or  showed  him- 
self to  be,  a  very  different  man.  His  subse- 
quent life  was  one  of  inactivity,  sloth,  and 
self-indulgence.  -  He  was  despotic  in  his  gov- 
ernment, cruel  and  vindictive  in  his  disposi- 
tion. Tiberius  died,  A.  D.  37,  at  the  age  of 
78,  after  a  reign  of  23  years.  Our  Saviour  was 
put  to  death  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius. 

Ti'gris  is  used  by  the  LXX.  as  the  Greek 
equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  Hiddekel ;  and 
occurs  also  in  several  of  the  apocryphal  books, 
as  in  Tobit  (vi.  1)  Judith  (i.  6),  and  Eccles- 
iasticus  (xxiv.  25).  The  Tigris,  like  the  Euph- 
rates, rises  from  two  principal  sources  in  the 
Armenian  mountains,  and  flows  into  the  Euph- 
rates. Its  length,  exclusive  of  meanders,  is 
reckoned  at  1140  miles.  It  receives,  along  its 
middle  and  lower  course,  no  fewe>r  than  five 
important  tributaries.  These  are  the  river  of 
Zakko  or  Eastern  Krabour,  the  Great  Zab 
(Zab  Ala),  the  Lesser  Zab  (Zab  Asfal),  the 
Adhem,  and  the  Diyaleh  or  ancient  Gyndes. 
All  these  rivers  flow  from  the  high  range  of 
Zagros.  We  find  but  little  mention  of  the 
Tigris  in  Scripture.  It  appears  indeed  under 
the  name  of  Hiddekel,  among  the  rivers  of 
Eden  (Gen.  ii.  14),  and  is  there  correctly  de- 
scribed as  "running  eastward  to  Assyria."  But 
after  this  we  hear  no  more  of  it,  if  we  except 
one  doubtful  allusion  in  Nahum  (ii.  6),  until 
the  Captivity,  when  it  becomes  well  known 
to  the  prophet  Daniel.  With  him  it  is  "the 
Great  River."  The  Tigris,  in  its  upper  course, 
anciently  ran  through  Armenia  and  Assyria. 
Lower  down,  from  about  the  point  where  it 
enters  on  the  alluvial  plain,  it  separated  Baby- 
lonia from  Susiana.  In  the  wars  between  the 
Romans  and  the  Parthians,  we  find  it  consti- 
tuting, for  a  short  time  (from  A.  D.  114  to 
A.  D.  117),  the  boundary  line  between  these 
two  empires. 

Tile.  For  general  information  on  the  sub- 
ject, see  the  articles  Brick,  Pottery,  Seal.  The 
expression  in  the  A.  V.  ren.d6ring  of  Luke  v. 
19,  "through  the  tiling"  has  given  much 
trouble  to  expositors,  i.  Terrace-roofs,  if  con- 
structed improperly,  or  at  the  wrong  season  of 
the  year,  are  apt  to  crack,  and  to  become  so 
saturated  with  rain  as  to  be  easily  penetrable. 
May.  not  the  roof  of  the  house  in  which  our 
Lord  performed  his  miracle,  have  been  in  this 
condition  ?  2.  Or  did  not  St.  Luke,  a  native, 
probably,  of  Greek  Antioch,  use  the  expres- 
sion "tiles,"  as  the  form  of  roof  which  was 
most  familiar  to  himself  and  to  his  Greek 
readers,  without  reference  to  the  particular 
material  of  the  roof  in  question? 

Timbrel,  Tabret.  In  old  English  tabor  was 
used  for  any  dr«m.    Tabouret  and  tabourine 


405 


TIMOTHY 


TIMOTHY 


are  diminutives  of  tabor,  and  denote  the  in- 
strument now  known  as  the  tambourine. 
Tabret  is  a  contraction  of  tabouret.  The  Heb. 
toph  is  undoubtedly  the  instrument  described 
by  travellers  as  the  duff  or  difif  of  the  Arabs. 
It  was  used  in  very  early  times  by  the  Syrians 
of  Padan-aram  at  their  merry-makings  (Gen. 
xxxi.  27).  It  was  played  principally  by  women 
(Ex.  XV.  20;  Judg.  xi.  34;  I  Sam.  xviii.  6;  Ps. 
Ixviii.  25)  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  song 
and  dance  (comp.  Jud.  iii.  7),  and  appears  to 
have  been  worn  by  them  as  an  ornament  (Jer. 
xxxi.  4).  The  difif  of  the  Arabs  is  described 
by  Russell  as  "3.  hoop  (sometimes  with  pieces 
of  brass  fixed  in  it  to  make  a  jingling)  over 
which  a  piece  of  parchment  is  distended.    It  is 


and   is   the  true 
In  Barbary  it  is 


Timbrel. 

beaten   with   the  fingers, 
tympanum  of  the  ancients.' 
called  tar. 

Tim'othy.  The  disciple  thus  named  was 
the  son  of  -one  of  those  mixed  marriages 
which,  though  condemned  by  stricter  Jewish 
opinion,,  were  yet  not  uncommoti  in  the  later 
periods  of  Jewish  history.  The  father's  name 
is  unknown :  he  was  a  Greek,  i.  e.  a  Gentile  by 
descent  (Acts  xvi.  i,  3).  The  absence  of  any 
personal  allusion  to  the  father  in  the  Acts  or 
Epistles  suggests  the  inference  that  he  must 
have  died  or  disappeared  during  his  son's  in- 
fancy. The  care  of  the  boy  thus  devolved 
upon  his  mother  Eunice  and  her  mother  Lois 
(2  Tim.  i.  5).  The  arrival  of  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas in  Lycaonia  (Acts  xiv.  6)  brought  the 
message  of  glad  tidings  to  Timothy  and  his 
mother,  and  they  received  it  with  "unfeigned 
faith"  (2  Tim.  i.  5).  During  the  interval  of 
seven  years  between  the  Apostle's  first  and 
second  journeys,  the  boy  grew  up  to  manhood. 
Those  who  had  the  deepest  insight  into  char- 
acter, and  spoke  with  a  prophetic  vitterance, 
pointed  to  him  (i  Tim.  i.  18,  iv.  14),  as  others 
had  pointed  before  to  Paul  and  Barnabas 
(Acts  xiii.  2),  as  specially  fit  for  the  mission- 
ary work  in  which  the  Apostle  was  engaged. 
Personal  feeling  led  St.  Paul  to  the  same  con- 
clusion (Acts  xvi.  3),  and  he  was  solemnly  set 
apart  to  do  the  work  and  possibly  to  bear  the 


title  of  Evangelist  (i  Tim.  iv.  14;  2  Tim.  i. 
6,  iv.  5).  Henceforth  Timothy  was  one  of  his 
most  constant  companions.  They  and  Sil- 
vanus,  and  probably  Luke  also,  journeyed  to 
Philippi  (Acts  xvi.  12),  and  there  already  the 
young  Evangelist  was  conspicuous  at  once  for 
his  filial  devotion  and  his  zeal  (Phil.  ii.  22). 
His  name  does  not  appear*  in  the  account  of 
St.  Paul's  work  at  Thessalonica,  and  it  is  pos- 
sible that  he  remained  some  time  at  Philippi. 
He  appears,  however,  at  Beroea,  and  remains 
there  when  Paul  and  Silas  are  obliged  to 
leave  (Acts  xvii.  14),  going  on  afterwards  to 
join  his  master  at  Athens  (i  Thess.  iii.  2). 
From  Athens  he  is  sent  back  to  Thessalonica 
(ib.).,  as  having  special  gifts  for  comforting 
and  teaching.  He  returns  from  Thessalonica, 
not  to  Athens,  but  to  Corinth,  and  his  name 
appears  united  with  St.  Paul's  in  the  opening 
words  of  both  the  letters  written  from  that 
city  to  the  Thessalonians  (i  Thess.  i.  i  ;  2 
Thess.  i.  1).  Of  the  next  five  years  of  his  life 
we  have  no  record.  When  we  next  meet  with 
him,  it  is  as  being  sent  on  in  advance  when 
the  Apostle  was  contemplating  the  long  jour- 
ney which  was  to  include  Macedonia,  Achaia, 
Jerusalem  and  Rome  (Acts  xix.  22).  It  is 
probable  that  he  returned  by  the  same  route 
and  met  St.  Paul  according  to  a  previous  ar- 
rangement (i  Cor.  xvi.  11),  and  was  thus  with 
him  when  the  Second  Epistle  was  written 
to  the  Church  of  Corinth  (2  Cor.  i.  i).  He 
returns  with  the  Apostle  to  that  city,  and  joins 
in  messages  of  greeting  to  the  disciples  whom 
he  had  known  personally  at  Corinth,  and  who 
had  since  found  their  way  to  Rome  (Rom.  xvi. 
21).  He  forms  one  of  the  company  of  friends 
who  go  with  St.  Paul  to  Philippi,  and  then 
sail  by  themselves,  waiting  for  his  arrival  by 
a  different  ship  (Acts  xx.  3-6).  The  absence 
of  his  name  from  Acts  xxvii.  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that  he  did  not  share  in  the  perilous 
voyage  to  Italy.  He  must  have  joined  the 
Apostle,  however,  apparently  soon  after  his 
arrival  at  Rome,  and  was  with  him  when  the 
Epistles  to  the  Philippians,  to  the  Colossians, 
and  to  Philemon  were  written  (Phil  i.  i,  ii.  19; 
Col.  i.  i;  Philei-p.  i).  All  the  indications  of 
this  period  point  to  incessant  missionary 
activity. 

From  the  two  Epistles  addressed  to  him,  we 
are  able  to  put  together  a  few  notices  as  to 
his  later  life.  It  follows  from  i  Tim.  i.  3  that 
he  and  his  master,  after  the  release  of  the  lat- 
ter from  his  imprisonment,  revisited  the  pro- 
consular Asia,  that  the  Apostle  then  continued 
his  journey  to  Macedonia,  whilst  the  disciple 
remained,  half  reluctantly,  even  weeping  at 
the  separation  (2  Tim.  i.  4),  at  Ephesus,  to 
406 


TIMOTHY,  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL  TO 


TITHE 


check,  if  possible,  the  outgrowth  of  heresy 
and  licentiousness  which  had  sprung  up  there. 
The  position  in  which  he  found  himself  might 
well  make  him  anxious.  He  had  to  rule  pres- 
byters, most  of  whom  were  older  than  him- 
self (i  Tim.  iv.  12).  Leaders  of  rival  sects 
were  there.  The  name  of  his  beloved  teacher 
was  no  longer  honored  as  it  had  been.  We 
cannot  wonder  that  the  Apostle,  knowing  these 
trials,  should  be  full  of  anxiety  and  fear  for 
his  disciple's  steadfastness.  In  the  Second 
Epistle  to  him  this  deep  personal  feeling  utters 
itself  yet  more  fulh^  The  last  recorded  words 
of  the  Apostle  express  the  earnest  hope,  re- 
peated yet  more  earnestly,  that  he  might  see 
him  once  again  (ib.  iv.  9,  21).  We  may  hazard 
the  conjecture  that  he  reached  him  in  time, 
and  that  the  last  hours  of  the  teacher  were 
soothed  by  the  presence  of  the  disciple  whom 
he  loved  so  truly. 

Timothy,  Epistles  of  Paul  to.  The  First 
Epistle  was  probably  written  in  the  interval 
between  St.  Paul's  first  and  second  imprison- 
ments at  Rome.  The  absence  of  any  local 
reference  but  that  in  i.  3,  suggests  Macedonia 
or  some  neighboring  district.  In  some  MSS. 
and  versions,  Laodicea  is  named  in  the  in- 
scription as  the  place  from  which  it  was  sent. 
The  Se.cond  Epistle  appears  to  have  been  writ- 
ten soon  afterwards  and  in  all  probability  at 
Rome.  The  following  are  the  characteristic 
features  of  these  Epistles: — (i)  The  ever-deep- 
ening sense  in  St.  Paul's  heart  of  the  Divine 
Mercy,  of  which  he  was  the  object,  as  shown 
in  the  insertion  of  the  word  "mercy"  in  the 
salutations  of  both  Epistles,  and  in  the  "ob- 
tained mercy"  of  i  Tim.  i.  13.  (2)  The 
greater  abruptness  of  the  Second  Epistle. 
From  first  to  last  there  is  no  plan,  no  treat- 
ment of  subjects  carefully  thought  out.  All 
speaks  of  strong  overflowing  emotion,  memo- 
ries of  the  past,  anxieties  about  the  future.  (3) 
The  absence,  as  compared  with  St.  Paul's 
other  Epistles,  of  Old  Testament  references. 
This  may  connect  itself  with  the  fact  just 
noticed,  that  these  Epistles  are  not  argu- 
mentative, possibly  also  with  the  request  for 
the  "books  and  parchments"  which  had  been 
left  behind  (2  Tim.  iv.  13).  (4)  The  con- 
spicuous position  of  the  "faithful  sayings"  as 
taking  the  place  occupied  in  other  Epistles  by 
the  O.  T.  Scriptures.  The  way  in  which  these 
are  cited  as  authoritative,  the  variety  of  sub- 
jects which  they  cover,  suggest  the  thought 
that  in  them  we  have  specimens  of  the  prophe- 
cies of  the  Apostolic  Church  which  had  most 
impressed  themselves  on  the  mind  of  the 
Apostle,  and  of  the  disciples  generally,  i  Cor. 
xiv.  shows  how  deep  a  reverence  he  was  likely 


to  feel  for  such  spiritual  utterances.  In  i  Tim. 
iv.  I,  we  have  a  distinct  reference  to  them. 
(5)  The  tendency  of  the  Apostle's  mind  to 
dwell  more  on  the  universality  of  the  re- 
demptive work  of  Christ  (i  Tim.  ii.  5-6,  iv. 
10),  and  his  strong  desire  that  all  the  teaching 
of  his  disciples  should  be  "sound."  (6)  The 
importance  attached  by  him  to  the  practical 
details  of  administration*.  The  gathered  ex- 
perience of  a  long  life  had  taught  him  that  tht 
life  and  well-being  of  the  Church  recpiired 
these  for  its  safeguards.  (7)  The  recurrence 
of  doxologies  (i  Tim.  i.  17,  vi.  15,  16;  2  Tim. 
iv.  18)  as  from  one  living  perpetually  in  the 
presence  of  God,  to  whom  the  language  of 
adoration  was  as  his  natural  speech. 

Tin.  Among  the  various  metals  found 
among  the  spoils  of  the  Midianites,  tin  is 
enumerated  (Num.  xxxi.  22).  It  was  known 
to  the  Hebrew  metal-workers  as  an  alloy  of 
other  metals  (Is.  i.  25;  Ez.  xxii.  18,  20).  The 
markets  of  Tyre  were  supplied  with  it  by  the 
ships  of  Tarshish  (Ez.  xxvii.  12):  It  vias  used 
for  plummets  (Zech.  iv.  10),  and  was  so  plen- 
tiful as  to  furnish  the  writer  of  Ecclesiasticus 
(xlvii.  18)  with  a  figure  by  which  to  express 
the  wealth  of  Solomon.  Tin  is  not  found  in 
Palestine.  Whence,  then,  did  the  ancient 
Hebrews  obtain  their  supply?  "Only  three 
countries  are  known  to  contain  any  consid- 
erable quantity  of  it:  Spain  and  Portugal, 
Cornwall  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Devon- 
shire, and  the  islands  of  Junk,  Ceylon,  and 
Banca,  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca."  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  mines  of  Britain  were 
the  chief  source  of  supply  to  the  ancient 
world. 

Tire,  an  ornamental  headdress  worn  on 
festive  occasions  (Ez.  xxiv.  17,  23). 

Ti'tans.  These  children  of  Uranus  (Heaven) 
and  Gaia  (Earth)  were,  according  to  the 
earliest  Greek  legends,  the  vanquished  prede- 
cessors of  the  Olympian  gods,  condemned  by 
Zeus  to  dwell  in  Tartarus,  yet  not  without  re- 
taining many  relics  of  their  ancient  dignity. 

Tithe.  Instances  of  the  use  of  tithes  are 
found  prior  to  the  appointment  of  the  Lfevitical 
tithes  under  the  Law.  In  Biblical  history  the 
two  prominent  instances  are — i.  Abram  pre- 
senting the  tenth  of  all  his  property,  or  rather 
of  the  spoils  of  his  victory,  to  Melchizedek 
(Gen.  xiv.  20;  Heb.  vii.  2,  6).  2.  Jacob,  after 
his  vision  at  Luz,  devoting  a  tenth  of  all  his 
property  to  God  in  case  he  should  return  home 
in  safety  (Gen.  xxviii.  22).  The  first  enact- 
ment of  the  Law  in  respect  of  tithe  is  the  decla- 
ration that  the  tenth  of  all  produce,  as  well  as 
of  flocks  and  cattle,  belongs  to  Jehovah,  and 
must  be  offered  to  Him  ;  that  the  tithe  was 


407 


TITUS 


TOBIT,  BOOK  OF 


to  be  paid  in  kind,  or,  if  redeemed,  with  an 
addition  of  one-fifth  to  its  vakie  (Lev.  xxvii. 
30-33).  This  tenth  is  ordered  to  be  assigned 
to  the  Levites,  as  the  reward  of  their  service, 
and  it  is  ordered  further,  that  they  are  them- 
selves to  dedicate  to  the  Lord  a  tenth  of  these 
receipts,  which  is  to  be  devoted  to  the  main- 
tenance of  the  high-priest  (Num.  xviii.  21-28). 
From  Deuteronomy  .we  gather,  i.  That  one- 
tenth  of  the  whole  produce  of  the  soil  was  to 
be  assigned  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
Levites.  2.  That  out  of  this  the  Levites  were 
to  dedicate  a  tenth  to  God,  for  the  use  of  the 
high-priest.  3.  That  a  tithe,  in  all  probability 
a  second  tithe,  was  to  be  applied  to  festival 
purposes.  4.  That  in  every  third  year,  either 
this  festival  tithe  or  a  third-tenth  was  to  be 
eaten,  in  company  with  the  poor  and  the 
Levites.  The  question  arises,  were  there  three 
tithes  taken  in  this  third  year ;  or  is  the  third 
tithe  only  the  second  under  a  different  descrip- 
tion? It  must  be  allowed  that  the  third  tithe 
is  not  without  support.  Josephus  distinctly 
says  that  one-tenth  was  to  be  given  to  the 
priests  and  Levites,  one-tenth  was  to  be  ap- 
plied to  feasts  in  the  metropolis,  and  that  a 
tenth  besides  these  was  every  third  year  to  be 
given  to  the  poor  (comp.  Tob.  i.  7,  8).  On  the 
other  hand,  Maimonides  says  the  third  and 
sixth  years'  second  tithe  was  shared  between 
the  poor  and  the  Levites,  i.  e.  that  there  was 
no  third  tithe.  Of  these  opinions,  that  which 
maintains  three  separate  and  complete  tithings 
seems  improbable.  It  is  plain  that  under  the 
kings  the  tithe-system  partook  of  the  general 
neglect  into  which  the  observance  of  the  Law 
declined,  and  that  Hezekiah,  among  his  other 
reforms,  took  effectual  means  to  revive  its  use 
(2  Chr.  xxxi.  5,  12,  19).  Similar  measures  were 
taken  after  the  Captivity  by  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
xii.  44),  and  in  both  these  cases  special  officers 
were  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  stores 
and  storehouses  for  the  purpose.  Yet,  not- 
withstanding partial  evasion  or  omijsion,  the 
system  itself  was  continued  to  a  late  period  in 
Jewish  history  (Heb.  vii.  5-8;  Matt,  xxiii.  23; 
Luke  xviii.  12). 

Ti'tus.  Materials  for  the  biography  of  this 
companion  of  St.  Paul  must  be  drawn  entirely 
from  the  notices  of  him  in  the  Second  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians,  the  Galatians,  and  to  Titus 
himself,  combined  with  the  Second  Epistle  to 
Timothy.  He  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts 
at  all.  He  is  very  emphatically  spoken  of  as 
a  Qentile,  by  which  is  most  probably  meant 
that  both  his  parents  were  Gentiles.  Titus 
would  seem,  on  the  occasion  of  the  council,  to 
have  been  specially  a  representative  of  the 
church  of  the  uncircumcision.    He  was  origin- 


ally converted  through  St.  Paul's  instru- 
mentality (i.  4).  The  responsible  duties  which 
he  had  to  discharge  in  Crete  were  to  complete 
what  St.  Paul  had  been  obliged  to  leave  un- 
finished (i.  s),  and  to  organize  the  Church 
throughout  the  island  by  appointing  pres- 
byters in  every  city.  Tradition  has  him 
permanent  bishop  in  the  island,  and  to  have 
died  there  at  an  advanced  age.  The  modern 
capital,  Candia,  appears  to  claim  the  honor 
of  being  his  burial-place.  In  the  fragment  by 
the  lawyer  Zenas,  Titus  is  called  Bishop  of 
Gortyna.  Lastly,  the  name  of  Titus  was  the 
watchword  of  the  Cretans  when  they  were  in- 
vaded by  the  Venetians. 

Titus,  Epistle  to.  There  are  no  specialties 
in  this  Epistle  which  require  any  very  elabo- 
rate treatment  distinct  from  the  other  Pastoral 
Letters  of  St.  Paul.  If  those  two  were  not 
genuine,  it  would  be  difficult  confidently  to 
maintain  the  genuineness  of  this.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  Epistles  to  Timothy  are  received 
as  St.  Paul's,  there  is  not  the  slightest  reason 
for  doubting  the  authorship  of  that  to  Titus. 
Nothing  can  well  be  more  explicit  than  the 
quotations  in  Irenaeus,  Clemens  Alexandrinus, 
Tertullian,  to  say  nothing  of  earlier  allusions 
in  Justin  Martyr,  Theophilus,  and  Clemens 
Romanus.  As  to  internal  features,  \ye  may 
notice,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  Epistle  to 
Titus  has  all  the  characteristics  of  the  other 
Pastoral  Epistles.  This  tends .  to  show  that 
this  Letter  was  written  about  the  same  time 
and  under  similar  circumstances  with  the 
other  two.  [Timothy,  Epistles  to.]  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  this  Epistle  has  marks  in  its 
phraseology  and  style  which  assimilate  it  to 
the  general  body  of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul. 
This  Epistle  has  features  of  its  own,  especially 
a  certain  tone  of  abruptness  and  severity,  which 
probably  arises  partly  out  of  the  circumstances 
of  the  Cretan  population,  partly  out  of  the 
character  of  Titus  himself. 
'To'bit,  Book  of,  a  book  of  the  Apocrypha, 
which  exists  at  present  in  Greek,  Latin, 
Syriac,  and  Hebrew  texts,  but  it  was  probably 
written  originally  in  Greek.  The  scene  of  the 
book  is  placed  in  Assyria,  whither  Tobit,  a 
Jew,  had  been  carried  as  a  captive  by  Shal- 
maneser.  It  is  represented  as  completed  shortly 
after  the  fall  of  Nineveh  (B.  C.  606;  Tob.  xiv. 
15),  and  written,  in  the  main,  some  time  before 
(Tob.  xii.  20).  But  the  whole  tone  of  the  nar- 
rative bespeaks  a  later  age ;  and  above  all,  the 
doctrine  of  good  and  evil  spirits  is  elaborated 
in  a  form  which  belongs  to  a  period  considera- 
bly posterior  .to  the  Babylonian  Captivity 
(Asmodeus,  iii.  8,  vi.  14,  viii.  3 ;  Raphael,  xii. 
15).    It  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  true  history. 


408 


I 

i 


.TOMB 


TOMB 


It  is  a  didactic  narrative ;  and  its  point  lies 
in  the  moral  lessons  which  it  conveys,  and 
not  in  the  incidents.  In  modern  times  the 
moral  excellence  of  the  book  has  been  rated 
highly,  except  in  the  heat  of  controversy. 
Nowhere  else  is  there  preserved  so  complete 
and  beautiful  a  picture  of  the  domestic  life  of 
the  Jews  after  the  Return.  Almost  every  fam- 
ily relation  is  touched  upon  with  natural  grace 
and  affection.  A  doctrinal  feature  of  the  book 
is  the  firm  belief  in  a  glorious  restoration  of 
the  Jewish  people  (xiv.  5,  xiii.  9-18).  But  the 
restoration  contemplated  is  national,  and  not 
the  work  of  a  universal  Saviour.  In  all  there 
is  not  the  slightest  trace  of  the  belief  in  a  per- 
sonal ^Messiah. 

Tomb.  It  has  been  hitherto  too  much  the 
fashion  to  look  to  Egypt  for  the  prototype  of 
every  form  of  Jewish  art ;  but  if  there  is  one 
thing  in  the  Old  Testament  more  clear  than 
another,  it  is  the  absolute  antagonism  between 
the  two  peoples,  and  the  abhorrence  of  every- 
thing Egyptian  that  prevailed  from  first  to 
last  among  the  Jewish  people.  From  the 
burial  of  Sarah  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah  (Gen. 
xxiii.  19)  to  the  funeral  rites  prepared  for 
Dorcas  (Acts-  ix.  37),  there  is  no  mention  of 
any  sarcophagus,  or  even  coffin,  in  any  Jewish 


Jewish  Sepulchre. 


burial.  Still  less  were  the  rites  of  the  Jews 
like  those  of  the  Pelasgi  or  Etruscans.  They 
were  marked  with  the  same  simplicity  that 
characterized  all  their  religious  observances. 
This  simplicity  of  rite  led  to  what  may  be 
called  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  Jew- 
ish sepulchres — the  deep  loculus — which,  so 
far  as  is  now  known,  is  universal  in  all  purely 
Jewish  rock-cut  tombs,  but  hardly  known  else- 
where. Its  form  will  be  understood  by  refer- 
ring to  the  following  diagram,  representing 
the  forms  of  Jewish  sepulture.  In  the  apart- 
ment marked  A,  there  are  twelve  such  loculi, 
about  two  feet  in  width  by  three  feet  high. 
On  the  ground  floor  these  generally  open  on 
the  level  of  the  floor ;  when  in  the  upper  story, 
as  at  C,  on  a  ledge  or  platform,  on  which  the 
body  might  be  laid  to  l)c  anointed,  and  on 


which  the  stones  might  rest  which  closed  the 
outer  end  of  each  loculus.  The  shallow  loculus 
is  shown  in  chamber  B,  but  was  apparently 
only  used  when  sarcophagi  were  employed, 
and,  therefore,  so  far  as  we  know,  only  during 
the  Graeco-Roman  period,  when  foreign  cus- 
toms came  to  be  adopted.  The  shallow  loculus 
would  have  been  singularly  inappropriate  and 
inconvenient,  where  an  unembalmed  body  was 
laid  out  to  decay — as  there  would  evidently  be 
no  means  of  shutting  it  of¥  from  the  rest  of 
the  catacomb.  The  deep  loculus,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  as  strictly  conformable  with  Jewish 
customs,  and  could  easily  be  closed  by  a  stone 
fitted  to  tlie  end  and  luted  into  the  groove 
which  usually  exists  there.  This  fact  is  espe- 
cially interesting  as  it  affords  a  key  to  much 
that  is  otherwise  hard  to  be  understood  in  cer- 
tain passages  in  the  New  Testament.  Thus  in 
John  xi.  39,  Jesus  says,  "Take  away  the  stone," 
and  (ver.  40),  "they  took  away  the  stone," 
without  difficulty,  apparently.   And  chap.  xx. 


Entrance  to  Tomb  of  the  Kings,  with  Stone  at  its  Mouth. 

I,  the  same  expression  is  used,  "the  stone  is 
taken  away."  There  is  one  catacomb — that 
known  as  the  "Tombs  of  the  Kings" — which 
is  closed  by  a  stone  rolling  across  its  entrance; 
but  it  is  the  only  one,  and  the  immense 
amount  of  contrivance  and  fitting  which  it  has 
required  is  sufficient  proof  that  such  an  ar- 
rangement was  not  applied  to  any  other  of  the 
numerous  rock  tombs  around  Jerusalem,  nor 
could  the  traces  of  it  have  been  obliterated 
had  it  anywhere  existed.  Although,  therefore, 
the  Jews  were  singularly  free  from  the  pomps 
and  vanities  of  funereal  .  magnificence,  they 
were  at  all  stages  of  their  independent  exist- 
409 


TOMB 


TOMB 


ence  an  eminently  burying  people.  Tombs  of 
the  Patriarchs. — Turning  from  these  consid- 
erations to  the  more  strictly  historical  part  of 
the  subject,  we  find  that  one  of  the  most  strik- 
ing events  in  the  life  of  Abraham  is  the  pur- 
chase of  the  field  of  Ephron  the  Hittite  at 
Hebron,  in  which  was  the  cave  of  Machpelah, 
in  order  that  he  might  therein  bury  Sarah  his 
wife,  and  that  it  might  be  a  sepulchre  for  him- 
self and  his  children.  There  he  and  his  im- 
mediate descendants  were  laid  3700  years  ago, 
and  there  they  are  believed  to  rest  now;  but 
no  one  in  modern  times  has  seen  their  remains, 
or  been  allowed  to  enter  into  the  cave  where 


Facade  of  the  Tomb  of  the  Judges. 

they  rest.  From  the  time  when  Abraham 
established  the  burying-place  of  his  family  at 
Hebron  till  the  time  when  David  fixed  that 
of  his  family  in  the  city  which  bore  his  name, 
the  Jewish  rulers  had  no  fixed  or  favorite 
place  of  sepulture.  Each  was  buried  on  his 
own  property,  or  where  he  died,  without 
much  caring  either  fo-r  the  sanctity  or  con- 
venience of  the  place  chosen.  Tomb  of  the 
Kings. — Of  the  twenty-two  kings  of  Judah 
who  reigned  at  Jerusalem  from  1048  to  590  B. 
C,  eleven,  or  exactly  one  half,  were  buried  in 
one  hypogeum  in  the  "city  of  David."  Of  all 
these  it  is  merely  said  that  they  were  buried  in 
"the  sepulchres  of  their  fathers"  or  "of  the 
kings"  in  the  city  of  David,  except  of  two — 
Asa  and  Hezekiah.  Two  more  of  these  kings 
(Jehoram  and  Joash)  were  buried  also  in  the 
city  of  David,  "but  not  in  the  sepulchres  of  the 
kings."  The  passage  in  Nehemiah  iii.  16,  and 
in  Ezekiel  xliii.  7,  9,  together  with  the  re- 
iterated assertion  of  the  Books  of  Kings  and 
Chronicles  that  these  sepulchres  were  situated 
in  the  city  of  David,  leave  no  doubt  but  that 
they  were  on  Zion,  or  the  Eastern  Hill,  and  in 
the  immediate  proximity  of  the  Temple.  Up 
to  the  present  tinve  we  have  not  been  able  to' 
identify  one  single  sepulchral  excavation 
about  Jerusalem  which  can  be  said  with  cer- 
tainty to  belong  to  a  period  anterior  to  that 
of  the  Maccabees,  or,  more  correctly,  to  have 
been  used  for  burial  before  the  time  of  the 


Romans.  The  only  important  hypogeum  which 
is  wholly  Jewish  in  its  arrangements,  and  may 
consequently  belong  to  an  earlier  or  to  any 
epoch,  is  that  known  as  the  Tombs  of  the 
Prophets  in  the  western  flank  of  the  Mount  of 
Olives.  It  has  every  appearance  of  having 
originally  been  a  natural  cavern  improved  by 
art,  and  with  an  external  gallery  some  140 
feet  in  extent,  into  which  twenty-seven  deep 
or  Jewish  loculi  open.  Graeco-Roman  Tombs. 
— Besides  the  tombs  above  enumerated,  there 
are  around  Jerusalem,  in  the  Valleys  of  Hin- 
nom  and  Jehoshaphat,  and  on  the  plateau  to 
the  north,  a  number  of  remarkable  rock-cut 
sepulchres,  with  more  or  lees  architectural 
decoration,  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  ascertain 
that  they  are  all  of  nearly  the  same  age,  and  to 
assert  with  very  tolerable  confidence  that  the 
epoch  to  which  they  belong  must  be  between 
the  introduction  of  Roman  influence  and  the 
destruction  of  the  city  by  Titus.  In  tlie  village 
of  Siloam  there  is  a  monolithic  cell  of  singu- 
larly Egyptian  aspect,  which  De  Saulcy  as- 
sumes to  be  a  chapel  of  Solomon's  Egyptian 
wife.  It  is  probably  of  very  much  more  mod- 
ern date,  and  is  more  Assyrian  than  Egyptian 
in  character.  The  principal  remaining  archi- 
tectural sepulchres  may  be  divided  into  three 
groups.  First,  those  existing  in  the  Valley  ot 
Jehoshaphat,  and  known  popularly  as  the 
Tombs  of  Zechariah,  of  St.  James,  and  of 
Absalom.  Second,  those  known  as  the  Tombs 
of  the  Judges,  and  the  so-called  Jewish  tomb 


Facade  of  Ilci-od's  Tomb. 


about  a  mile  north  of  the  city.  Third,  that 
known  as  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings,  about  half 
a  mile  north  of  the  Damascus  Gate.  Since  the 
destruction  of  the  c-ity  by  Titus,  none  of  the 
native  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  have  been  in  a 
position  to  indulge  in  much  sepulchral  mag- 
nificence, or  perhaps  had  any  taste  for  this 
class  of  display;  and  we  in  consequence  find 
no  rock-cut  hypogea,  and  no  structural  monu- 
ments, thai  arrest  attention  in  modern  times. 
The  people,    however,    still    cling   to  their 


4 


10 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


ancient  cemeteries  in  the  \'alley  of  Jehosha- 
phat  with  a  tenacity  singularly  characteristic 
of  the  East.  [Burial] 

Tongues,  Confusion  of.  The  unity  of  the 
human  race  is  most  clearly  implied,  if  not  posi- 
tively asserted,  in  the  ^losaic  writings.  The 
general  declaration,  "So  God  created  man  in 
His  own  image  .  .  .  male  and  female  created 
He  them"  (Gen.  i.  27),  is  limited,  as  to  the 
mode  in  which  the  act  was  carried  out,,  by 
the  subsequent  narrative  of  the  creation  of 
Adam  (Gen.  ii.  22).  Unit}'  of  language  is  as- 
sumed by  the  sacred  historian  apparently  as  a 
corollary  of  the  unity  of  race.  No  explanation 
is  given  of  the  origin  of  speech,  but  its  exer- 
cise is  evidently  regarded  as  coeval  with  the 
creation  of  man.  The  original  unity  of  speech 
was  restored  in  Noah.  Disturbing  causes  were, 
however,  early  at  work  to  dissolve  this  two- 
fold union  of  community  and  speech.  The 
human  family  endeavored  to  check  the 
tendency  to  separation  by  the  establishment 
of  a  great  central  edifice,  and  a  city  which 
should  serve  as  the  metropolis  of  the  whole 
world.  The  project  was  defeated  by  the  in- 
terposition of  Jehovah,  who  determined  to 
"confound  their  language,  so  that  they  might 
not  understand  one  another's  speech."  Con- 
temporaneously with,  and  perhaps  as  the  re- 
sult of,  this  confusion  of  tongues,  the  people 
were  scattered  abroad  from  thence  upon  the 
face  of  all  the  earth,  and  the  memory  of  the 
great  event  was  preserved  in  the  name  Babel. 
[Babel,  Tower  of.]  In  the  Borsippa  inscrip- 
tion of  Nebuchadnezzar  there  is  an  allusion  to 
the  Confusion  of  Tongues.  "We  say  for  the 
other,  that  is,  this  edifice,  the  house  of  the 
Seven  Lights  of  the  Earth,  the  most  ancient 
monument  of  Borsippa:  a  former  king  built  it 
(they  reckon  42  ages),  but  he  did  not  complete 
its  head.  Since  a  remote,  time  people  had 
abandoned  it,  without  order  expressing  their 
words.  Since  that  time,  the  earthquake  and 
the  thunder  had  dispersed  its  sun-dried  clay ; 
the  bricks  of  the  casing  had  been  split,  and  the 
earth  of  the  interior  had  been  scattered  in 
heaps."  It  is  unnecessary  to  assume  that  the 
judgment  inflicted  on  the  builders  of  Babel 
amounted  to  a  loss,  or  even  a  suspension,  of 
articulate  speech.  The  desired  object  would 
be  equally  attained  by  a  miraculous  forestal- 
ment  of  those  dialectical  dif¥erences  of  lan- 
guage which  are  constantly  in  process  of  pro- 
duction. The  elements  of  the  one  original 
language  may  have  remained,  but  so  disguised 
by  variations  of  pronunciation,  and  by  the  in- 
troduction of  new  combinations,  as  to  be  prac- 
tically obliterated.  The  confusion  of  tongues 
and  the  dispersion  of  nations  are  spoken  of  in 

4 


the  Bible  as  contemporaneous  events.  The 
divergence  of  the  various  families  into  distinct 
tribes  and  nations  ran  parallel  with  the  diver- 
gence of  speech  into  dialects  and  languages, 
and  thus  the  loth  chapter  of  Genesis  is  pos- 
terior in  historical  sequence  to  the  events  re- 
corded in  the  nth  chapter. 

Tongues,  Gift  of.  I.  The  word  employed 
throughout  the  N.  T.  for  the  gift  now  under 
consideration,  is  used — (i.)  for  the  bodily 
organ  of  speech ;  (2.)  for  a  foreign  word,  im- 
ported and  half-naturalized  in  Greek ;  (3.)  in 
Hellenistic  Greek,  for  "speech"  or  "language." 
The  received  traditional  view,  which  starts 
from  the  third  meaning,  and  sees  in  the  gift  of 
tongues  a  distinctly  linguistic  power,  is  the 
more  correct  one.  II.  The  chief  passages  from 
which  we  have  to  draw  our  conclusion  as  to 
the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  gift  in  question 
are — (i.)  INIark  xvi.  17;  (2.)  Acts  ii.  1-13,  x. 
46,  xix.  6;  (3.)  I  Cor.  xii.,  xiv.  III.  The  promise 
of  a  new  power  coming  from  the  Divine  Spirit, 
giving  not  only  comfort  and  insight  into  truth, 
but  fresh  powers  of  utterance  of  some  kind, 
appears  once  and  again  in  our  Lord's  teach- 
ing. The  disciples  are  to  take  no  thought 
what  they  shall  speak,  for  the  Spirit  of  their 
Father  shall  speak  in  them  (Matt.  x.  19,  20; 
Mark  xiii.  11).  The  lips  of  Galilean  peasants 
are  to  speak  freely  and  boldly  before  kings. 
The  promise  of  our  Lord  to  his  disciples, 
"They  shall  speak  with  new  tongues"  (Mark 
xvi.  17),  was  fulfilled  on  the  day  of  Pentecost, 
when  cloven  tongues  like  fire  sat  upon  the  dis- 
ciples, and  "every  man  heard  them  speak  in  his 
own  language"  (Acts  ii.  1-12).  IV.  The  won- 
der of  the  da}'  of  Pentecost  is,  in  its  broad 
features,  familiar  enough  to  us.  What  views 
have  men  actually  taken  of  a  phenomenon  so 
marvellous  and  exceptional?  The  prevalent 
belief  of  the  Church  has  been,  that  in  the 
Pentecostal  gift  the  disciples  received  a  super- 
natural knowledge  of  all  such  languages  as 
they  needed  for  their  work  as  Evangelists. 
The  knowledge  was  permanent.  Widely  dif- 
fused as  this  belief  has  been,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  it  goes  beyond  the  data  with 
which  the  N.  T.  supplies  us.  Each  instance  of 
the  gift  recorded  in  the  Acts  connects  it,  not 
with  the  work  of  teaching,  but  with  that  of 
praise  and  adoration ;  not  with  the  normal 
order  of  men's  lives,  but  with  exceptional 
epochs  in  them.  The  speech  of  St.  Peter 
which  follows,  like  most  other  speeches  ad- 
dressed to  a  Jerusalem  audience,  was  spoken 
apparently  in  Aramaic.  When  St.  Paul,  who 
"spake  with  tongues  more  than  all,"  was  at 
Lystra,  there  is  no  mention  made  of  his  using 
the  language  of  Lycaonia.  It  is  almost  im- 
II 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


plied  that  he  did  not  understand  it  (Acts  xiv. 
ii).  Not  one  word  in  the  discussion  of  spir- 
itual gifts  in  I  Cor.  xii.-xiv.  impUcs  that  the 
gift  was  of  this  nature,  or  given  for  this  pur- 
pose. Nor,  it  may  be  added,  within  the  limits 
assigned  by  the  providence  of  God  to  the 
working  of  the  Apostolic  Church,  was  such  a 
gift  necessary.  Aramaic,  Greek,  Latin,  the 
three  languages  of  the  inscription  on  the  cross, 
were  media  of  intercourse  througliout  the  em- 
pire. Some  interpreters  have  seen  their  way 
to  another  solution  of  the  difficulty  by  chang- 
ing the  character  of  the  miracle.  It  lay  not  in 
any  new  power  bestowed  on  the  speakers,  but 
in  the  impression  produced  on  the  hearers. 
Words  which  the  Galilean  disciples  uttered  in 
their  own  tongue  were  heard  by  those  who  lis- 
tened as  in  their  native  speech.  There  are,  it 
is  believed,  weighty  reasons  against  both  the 
earlier  and  later  forms  of  this  hypothesis,  (i.) 
It  is  at  variance  with  the  distinct  statement  of 
Acts  ii.  4,  "They  began  to  speak  with  other 
tongues."  (2.)  It  at  once  multiplies  the  mir- 
acle, and  degrades  its  character.  Not  the  120 
disciples,  but  the  whole  multitude  of  many 
thousands  are  in  this  case  the  subjects  of  it. 
(3.)  It  involves  an  element  of  falsehood.  The 
miracle,  on  this  view,  was  wrought  to  make 
men  believe  what  was  not  actually  the  fact. 
(4.)  It  is  altogether  inapplicable  to  the  phe- 
nomena of  I  Cor.  xiv.  Critics  of  a  negative 
school  have,  as  might  be  expected,  adopted  the 
easier  course  of  rejecting  the  narrative  either 
altogether  or  in  part.  What,  then,  are  the 
facts  actually  brought  before  us?  What  infer- 
ences may  be  legitimately  drawn  from  them? 
(i.)  The  utterance  of  words  by  the  disciples, 
in  other  languages  than  their  own  Galilean 
Aramaic,  is  distinctly  asserted.  (2.)  The 
words  spoken  appear  to  have  been  determined, 
not  by  the  will  of  the  speakers,  but  by  the 
Spirit  which  "gave  them  utterance."  (3.)  The 
word  used  has  in  the  LXX.  a  special  associa- 
tion with  the  oracular  speech  of  true  or  false 
prophets,  and  appears  to  imply  some  peculiar, 
perhaps  musical,  solemn  intonation  (comp.  i 
Chr.  xxv.  I  ;  Ez.  xiii.  9).  (4.)  The  "tongues" 
were  used  as  an  instrument,  not  of  teaching, 
but  of  praise.  (5.)  Those  who  spoke  them 
seemed  to  others  to  be  under  the  influence 
of  some  strong  excitement,  "full  of  new  wine." 
(6.)  Questions  as  to  the  mode  of  operation  of 
a  power  above  the  common  laws  of  bodily  or 
mental  life  lead  us  to  a  region  where  our 
words  should  be  "wary  and  few."  It  must  be 
remembered,  then,  that  in  all  likelihood  such 
words  as  they  then  uttered  had  been  heard  by 
the  disciples  before.  The  difiference  was,  that 
before,  the  Galilean  peasants  had  stood  in 


that  crowd,  neither  heeding,  nor  understand^ 
ing,  nor  remembering  what  they  heard,  still 
less  able  to  reproduce  it ;  now  they  had  the 
power  of  speaking  it  clearly  and  freely.  The 
Divine  work  would  in  this  case  take  the  form 
of  a  supernatural  exaltation  of  the  memory, 
not  of  imparting  a  miraculous  knowledge  of 
words  never  heard  before.  (7.)  The  gift  of 
tongues,  the  ecstatic  burst  of  praise,  is  definite- 
ly asserted  to  be  a  fulfilment  of  the  prediction 
of  Joel  ii.  28.  We  are  led,  therefore,  to  look 
for  that  which  answers  to  the  Gift  of  Tongues 
in  the  other  element  of  prophecy  which  is  in- 
cluded in  the  O.  T.  use  of  the  word ;  and  this 
is  found  in  the  ecstatic  praise,  the  burst  of 
song  (i  Sam.  x.  5-13,  xix.  20-24;  i  Chr.  xxv.  3). 
(8.)  The  other  instances  in  the  Acts  of¥er  es- 
sentially the  same  phenomena.  By  implica- 
tion in  xiv.  15-19,  by  express  statement 
in  X.  47,  xi.  15,  17,  xix.  6,  it  belongs  to 
special  critical  epochs.  VI.  The  First  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians  supplies  fuller  data.  The 
spiritual  gifts  are  classified  and  compared,  ar- 
ranged, apparently,  according  to  their  worth. 
The  facts  which  may  be  gathered  are  briefly 
these:  (i.)  The  phenomena  of  the  Gift  of 
Tongues  were  not  confined  to  one  Church  or 
section  of  a  Church.  (2.)  The  comparison  of 
gifts,  in  both  the  lists  given  by  St.  Paul  (i 
Cor.  xii.  8-10,  28-30),  places  that  of  tongues, 
and  the  interpretation  of  tongues,  lowest  in 
the  scale.  (3.)  The  main  characteristic  of  the 
"tongue"  is  that  it  is  unintelligible.  The 
man  "speaks  mysteries,"  prays,  blesses,  gives 
thanks,  in  the  tongue  (I  Cor.  xiv.  15,  16),  but 
no  one  understands  him.  (4.)  The  peculiar 
nature  of  the  gift  leads  the  Apostle  into  what 
appears,  at  first,  a  contradiction.  "Tongues 
are  for  a  sign,"  not  to  believers,  but  to  those 
who  do  not  believe ;  yet  the  effect  on  unbe- 
lievers is  not  that  of  attracting,  but  repelling. 
They  involve  of  necessity  a  disturbance  of  the 
equilibrium  between  the  understanding  and 
the  feelings.  Therefore  it  is  that,  for  those 
who  believe  already,  prophecy  is  the  greater 
gift.  (5.)  The  "tongues,"  however,  must  be 
regarded  as  real  languages.  The  "divers  kinds 
of  tongues"  (i  Cor.  xii.  28),  the  "tongues  of 
men"  (I  Cor.' xii.  i),  point  to  differences  of 
some  kind,  and  it  is  easier  to  conceive  of  these 
as  differences  of  language  than  as  belonging 
to  utterances  all  equally  wild  and  inarticulate. 
(6.)  Connected  with  the  "tongues,"  there  was 
the  corresponding  power  of  interpretation. 
VII.  (i.)  Traces  of  the  gift  arc  found,  as  has 
been  said,  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans,  the 
Galatians,  the  Ephesians.  From  the  Pastoral 
Epistles,  from  those  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  John, 
they  are  altogether  absent,  and  this  is  in  itself 


4 


12 


t. 


TOPAZ 


TORTOISE 


significant.  (2.)  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
the  disappearance  of  the  "tongues"  was  grad- 
ual. There  must  have  been  a  time  when 
"tongues"  were  still'  heard,  though  less  fre- 
quently, and  with  less  striking  results.  For 
the  most  part,  however,  the  place  whic4i  they 
had  filled  in  the  worship  of  the  Church  was 
supplied  by  the  "hymns  and  spiritual  songs" 
of  the  succeeding  age.  After  this,  within  the 
Church  we  lose  nearly  all  traces  of  them. 
Vni.  (i.)  A  wider  question  of  deep  interest 
presents  itself.  Can  we  find  in  the  religious 
history  of  mankind  any  facts  analogous  to  the 
manifestation  of  the  "tongues"?  The  three 
characteristic  phenomena  are,  as  has  been 
seen,  (1)  an  ecstatic  state  of  partial  or  entire 
unconsciousness ;  (2)  the  utterance  of  words 
in  tones  startling  and  impressive,  but  often 
conveying  no  distinct  meaning;  (3)  the  use  of 
languages  which  the  speaker  at  other  times 
was  unable  to  converse  in.  (ii.)  The  history 
of  the  O.  T.  presents  us  with  some  instances 
in  which  the  gift  of  prophecy  has  accompani- 
ments of  this  nature  (l  Sam.  xix.  24).  (iii.) 
We  cannot  exclude  the  false  prophets  and  di- 
viners of  Israel  from  the  range  of  our  inquiry. 
We  have  distinct  records  of  strange,  mysteri- 
ous intonations.  The  ventriloquist  wizards 
"peep  and  mutter"  (Is.  viii.  19).  The  "voice 
of  one  who  has  a  familiar  spirit,"  comes  low 
out  of  the  ground  (Is.  xxix.  4).  (iv.^  The 
quotation  by  St.  Paul  (i  Cor.  xiv.  21)  from 
Is.  xxviii.  II.  With  the  phenomena  of  the 
"tongues"  present  to  his  mind,  he  saw  in  them 
the  fulfilment  of  the  Prophet's  words.  A  re- 
markable parallel  to  the  text  thus  interpreted 
is  found  in  Hos.  ix.  7.  (v.)  The  history  of 
heathen  oracles  presents,  it  need  hardly  be 
said,  examples  of  the  orgiastic  state,  in  which 
the  wisest  of  Greek  thinkers  recognized  the 
lower  type  of  inspiration,  (vi.)  More  distinct 
parallels  are  found  in  the  accouits  of  the 
wilder,  more  excited  sects  which  have,  from 
time  to  time,  appeared  in  the  history  of  Christ- 
endom. 

Topaz  (Heb.  pitdah  :  Ex.  xxviii.  17,  xxxix. 
10;  Ez.  xxiii.  13;  Job  xxviii.  19;  Rev.  xxi.  20). 
The  topaz  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
is  generally  allowed  to  be  our  chrysolite,  while 
their  chrysolite  is  our  topaz.  Chrysolite  is  a 
silicate  of  magnesia  and  iron;  it  is  so  soft  as 
to  lose  its  polish  unless  worn  with  care. 

To'pheth,  and  once  To'phet,  was  in  the  S.  E. 
extremity  of  the  "Valley  of  the  Son  of  Hin- 
nom"  (Jer.  vii.  31),  which  is  "by  the  entry  of 
the  east  gate"  (xix.  2).  The  name  Tophet  oc- 
curs only  in  the  Old  Testament  (2  K.  xxiii.  10; 
Is.  XXX.  33;  Jer.  vii.  31,  32,  xix.  6,  11,  12,  13, 
14).    The  New  does  not  refer  to  it,  nor  the 

41: 


Apocrypha.  Tophet  has  been  variously  trans- 
lated. The  most  natural  meaning  seems  that 
suggested  by  the  occurrence  of  the  word  in 
two  consecutive  verses,  in  the  one  of  which 
it  is  a  tabret,  and  in  the  other  Tophet  (Is.  xxx. 
32,  33).  The  Hebrew  words  are  nearly  iden- 
tical ;  and  Tophet  was  probably  the  king's 


"music-grove"  or  garden,  denoting  originally 
nothing  evil  or  hateful.  Certainly  there  is  no 
proof  that  it  took  its  name  from  the  drums 
beaten  to  drown  the  cries  of  the  burning  vic- 
tims that  passed  through  the  fire  to  Molech. 
Afterwards  it  was  defiled  by  idols,  and  pol- 


Towoi-s  in  the  Desert. 

luted  by  the  sacrifices  of  Baal  and  the  fires  of 
Molech.  Then  it  became  the  place  of  abom- 
ination, the  very  gate  or  pit  of  hell.  The 
pious  kings  defiled  it,  and  threw  down  its 
altars  and  high  places,  pouring  into  it  all  the 
filth  of  the  city,  till  it  became  the  "abhorrence" 
of  Jerusalem. 

fortoise  (Heb.  tsab).  The  tsab  occurs  only 
in  Lev.  xi.  29,  as  the  name  of  some  unclean 
animal.    The  Hebrew  word  mav  be  identified 


TOWER 


TRIBUTE 


with  the  kindred  Arabic  dhab,  "a  large  kind 
of  lizard,"  which  api^ears  to  be  the  Psamnios- 
aurus  Scincus  of  Cuvier. 

Tower.  Watch-towers  or  fortified  posts  in 
frontier  or  exposed  situations  are  mentioned 
in  Scripture,  as  the  tower  of  Edar,  &c.  .(Gen. 
XXXV.  21;  Mic.  iv.  8;  Is.  xxi.  5,  8,  li,  &c.), 
the  tower  of  Lebanon  (2  Sam.  viii.  6).  Besides 
these  military  structures,  we  read  in  Scripture 
of  towers  built  in  vineyards  as  an  almost  nec- 
essary appendage  to  them  (Is.  v.  2;  Matt.  xxi. 
33;  Mark  xii.  i).  Such  towers  are  still  in  use 
in  Palestine  in  vineyards,  especially  near  He- 
bron, and  are  used  as  lodges  for  the  keepers  of 
the  vineyards. 

Trance,  (i.)  In  the  only  passage  (Num. 
xxiv.  4,  16)  in  which  this  word  occurs  in  the 
English  of  the  O.  T.  there  is  no  correspond- 
ing word  in  Hebrew.  In  the  N.  T.  we  meet 
with  the  word  three  times  (Acts  x.  10,  xi. 
5,  xxii.  17),  the  Vulgate  giving  "excessus"  in 
the  two  former,  "stupor  mentis"  in  the  latter. 
Whatever  explanation  may  be  given  of  it,  it 
is  true  of  many,  if  not  of  most,  of  those  who 
have  left  the  stamp  of  their  own  character 
on  the  religious  history  of  mankind,  that 
they  have  been  liable  to  pass  at  times  into 
this  abnormal  state.  The  union  of  intense  feel- 
ing, strong  volition,  long-continued  thought 
(the  conditions  of  all  wide  and  lasting  in- 
fluence), aided  in  many  cases  by  the  with- 
drawal from  the  lower  life  of  the  support 
which  is  needed  to  maintain  a  healthy  equili- 
brium, appears  to  have  been  more  than  the 
"earthen  vessel"  will  bear.  The  words  which 
speak  of  "an  ecstacy  of  adoration"  are  often 
literally  true.  As  in  other  things,  so  also  here, 
the  phenomena  are  common  to  higher  and 
lower,  to  true  and  false  systems.  We  may 
not  point  to  trances  and  ecstacies  as  proofs  of 
a  true  Revelation,  but  still  less  may  we  think 
of  them  as  at  all  inconsistent  with  it.  Thus, 
though  we  have  not  the  word,  we  have  the 
thing  in  the  "deep  sleep,"  the  "horror  of  great 
darkness,"  that  fell  on  Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  12). 
Balaam,  as  if  overcome  by  the  constraining 
power  of  a  Spirit  mightier  than  his  own,  "sees 
the  vision  of  God,  falling,  but  with  opened 
eyes"  (Num.  xxiv.  4).  Saul,  in  like  manner, 
when  the  wild  chant  of  the  prophet  stirred 
the  old  depths  of  feeling,  himself  also  "proph- 
esied" and  "fell  down"  (most,  if  not  all,  of  his 
kingly  clothing  being  thrown  off  in  the  ecstacy 
of  the  moment)  "all  that  day  and  all  that 
night  (l  Sam.  xix.  24).  Something  there  was 
in  Jeremiah  that  made  men  say  of  him  that 
he  was  as  one  that  "is  mad  and  maketh  him- 
self a  prophet"  (Jer.  xxix.  26).  In  Ezekiel 
the  phenomena  appear  in  more  wonderful  and 

4 


awful  forms  (Ez.  iii.  15).  As  other  ele- 
ments and  forms  of  the  prophetic  work  were 
revived  in  "the  Apostles  and  Prophets"  of  the 
N.  T.,  so  also  was  this.  Though  different  in 
form,  it  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  phenom- 
ena as  the  Gift  of  Tongues,  and  is  connected 
with  "visions  and  revelations  of  the  Lord." 
In  some  cases,  indeed,  it  is  the  chosen  channel 
for  such  revelation  (Acts  x.,  xi.,  xxii.  17-21). 
Wisely  for  the  most  part  did  the  Apostle-draw 
a  veil  over  these  more  mysterious  experiences 
(2  Cor.  xii.  1-4). 
Trespass-offering.  [  Sin-offering.  ] 
Trial.  A  few  remarks  may  here  be  added 
on  judicial  proceedings  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture, (i.)  The  trial  of  our  Lord  before  Pilate 
was,  in  a  legal  sense,  a  trial  for  the  offence 
laesae  majestatis;  one  which  would  be  pun- 
ishable with  death  (Luke  xxiii.  2,  38;  John 
xix.  12,  15).  (2.)  The  trials  of  the  Apostles, 
of  St.  Stephen  and  of  St.  Paul,  before  the  high- 
priest,  were  conducted  according  to  Jewish 
rules  (Acts  iv.,  v.  27,  vi.  12,  xxii.  30,  xxiii.  i). 
(3.)  The  trial,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  of  St. 
Paul  and  Silas  at  Philippi,  was  held  before  the 
duumviri,  on  the  charge  of  innovation  in  reli- 
gion— a  crime  punishable  with  banishment  or 
death  (Acts  xvi.  19,  22).  (4.)  The  interrupted 
trial  of  St.  Paul  before  the  proconsul  Gallio 
was  an  attempt  made  by  the  Jews  to  estab- 
lish a  charge  of  the  same  kind  (Acts  xviii.  12- 
17).  (5.)  The  trials  ,of  St.  Paul  at  Caesarea 
(Acts  xxiv.,  xxv.,  xxvi.)  were  conducted  ac- 
cording to  Roman  rules  of  judicature,  (a.) 
In  the  first  of  these,  before  Felix,  we  observe 
the  employment,  by  the  plaintiffs,  of  a  Roman 
advocate  to  plead  in  Latin,  (b.)  The  post- 
ponement of  the  trial  after  St.  Paul's  reply, 
(c.)  The  free  custody  in  which  the  accused 
was  kept,  pending  the  decision  of  the  judge 
(Acts  xxiv.  23-26).  The  second  formal  trial 
(Acts  xxv.  7-8)  presents  two  new  features: 
(a.)  The  appeal,  appellatio  or  provocatio,  to 
Caesar,  by  St.  Paul  as  a  Roman  citizen.  The 
effect  of  the  appeal  was  to  remove  the  case  at 
once  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  emperor,  (b.) 
The  conference  of  the  procurator  with  "the 
council"  (Acts  xxv.  12),  the  assessors,  who  sat 
on  the  bench  with  the  praetor  as  consiliarii. 
But  the  expression  may  denote  the  deputies 
from  the  Sanhedrim.  (6.)  We  have,  lastl3%  the 
mention  (Acts  xix.  38)  of  a  judicial  assembly 
which  held  its  session  at  Ephesus. 

Tribute.  The  tribute  (money)  mentioned 
in  Matt.  xvii.  24,  25,  was  the  half  shekel 
(=half  stater=two  drachmae),  applied  to 
defray  the  general  expenses  of  the  Temple. 
After  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  it  was 
sequestrated  by  Vespasian  and  his  successors, 

14 


TRIBUTE-MONEY 


TRUMPETS 


and  transferred  to  the  Temple  of  the  Capi- 
toline  Jupiter.  This  "tribute"  of  Matt.  xvii. 
24  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  tribute 
paid  to  the  Roman  emperor  (Matt.  xxii.  17). 
The  Temple-rate,  though  resting  on  an  an- 
cient precedent  (Ex.  xxx.  13)  was,  as  above, 
a  fixed  annual  tribute  of  comparatively  late 
origin.  The  question  whether  the  cost  of  the 
morning  and  evening  sacrifice  ought  to  be  de- 
frayed by  such  a  fixed  compulsory  payment, 
or  left  to  the  freewill-oflferings  of  the  people, 
had  been  a  contested  point  between  the  Phari- 
sees and  Sadducees,  and  the  former  had  car- 
ried the  day  after  a  long  struggle  and  debate. 
We  have  to  remember  this  when  we  come  to 
the  narrative  of  St.  ]\Iatthew.  In  a  hundred 
different  ways,  the  teaching  of  our  Lord  had 
been  in  direct  antagonism  to  that  of  the  Phari- 
sees. The  Sanhedrim,  by  making  the  Temple- 
ofTering  a  fixed  annual  tax,  collecting  it  as 
men  collected  tribute  to  Caesar,  were  lower- 
ing, not  raising,  the  religious  condition  and 
character  of  the  people.  They  were  placing 
every  Israelite  on  the  footing  of  a  "stranger," 
not  on  that  of  a  "son."  In  proportion  to  the 
degree  in  w-hich  any  man  could  claim  the  title 
of  a  Son  of  God,  in  that  proportion  was  he 
"free"  from  this  forced  exaction.  Hence  we 
see,  in  these  words,  a  precept  as  wide  and  far- 
reaching  as  the  yet  more  memorable  one. 


Site  o£  Troas. 


that 
that 


"Render    unto   Caesar   the  things 
Caesar's,  and  unto  God  the  things 
God's." 

Tribute-money.  [Tribute.] 

Tro'as,  the  city  from  which  St.  Paul  first 
sailed,  in  consequence  of  a  divine  intimation, 
to  carry  the  Gospel  from  Asia  to  Europe  (Acts 
xvi.  8,  11).  It  is  mentioned  on  other  occasions 
(Acts  XX.  5,  6;  2  Cor.  ii.  12,  13;  2  Tim.  iv.  13). 
Its  full  name  was  Alexandria  Troas  (Li v. 
xxxv.  42),  and  sometimes  it  was  called  simply 
rilexandria,  sometimes-  simply  Troas.    It  was 


first  built  by  Antigonus,  under  the  name  of 
Antigonea  Troas,  and  peopled  with  the  in- 
habitants of  some  neighboring  cities.  After- 
wards it  was  embellished  by  Lysimachus,  and 
named  Alexandria  Troas.  Its  situation  was 
on  the  coast  of  Mysia,  opposite  the  S.  E.  ex- 
tremity of  the  island  of  Tenedos.  Under  the 
Romans  it  was  one  of  the  most  important 
towns  of  the  province  of  Asia.  In  the  time 
of  St.  Paul  it  was  a  colonia  with  the  Jus  Itali- 
cum.  The  modern  name  is  Eski-Stamboul, 
with  considerable  ruins.  We  can  still  trace 
the  harbor  in  a  basin  about  400  feet  long  and 
200  broad. 

Troop,  Band.  These  words  are  employed  to 
represent  the  Hebrew  word  gedtid,  which  has 


Ancient  Trumpets. 

invariably  the  sense  of  an  irregular  force,  gath- 
ered with  the  object  of  marauding  and  plunder. 
Trumpet.  [Cornet.] 

Trumpets,  Feast  of  (Num.  xxix.  i ;  Lev. 
xxiii.  24),  the  feast  of  the  new  moon,  which 
fell  on  the  first  of  Tizri.  It  dif¥ered  from  the 
ordinary  festivals  of  the  new  moon  in  several 
important  particulars.  It  was  one  of  the  seven 
days  of  Holy  Convocation.  Instead  of  the 
mere  blowing  of  the  trumpets  of  the  Temple 
at  the  time  of  the  offering  of  the  sacrifices,  it 
was  "a  day  of  blowing  of  trumpets."  In  addi- 
tion to  the  daily  sacrifices  and  the  eleven  vic- 
tims of¥ered  on  the  first  of  every  month,  there 
were  offered  a  young  bullock,  a  ram,  and 
seven  lambs  of  the  first  year,  with  the  accus- 
tomed meat-offerings,  and  a  kid  for  a  sin-offer- 
ing (Num.  xxix.  1-6).  The  regular  monthly 
offering  was  thus  repeated,  with  the  exception 
of  the  young  bullock.  It  has  been  conjectured 
that  Ps.  Ixxxi.,  one  of  the  songs  of  Asaph,  was 
composed  expressly  for  the  Feast  of  Trumpets. 
The  Psalm  is  used  in  the  service  for  the  day 


415 


TUBALCAIN 


TYRE 


b)'  the  modern  Jews.  Various  meanings  have 
been  assigned  to  the  Feast  of  Trumpets.  But 
there  seems  to  be  no  sufficient  reason  to  call 
in  question  the  common  opinion  of  Jews  and 
Christians,  that  it  was  the  festival  of  the  New 
Year's  Day  of  the  civil  year,  the  first  of  Tizri, 
the  month  which  commenced  the  Sabbatical 
year  and  the  year  of  Jubilee. 

Tu'bal-ca'in,  the  son  of  Lamech  the  Cainite 
by  his  wife  Zillah  (Gen.  iv.  22).  He  is  called 
"a  furbisher  of  every  cutting  instrument  of 
copper  and  iron." 

Turpentine-tree  occurs  only  once,  viz.  in  the 
Apocrypha  (Ecclus.  xxiv.  16).  It  is  the  Pis- 
tacia  terebinthus,  terebinth-tree,  common  in 
Palestine  and  the  East.  The  terebinth  occa- 
sionally grows  to  a  large  size.  It  belongs  to 
the  Nat.  Order  Anacardiaceae,  the  plants  of 
which  order  generally  contain  resinous  secre- 
tions. 

Turtle,  Turtle-dove  (Heb.  tor).  The  turtle- 
dove occurs  first  in  Scripture  in  Gen.  xv.  9. 
During  the  early  period  of  Jewish  history, 
there  is  no  evidence  of  any  other  bird,  except 
the  pigeon  having  been  domesticated,  and  up 
to  the  time  of  Solomon,  who  may,  with  the 
peacock,  have  introduced  other  gallinaceous 
birds  from  India,  it  was  probably  the  only 
poultry  known  to  the  Israelites.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  palm-dove  (Turtur  aegyptia- 
cus,  Temm.)  may  in  some  measure  have  sup- 
plied the  sacrifices  in  the  wilderness,  for  it  is 
found  in  amazing  numbers  wherever  the  palm- 
tree  occurs,  whether  wild  or  cultivated.  From 
its  habit  of  pairing  for  life,  and  its  fidelity  for 
its  mate,  it  was  a  symbol  of  purity  and  an 
appropriate  ofifering.  The  regular  migration 
of  the  turtle-dove  and  its  return  in  spring  are 
alluded  to  in  Jer.  viii.  7,  and  in  Cant.  ii.  11,  12. 
It  is  from  its  plaintive  note  doubtless  that 
David,  in  Ps.  Ixxiv.  19,  pouring  forth  his  la- 
ment to  God,  compares  himself  to  a  turtle- 
dove. The  turtle-dove  (Turtur  auritus,  L.) 
is  most  abundant,  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan,  an  allied  species,  the  palm-dove,  or 
Egyptian  turtle  (Turtur  aegyptiacus,  Temm.), 
is  by  no  means  uncommon. 

Tyre,  a  celebrated  commercial  city  of  Phoen- 
icia, on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
Its  Hebrew  name  "Tzor"  signifies  a  rock ; 
which  well  agrees  with  the  site  of  Svir,  the 
modern  town,  on  a  rocky  peninsula,-  formerly 
an  island.  There  is  no  doubt  that,  previous 
to  the  siege  of  the  city  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  Tyre  was  situated  on  an  island ;  but, 
according  to  the  tradition  of  the  inhabitants, 
there  was  a  city  on  the  mainland  before  there 
was  a  city  on  the  island ;  and  the  tradition  re- 
ceives some  color  from  the  name  of  Palae- 


tyrus,  or  Old  Tyre,  which  was  borne  in  Greek 
times  by  a  city  on  the  continent,  30  stadia 
to  the  south.  In  the  Bible,  Tyre  is  named  for 
the  first  time  in  the  Book  of  Joshua  (xix.  29), 
where  it  is  adverted  to  as  a  fortified  city  (in 
the  A.  V.  "the  strong  city"),  in  reference  to 
the  boundaries  of  the  tribe  of  Asher.  But 
the  first  passages  in  the  Hebrew  historical 
writings,  or  in  ancient  history  generally,  which 
afiford  glimpses  of  the  actual  condition  of 
Tyre,  are  in  tlie  Book  of  Samuel  (2  Sam.  v. 
11),  in  connection  with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre, 
sending  cedar-wood  and  workmen  to  David, 


em 


Uuins  at  Tyre. 

for  building  him  a  palace ;  and  subsequently 
in  the  Book  of  Kings,  in  connection  with  the 
building  of  Solomon's  temple.  It  is  evident 
that  under  Solomon  there  was  a  close  alliance 
between  the  Hebrews  and  the  Tyrians.  Hi- 
ram supplied  Solomon  with  cedar-wood,  pre- 
cious metals,  and  workmen,  and  gave  him 
sailors  for  the  voyage  to  Ophir  and  India, 
while  on  the  other  hand  Solomon  gave  Hiram 
supplies  of  corn  and  oil,  ceded  to  him  some 
cities,  and  permitted  him  to  make  use  of  some 
havens  on  the  Red  Sea  (i  K.  ix.  11- 14,  26-28, 
x.  22).  These  friendly  relations  survived  for  a 
time  the  disastrous  recession  of  the  Ten 
Tribes,  and  a  century  later  Ahab  married  a 
daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  the  Sidonians 
(i  K.  xvi.  31),  who,  according  to  Menander, 
was  daughter  of  Ithobal,  king  of  Tyre.  When 
mercantile  cupidity  induced  the  Tyrians  and 
the  neighboring  Phoenicians  to  buy  Hebrew 
captives  from  their  -enemies,  and  to  sell  them 
as  slaves  to  the  Greeks  and  Edomites,  there 
commenced  denunciations,  and,  at  first,  threats 
of  retaliation  (Joel  iii.  4-8;  Amos  i.  9,  10). 
When  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  had  tak- 
en the  city  of  Samaria,  had  conquered  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  and  carried  its  inhabitants 
into  captivity,  he  laid  siege  to  Tyre,  which, 
however,  successfully  resisted  his  arms.  It  is 
in  reference  to  this  .siege  that  the  prophecy 
against  Tyre  in  Isaiah,  chap,  xxiii.,  was  ut- 
16 


i 


TYRE 


TYRE 


tered.  After  the  siege  of  Tyre  by  Shalmaneser 
(which  must  have  taken  place  not  long  after 
721  B.  C),  Tyre  remained  a  powerful  state  with 
its  own  kings  (Jer.  xxv.  22,  xxvii.  3 ;  Ez.  xxviii. 
2-12),  remarkable  for  its  wealth,  with  territory 
on  the  mainland,  and  protected  by  strong  for- 
tifications (Ez.  xxviii.  5,  xxvi.  4,  6,  8,  10,  12, 
xxvii.  11;  Zech.  ix.  3).  Our  knowledge  of  its 
condition  thenceforward  until  the  siege  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  depends  entirely  on  various 
notices  of  it  by  the  Hebrew  prophets ;  but 
some  of  these  notices  are  singularly  full,  and 
especially  the  twenty-seventh  chapter  of  Eze- 


Modern  Tyre. 

kiel  furnishes  us,' on  some  points,  with  details 
such  as  have  scarcely  come  down  to  us  re- 
specting any  one  city  of  antiquity,  excepting 
Rome  and  Athens.  In  the  midst  of  great  pros- 
perity and  wealth,  which  was  the  natural  re- 
sult of  such  an  extensive  trade  (Ez.  xxviii.  4), 
Nebuchadnezzar,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  the 
Chaldees,  invaded  Judaea,  and  captured  Jeru- 
salem. As  Tyre  was  so  near  Jerusalem, 
and  as  the  conquerors  were  a  fierce  and 
formidable  race  (Hab.  i.  6),  it  would  na- 
turally be  supposed  that  this  event  would 
have  excited  alarm  and  terror  amongst  the 
Tyrians.  Instead  of  this,  we  may  infer  from 
Ezekiel's  statement  (xxvi.  2)  that  their  pre- 
dominant feeling  was  one  of  exultation.  At 
first  sight  this  appears  strange  and  almost  in- 
conceivable ;  but  it  is  rendered  intelligible 
by  some  previous  events  in  Jewish  history. 
Only  34  years  before  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem commenced  the  celebrated  Reformation 
of  Josiah,  B.  C.  622.  This  momentous  religious 
revolution  (2  K.  xxii.,  xxiii.)  fully  explains 
the  exultation  and  malevolence  of  the  Tyrians. 
In  that  Reformation,  Josiah  had  heaped  in- 
sults on  the  gods  who  were  the  objects  of 
Tyrian  veneration  and  love.  Indeed,  he  seemed 
to  have  endeavored  to  exterminate  their  re- 
ligion (2  K.  xxiii.  20),   These  acts  must  have 


been  regarded  by  the  Tyrians  as  a  series  of 
sacrilegious  and  abominable  outrages ;  and  we 
can  scarcely  doubt  that  the  death  in  battle  of 
Josiah  at  Megiddo,  and  the  subsequent  de- 
struction of  the  city  and  Temple  of  Jerusalem, 
were  hailed  by  them  with  triumphant  joy  as 
instances  of  divine  retribution  in  human  af- 
fairs. This  joy,  however,  must  soon  have  giv- 
en way  to  other  feelings,  when  Nebuchadnez- 
zar invaded  Phoenicia,  and  laid  siege  to  Tyre. 
That  siege  lasted  thirteen  years,  and  it  is  still 
a  disputed  point  whether  Tyre  was  actually 
taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  on  this  occasion. 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  probable  that,  on 
some  terms  or  other.  Tyre  submitted  to  the 
Chaldees.  The  rule  of  Nebuchadnezzar  over 
Tyre,  though  real,  may  have  been  light,  and 
in  the  nature  of  an  alliance.  During  the  Per- 
sian domination  the  Tyrians  were  subject  in 
name  to  the  Persian  king,  and  may  have 
given  him  tribute.  With  the  rest  of  Phoenicia, 
they  had  submitted  to  the  Persians  without 
striking  a  blow.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
following  century,  B.  C.  332,  Tyre  was  as- 
sailed for  the  third  time  by  a  great  conqueror. 
At  that  time  Tyre  was  situated  on  an  island 
nearly  half  a  mile  from  the  mainland ;  it  was 
completely  surrounded  by  prodigious  walls, 
the  loftiest  portion  of  which  on  the  side  front- 
ing the  mainland  reached  a  height  of  not  less 
than  150  feet;  and  notwithstanding  the  per- 
severing efforts  of  Alexander,  he  could  not 


Ruins  of  the  Wall  of  Tyre. 

have  succeeded  in  his  attempt,  if  the  harbor 
of  Tyre  to  the  north  had  not  been  blockaded 
by  the  Cyprians,  and  that  to  the  south  by  the 
Phoenicians,  thus  afifording  an  opportunity  to 
Alexander  for  uniting  the  island  to  the  main- 
land by  an  enormous  artificial  mole.  The  im- 
mediate results  of  the  capture  by  Alexander 
were  most  disastrous  to  it,  as  its  brave  defend- 
ers were  put  to  death ;  and  in  accordance  with 
the  barbarous  policy  of  ancient  times,  30,000  of 
its  inhabitants,  including  slaves,  free  females 


417 


i 
i 


UNCLEAN  MEATS 


UNCLEANNESS 


and  free  children,  were  sold  as  slaves.  It  gradu- 
ally, however,  recovered  its  prosperity  through 
the  immigration  of  fresh  settlers,  though  its 
trade  is  said  to  have  suffered  by  the  vicinity 
and  rivalry  of  Alexandria.  Under  the  Mace- 
donian successors  of  Alexander  it  shared  the 
fortunes  of  the  Seleucidae.  Under  the  Rom- 
ans, at  first  it  continvied  to  enjoy  a  kind  of 
freedom.  Subsequently,  however,  on  the  ar- 
rival of  Augustus  in  the  East,  he  is  said  to 
have  deprived  both  Tyre  and  Sidon  of  their 
liberties  for  seditious  conduct.  Still  the  pros- 
perity of  Tyre  in  the  time  of  Augustus  was 
undeniably  great.  Strabo  gives  an  account 
of  it  at  that  period,  and  speaks  of  the  great 
wealth  which  it  derived  from  the  dyes  of  the 
celebrated  Tyrian  purple,  which,  as  is  well 
known,  were  extracted  from  shell-fish  found 
on  the  coast,  belonging  to  a  species  of  the 
genus  Murex.  The  accounts  of  Strabo  and 
Pliny  have  a  peculiar  interest  in  this  respect, 
that  they  tend  to  convey  an  idea  of  what  the 
city  must  have  been,  when  visited  by  Christ 
(j\Iatt.  XV.  21 ;' Mark  vii.  24).  It  was  perhaps 
more  populous  than  Jerusalem,  and  if  so,  it 
was  undoubtedly  the  largest  city" which  he  is 
known  to  have  visited.  At  the  time  of  the 
crusades  Tyre  was  still  a  flourishing  city, 
when  it  surrendered  to  the  Christians  on  the 
27th  of  June,  1 144.  It  continued  more  than 
a  century  and  a  half  in  the  hands  of  Chris- 
tians, but  was  deserted  by  its  inhabitants  in 
A.  D.  1291,  upon  the  conquest  of  Acre  (Ptole- 
mais)  by  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Damascus. 
This  was  the  turning-point  in  the  history  of 
Tyre,  which  has  not  yet  recovered  from  the 
blow.  Since  the  beginjiing  of  the  last  cen- 
tury there  has  been  a  partial  revival  of  pros- 
perity. 

U. 

Unclean  Meats.  These  were  things  stran- 
gled, or  dead  of  themselves,  or  through  beasts 
or  birds  of  prey ;  whatever  beast  did  not  both 
part  of  the  hoof  and  chew  the  cud;  and  certain 
other  smaller  animals  rated  as  "creeping 
things ;"  certain  classes  of  birds  mentioned  in 
Lev.  xi.  and  Deut.  xiv.,  twenty  or  twenty-one 
in  all ;  whatever  in  the  waters  had  not  both 
fins  and  scales;  whatever  winged  insect  had 
not  besides  four  legs  the  two  hind-legs  for 
leaping;  besides  things  offered  in  sacrifice  to 
idols;  and  all  blood  or  whatever  contained  it 
(save  perhaps  the  blood  of  fish,  as  would  ap- 
pear from  that  only  of  beast  and  bird  being 
forbidden,  Lev.  vii.  26),  and  therefore  flesh 
cut  from  the  live  animal;  as  also  all  fat,  at 
any  rate  that  disposed  in  masses  among  the 
intestines,  and  probably  wherever  discernible 


and  separable  among  the  flesh  (Lev.  iii.  14-17, 
vii.  23).  The  eating  of  blood  was  prohibited 
even  to  "the  stranger  that  sojourneth  among 
you"  (Lev.  xvii.  10,  12,  13,  14).  As  regards 
blood,  the  prohibition  indeed  dates  from  the 
declaration  to  Noah  against  "flesh  with  the 
life  thereof,  which  is  the  blood  thereof,"  in 
Gen.  ix.  4,  which  was  perhaps  regarded  by 
Moses  as  still  binding  upon  all  Noah's  de- 
scendants. It  is  noteworthy  that  the  practical 
effect  of  the  rule  laid  down  is  to  exclude  all 
the  carnivora  among  quadrupeds,  and,,  so  far 
as  we  can  interpret  the  nomenclature,  the  rap- 
tores  among  birds.  They  were  probably  ex- 
cluded as  being  not  averse  to  human  car- 
casses, and  in  most  Eastern  countries  acting 
as  the  servitors  of  the  battle-field  and  the  gib- 
bet. Even  swine  have  been  known  so  to  feed ; 
and  further,  by  their  constant  runcation 
among  whatever  lies  on  the  ground,  suggest 
impurity,  even  if  they  were  not  generally  foul 
feeders.  Amongst  fish  those  which  were  al- 
lowed contain  unquestionably  the  most  whole- 
so"me  varieties,  save  that  they  exclude  the 
oyster.  Practically  the  law  left  among  the 
allowed  meats  an  ample  variety,  and  no  incon- 
venience was  likely  to  arise  from  a  prohibi- 
tion to  eat  camels,  horses,  and  asses.  It  re- 
mains to  mention  the  sanitary  aspect  of  the 
case.  Swine  are  said  to  be  peculiarly  liable  to 
disease  in  their  own  bodies.  This  probably 
means  that  they  are  more  easily  led  than 
other  creatures  to  the  foul  feeding  which  pro- 
duces it.  As  regards  the  animals  allowed  for 
food,  comparing  them  with  those  forbidden, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  on  which  side  the  bal- 
ance of  wholesomeness  lies. 

Uncleanness.  The  distinctive  idea  attached 
to  ceremonial  uncleaness  among  the  Hebrews 
was,  that  it  cut  a  person  off  for  the  time  from 
social  privileges,  and  left  his  citizenship  among 
God's  people  for  the  while  in  abeyance.  There 
is  an  intense  reality  in  the  fact  of  the  Divine 
Law  taking  hold  of  a  man  by  the  ordinary 
infirmities  of  flesh,  and  setting  its  stamp,  as 
it  were,  in  the  lowest  clay  of  which  he  is 
moulded.  The  sacredness  attached  to  the 
human  body  is  parallel  to  that  which  invested 
the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  itself.  It  is  as 
though  Jehovah  thereby  would  teach  them 
that  the  "very  hairs  of  their  head  were  all 
numbered"  before  him,  and  that  "in  his  book 
were  all  their  members  written."  Thus  was 
inculcated,  so  to  speak,  a  bodily  holiness.  Nor 
were  the  Israelites  to  be  only  "separated  from 
other  people,"  but  they  were  to  be  "holy  unto 
God"  (Lev.  XX.  24,  26),  "a  kingdom  of  priests, 
and  a  holy  nation."  The  importance  to  phys- 
ical well-being  of  the  injunctions  which  re- 


418 


UXICORN 


UR 


quired  freqvient  ablution,  under  whatever  spe- 
cial pretexts,  can  be  but  feebly  appreciated  in 
our  cooler  and  damper  climate.  Uncleanness, 
as  referred  to  man,- may  be  arranged  in  three 
degrees;  (i)  that  which  defiled  merely  "until 
even,"  and  was  removed  by  bathing  and  wash- 
ing the  clothes  at  the  end  of  it — such  were  all 
contacts  with  dead  animals ;  (2)  that  graver 
sort  which  defiled  for  seven  days,  and  was  re- 
moved by  the  use  of  the  "water  of  separation" 
— such  were  all  defilement  connected  with  the 
human  corpse;  (3)  uncleanness  from  the  mor- 
bid, puerperal,  or  menstrual  state,  lasting  as 
long  as  that  morbid  state  lasted ;  and  in  the 
case  of  leprosy  lasting  often  for  life.  As  the 
human  person  was  itself  the  seat  of  a  covenant 
token,  so  male  and  female  had  each  their  cere- 
monial obligations  in  proportion  to  their  sex- 
ual differences.  There  is  an  emphatic  remind- 
er of  human  weakness  in  the  fact  of  birth 
and  death — man's  passage  alike  into  arid  out 
of  his  mortal  state — being  marked  with  a 
stated  pollution.  The  corpse  bequeathed  a  de- 
filement of  seven  days  to  all  who  handled  it, 
to  the  "tent"  or  chamber  of  death,  and  to 
sundry  things  within  it.  Nay,  contact  with 
one  slain  in  the  field  of  battle,  or  with  even 
a  human  bone  or  grave,  was  no  less  efTectual 
to  pollute,  than  that  with  a  corpse  dead  by 
the  course  of  nature  (Num.  xix.  11-18).  This 
shows  that  the  source  of  pollution  lay  in  the 
mere  fact  of  death.  The  duration  of  defile- 
ment caused  by  the  birth  of  a  female  infant, 
being  double  that  due  to  a  male,  extending 
respectively  to  eighty  and  forty  days  in  all 
(Lev.  xii.  2-5),  may  perhaps  represent  the 
woman's  heavier  share  in  the  first  sin  and 
first  curse  (Gen.  iii.  16;  i  Tim.  ii.  14).  The 
religion  of  the  Persians  shows  a  singularly 
close  correspondence  with  the  Levitical  code. 

Unicorn,  the  rendering  of  the  A.  V.  of  the 
Hebrew  Reem,  a  word  which  occurs  seven 
times  in  the  O.  T.  as  the  name  of  some  large 
wild  animal.  The  Reem  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
however,  has  nothing  at  all  to  do  with  the 
one-horned  animal  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers,  as  is  evident  from  Deut.  xxxiii.  17, 
where,  in  the  blessing  of  Joseph,  it  is  said, 
"His  glory  is  like  the  firstling  of  his  bullock, 
and  his  horns  are  like  the  horns  of  a  unicorn" 
not,  as  the  text  of  the  A.  V.  renders  it,  "the 
horns  of  unicorns."  The  two  horns  of  the 
Reem  are  "the  ten  thousands  of  Ephraim  and 
the  thousands  of  Manasseh."  This  _text  puts 
a  one-horned  animal  entirely  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. Considering  that  the  Reem  is  spoken 
of  as  a  two-horned  animal  of  great  strength 
and  ferocity,  that  it  was  evidently  well  known 
and  often  seen  by  the  Jews,  that  it  is  men- 


tioned as  an  animal  fit  for  sacrificial  purposes, 
and  that.it  is  frequently  associated  with  bulls 
and  oxen,  we  think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
some  species  of  wild-ox  is  intended.  The  al- 
lusion in  Ps.  xcii.  10,  "But  thou  shalt  lift  up, 
as  a  Reeym,  my  horn,"  seems  to  point  to  the 
mode  in  which  the  Bovidae  use  their  horns, 
lowering  the  head  and  then  tossing  it  up. 


The  Wild  Ox  (Unicorn). 

But  it  is  impossible  to  determine  what  par- 
ticular species  of  wild-ox  is  signified.  Prob- 
ably some  gigantic  Urus  is  intended. 

Ur  was  the  land  of  Haran's  nativity  (Gen. 
xi.  28),  the  place  from  which  Terah  and  Abra- 
ham started  "to  go  into  the  land  of  Canaan" 
(Gen.  xi.  31).  It  is  called  in  Genesis  "Ur  of 
the  Chaldaeans,"  while  in  the  Acts  St.  Stephen 
places  it,  by  implication,  in  Mesopotamia  (vii. 
2,  4).  These  are  all  the  indications  which 
Scripture  furnishes  as  to  its  locality.  It  has 
been  identified  by  the  most  ancient  traditions 
with  the  city  of  Or-fah  in  the  highlands  of 
Mesopotamia,  which  unite  the  table-land  of 
Armenia  to  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates.  In 
later  ages  it  was  called  Edessa,  and  was  cele- 
brated as  the  capital  of  Abgarus  or  Acbarus, 
who  was  said  to  have  received  the  letter  and 
portrait  of  our  - Savior.  "Two  physical  fea- 
tures must  have  sectired  Orfah,  from  the 
earliest  times,  as  a  nucleus  for  the  civilization 
of  those  regions.  One  is  a  high-crested  crag, 
the  natural  fortifications  of  the  crested  citadel 
.  .  .  .  The  other  is  an  abundant  spring, 
issuing  in  a  pool  of  transparent  clearness,  and 
embosomed  in  a  mass  of  luxuriant  verdure, 
which,  amidst  the  dull  brown  desert  all  around, 
makes,  and  must  always  have  made,  this  spot 
an  oasis,  a  paradise,  in  the  Chaldaean  wilder- 
ness. Round  this  sacred  pool,  'The  Beautiful 
Spring  Callirrhoe,'  as  it  was  called  by  the 
Greek  writers,  gather  the  modern  traditions  of 
the  Patriarch."  (Stanley,  Jewish  Church,  part 
i.,  p.  7.)    But  in  opposition  to  the  most  ancient 


419 


URIAH 


URIM  AND  THUMMIM 


traditions,  many  modern  writers  have  fixed 
the  site  of  Ur  at  a  very  different  position,  in 
the  extreme  south  of  Chaldaea,  at  Alugheir, 
not  very  far  above — and  probably  in  the  time 
of  Abraham  actually  upon — the  head  of  the 
Persian  Gulf.  Among  the  ruins  which  are 
now  seen  at  the  spot,  are  the  remains  of  one 
of  the  great  temples,  of  a  model  similar  to 
that  of  Babel,  dedicated  to  the  Moon,  to  whom 
the  city  was  sacred. 

Uri'ah.  One  of  the  thirty  commanders  of 
the  thirty  bands  into  which  the  Israelite  army 
of  David  was  divided  (i  Chr.  xi.  41  ;  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  39).  Like  others  of  David's  officers,  he* 
was  a  foreigner — a  Hittite.  His  name,  how- 
ever, and  his  manner  of  speech  (2  Sam.  xi.  11) 
indicate  that  he  had  adopted  the  Jewish  re- 
ligion. He  married  Bathsheba,  a  woman  of 
extraordinary  beauty,  the  daughter  of  Eliam 
— possibly  the  same  as  the  son  of  Ahithophel, 
and  one  of  his  brother  officers  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
34),  and  hence,  perhaps,  Uriah's  first  acquaint- 
ance with  Bathsheba.  It  may  be  inferred 
from  Nathan's  parable  (2  Sam.  xii.  3)  that  he 
was  passionately  devoted  to  his  wife,  and  that 
their  union  was  celebrated  in  Jerusalem  as 
one  of  peculiar  tenderness.  In  the  first  war 
with  Amnion  he  followed  Joab  to  the  siege, 
and  with  him  remained  encamped  in  the  open 
field  (ib.  11).  He  returned  to  Jerusalem,  at  an 
order  from  the  king,  on  the  pretext  of  asking 
news  of  the  war, — really  in  the  hope  that  his 
return  to  his  wife  might  cover  the  shame  of 
his  own  crime.  The  king  met  with  an  unex- 
pected obstacle  in  the  austere,  soldier-like 
spirit  which  guided  all  Uriah's  conduct,  and 
which  gives  us  a  high  notion  of  the  character 
and  discipline  of  David's  officers.  On  the 
morning  of  the  third  day,  David  sent  him  back 
to  the  camp  with  a  letter  containing  the  com- 
mand to  Joab  to  cause  his  destruction  in  the 
battle.  The  device  of  Joab  was,  to  observe 
the  part  of  the  wall  of  Rabbath-Ammon,  where 
the  greatest  force  of  the  besieged  was  con- 
gregated, and  thither,  as  a  kind  of  forlorn 
hope,  to  send  Uriah.  A  sally  took  place. 
Uriah  and  the  officers  with  him  advanced  as 
far  as  the  gate  of  the  city,  and  were  there  shot 
down  by  the  archers  on  the  wall.  Just  as  Joab 
had  forewarned  the  messenger,  the  king  broke 
into  a  furious  passion  on  hearing  of  the  loss. 
The  messenger,  as  instructed  by  Joab,  calmly 
continued,  and  ended  the  story  with  the  words, 
"Thy  servant  also,  Uriah  the  Hittite,  is  dead." 
In. a  moment  DaA'id's  anger  is  appeased.  It 
is  one  of  the  touching  parts  of  the  storj^  that 
Uriah  falls  unconscious  of  his  wife's  dishonor. 

U'rim  and  Thum'mim  (light  and  perfec- 
tion).   When  the  Jewish  exiles  were  met  on 


their  return  from  Babylon  by  a  question  which 
they  had  no  data  for  answering,  they  agreed 
to  postpone  the  settlement  of  the  difficulty 
till  there  should  rise  up  "a  Priest  with  Urim 
and  Thummim"  (Ezr.  ii.  63;  Neh.  vii.  65). 
The  inquiry,  what  those  Urim  ana  Thummim 
themselves  were,  seems  likely  to  wait  as  long 
for  a  final  and  satisfying  answer.  On  ever}' 
side  we  meet  with  confessions  of  ignorance. 
Urim  means  "light,"  and  Thummim  "perfec- 
tion." Scriptural  Statements. — The  mysteri- 
ous words  meet  us  for  the  first  time,  as  if 
they  needed  no  explanation,  in  the  description 
of  the  high  priests'  apparel.  Over  the  Ephod 
there  is  to  be  a  "breastplate  of  judgment"  of 
gold,  scarlet,  purple  and  fine  linen,  folded 
square  and  doubled,  a  "span"  in  length  and 
width.  In  it  are  to  be  set  four  rows  of  pre- 
cious stones,  each  stone  with  the  name  of  a' 
tribe  of  Israel  engraved  on  it,  that  Aaron.may 
"bear  them  on  his  heart."  Then  con;es  a  fur- 
ther order.  Inside  the  breastplate,  as  the 
Tables  of  the  Covenant  were  placed  inside 
the  Ark  (Ex.  xxv.  16,  xxviii.  30),  are  to  be 
placed  "the  Urim  and  the  Thummim,"  the 
Light  and  the  Perfection ;  and  they,  too,  are 
to  be  on  Aaron's  heart  when  he  goes  in  before 
the  Lord  (Ex.  xxviii.  15-30).  Not  a  word 
describes  them.  They  are  mentioned  as  things 
already  familiar  both  to  Moses  and  the  people, 
connected  naturally  with  the  functions  of  the 
high-priest,  as  mediating  between  Jehovah  and 
His  people.  The  command  is  fulfilled  (Lev. 
viii.  8).  They  pass  from  Aaron  to  Eleazar 
with  the  sacred  ephod  and  other  pontificalia 
(Num.  XX.  28).  When  Joshua  is  solemnly 
appointed  to  succeed  the  great  hero-lawgiver, 
he  is  bidden  to  stand  before  Eleazar,  the  priest, 
"who  shall  ask  counsel  for  him  after  the  judg- 
ment of  Urim,"  and  this  counsel  is  to  deter- 
mine the  movements  of  the  host  of  Israel 
(Num.  xxvii.  21).  In  the  blessings  of  Moses 
they  appear  as  the  crowning  glory  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi :  "Thy  Thummim  and  thy  Urim  are 
with  thy  Holy  One"  (Deut.  xxxiii.  8,  9).  In 
what  way  the  Urim  and  Thummim  were  con- 
sulted is  quite  uncertain.  Josephus  and  the 
Rabbins  supposed  that  the  stones  gave  out 
the  oracular  answer  by  preternatural  illumina- 
tion. But  it  seems  to  be  far  simplest  and  most 
in  agreement  with  the  different  accounts  of 
inquiries  made  by  L^rim  and  Thummim  (i 
Sam.  xiv.  3,  18,  19,  xxiii.  2,  4,  9,  1 1,  12,  xxviii. 
6;  Judg.  XX.  28;  2  Sam.  v.  23,  &c.)to  suppose 
tliat  the  answer  was  given  simply  by  the  Word 
of  the  Lord  to  the  high-priest  (comp.  John  xi. 
51),  when  he  had  inquired  of  the  Lord  clothed 
with  the  ephod  and  breastplate.  Such  a  view 
agrees  with  the  true  notion  of  the  breastplate, 


420 


USURY 


VEIL 


of  which  it  was  not  the  leading  characteristic 
to  be  oracular,  but  only  an  incidental  privilege 
connected  with  its  fundamental  meaning. 

Usury.  It  need  only  be  remarked  here  that 
the  practice  of  mortgaging  land,  sometimes  at 
exorbitant  interest,  grew  up  among  the  Jews 
during  the  Captivity,  in  direct  violation  of  the 
law  (Lev.  xxv.  36,  37;  Ez.  xviii.  8,  13,  17). 
We  find  the  rate  reaching  i  in  100  per  month, 
corresponding  to  the  Roman  centesimae 
usurae,  or  12  per  cent,  per  annum.  The  law 
of  the  Kuran,  like  the  Jewish,  forbids  all  usury. 
The  laws  of  Menu  allow  18  and  even  24  per 
cent,  as  an  interest  rate ;  but,  as  was  the  law 
in  Egypt,  accumulated  interest  was  not  to  ex- 
ceed twice  the  original  sum  lent.  This  Jewish 
practice  was  annulled  by  Nehemiah.  [Loan.] 
Uz.  The  country  in  which  Job  lived  (Job. 
i.  i).    As  far  as  we  can  gather,  "the  land  of 


V. 


Uz"  lay  either  E.  or  S.  E.  of  Palestine  (Job 
i.  3)  ;  adjacent  to  the  Sabaeans  and  the  Chalda- 
eans  (Job.  i.  15,  17),  consequently  N.  of  the 
southern  Arabians,  and  W.  of  the  Euphrates ; 
and,  lastly,  adjacent  to  the  Edomites  of  Mount 
Seir,  who  at  one  period  occupied  Uz,  prob- 
ably as  conquerors  (Lam.  iv.  21),  and  wdiose 
troglodyte  habits  are  probably  described  in 
Job  xxx.  6,  7.  From  the  above  data  we  infer 
that  the  land  of  Uz  corresponds  to  the  Arabia 
Deserta  of  classical  geography,  at  all  events 
to  so  much  of  it  as  lies  north  of  the  30th 
parallel  of  latitude. 

Uzzi'ah,  King  of  Judah  (B.  C.  808-9— 
756-7).  In  some  passages  his  name  appears 
in  the  lengthened  form  Azariah.  After  the 
murder  of  Amaziah,  his  son  Uzziah  was  chos- 
en by  the  people  to  occupy  the  vacant  throne 
at  the  age  of  16;  and  for  the  greater  part  of 
his  long  reign  of  52  years  he  lived  in  the  fear 
of  God,  and  showed  himself  a  wise,  active,  and 
pious  ruler.  He  never  deserted  the  worship  of 
the  true  God,  and  was  much  influenced  by 
Zechariah,  a  prophet  who  is  only  mentioned 
in  connection  with  him  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  5).  So 
the  southern  kingdom  was  raised  to  a  condi- 
tion of  prosperity  which  it  had  not  known 
since  the  death  of  Solomon.  The  end  of  Uz- 
ziah was  less  prosperous  than  his  beginning. 
Elated  with  his  splendid  career,  he  determined 
to  burn  incense  on  the  altar  of  God,  but  was 
opposed  by  the  high-priest  Azariah  and  eighty 
others.  (See  Ex.  xxx.  7,  8 ;  Num.  xvi.  40,  xviii. 
7).  The  king  was  enraged  at  their  resistance, 
and,  as  he  pressed  forward  with  his  censer, 
was  suddenly  smitten  with  leprosy.  Uzziah 
was  buried  "with  his  fathers,"  yet  apparently 
not  actually  in  the  royal  sepulchres  (2  Chr. 
xxvi.  23).  During  his  reign  an  earthquake 
occurred. 


Vale,  Valley.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
state  that  these  words  signify  a  hollow  sweep 
of  ground  between  two  more  or  less  parallel 
ridges  of  4iigh  land.  The  structure  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  Holy  Land  does  not  lend 
itself  to  the  formation  of  valleys  in  our  sense 
of  the  word.  The  abrupt  transitions  of  its 
crowded  rocky  hills  preclude  the  existence  of 
any  extended  sweep  of  valley.  Valley  is  em- 
ployed in  the  A.  V.  to  render  five  distinct 
Hebrew  words,  i.  'Emek.  This  appears  to 
approach  more  nearly  to  the  general  sense  of 
the  English  word  than  any  other.  It  is  con- 
nected wath  several  places.  2.  Gai  or  Ge.  Of 
this  there  is  fortunately  one  example  which 
can  be  identified  with  certainty — the  deep  hol- 
low which  compasses  the  S.  W.  and  S.  of 
Jerusalem.  This  identification  establishes  the 
Ge  as  a  deep  and  abrupt  ravine,  with  steep 
sides  and  narrow  bottom.  3.  Nachal.  This 
word  answers  to  the  Arabic  wady,  and  ex- 
presses, as  no  single  English  word  can,  the 
bed  of  a  stream  (often  wide  and  shelving,  and 
like  a  "valley"  in  character,  which  in  the  rainy 
season  may  be  nearly  filled  by  a  foaming  tor- 
rent, though  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
dry).  4.  Bik'ah.  This  term  appears  to  mean 
rather  a  plain  than  a  valley,  though  so  far  re- 
sembling it  as  to  be  enclosed  by  mountains. 
It  is  rendered  by  "valley"  in  Deut.  xxxiv.  3 ; 
Josh.  xi.  8,  17,  xii.  7;  2  Chr.  xxxv.  22;  Zech. 
xii.  II.  5.  has-Shefelah.  The  district  to  which 
the  name  has-Shefelah  is  applied  in  the  Bible 
has  no  resemblance  whatever  to  a  valley,  but 
is  a  broad,  swelling  tract  of  many  hundred 
miles  in  area,  which  sweeps  gently  down  from 
the  mountains  of  Judah  to  the  Mediterranean. 
It  is  rendered  "the  vale"  in  Deut.  i.  7 ;  Josh.  x. 
40;  I  K.  X.  27 ;  2  Chr.  i.  "15;  Jer.  xxxiii.  13; 
and  "the  valley"  or  "valleys"  in  Josh.  ix.  i,  xi. 
2,  16,  xii.  8,  XV.  33;  Judg.  i.  9;  Jer.  xxxii.  44. 

Vash'ti,  the  "queen"  of  Ahasuerus,  who,  for 
refusing  to  show  herself  to  the  king's  guests  at 
the  royal  banquet,  when  sent  for  by  the  king, 
was  repudiated  and  deposed  (Esth.  i).  Many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  identify  her  with 
historical  personages ;  but  it  is  far  more  prob- 
able that  she  was  only  one  of  the  inferior 
wives,  dignified  with  the  title  of  queen,  whose 
name  has  utterly  disappeared  from  history. 

Veil.  With  regard  to  the  use  of  the  veil, 
it  is  important  to  observe  that  it  vvas  by  no 
means  so  general  in  ancient  as  in  modern 
times.  Much  of  the  scrupulousness  in  respect 
of  the  use  of  the  veil  dates  from  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  Koran,  which  forbade  women  ap- 
pearing unveiled  except  in  the  presence  of 
421 


VEIL  OF  THE  TABERNACLE 

their  nearest  relatives.  In  ancient  times,  the 
veil  was  adopted  only  in  exceptional  cases, 
either  as  an  article  of  ornamental  dress  (Cant, 
iv.  I,  3,  vi.  7),  or  by  betrothed  maidens  in 
the  presence  of  their  future  husbands,  especial- 
ly at  the  time  of  the  w^edding  (Gen.  xxiv.  65, 
xxix.  25),  or,  lastly,  by  women  of  loose  char- 
acter for  purposes  of  concealment  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  14).  Among  the  Jews  of  the  New 
Testament  age  it  appears  to  have  been  cus- 
tomary for  the  women  to  cover  their  heads 
(not  necessarily  their  faces)  when  engaged 
in  public  worship. 


Veil. 


Veil  of  the  Tabernacle  and  Temple.  [Tab- 
ernacle ;  Temple.]. 

Versions,  Ancient,  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  In  treating  of  the  ancient  ver- 
sions that  have  come  down  to  us,  in  whole  or 
in  part,  they  will  be  described  in  the  alpha- 
betical order  of  the  languages. 

Aethiopic  Version. — Christianity  was  intro- 
duced into  Aethiopia  in  the  4th  century 
through  the  labors  of  Frumentius  and  Aede- 
sius  of  Tyre,  who  had  been  made  slaves  and 
sent  to  the  king.  The  Aethiopic  version  which 
we  possess  is  in  the  ancient  dialect  of  Axum ; 
hence  some  have  ascribed  it  to  the  age  of  the 
earliest  missionaries ;  but  from  the  general 
character  of  the  version  itself,  this  is  improb- 
able ;  and  the  Abyssinians  themselves  attribute 
it  to  a  later  period.  In  1548-9  the  Aethiopic 
New  Test,  was  also  printed  at  Rome,  edited 
by  three  Abyssinians.  A  complete  edition  of 
the  Aethiopic  Old  Test,  has  been  commenced 
by  Dillmann,  the  first  portion  of  which  ap- 
peared in  1853. 

Arabic  Versions.  (I.)  Arabic  Versions  of 
the  Old  Test.  (A.)  Made  from  the  Hebrew 
text.  Rabbi  Saadiah  Haggaon,  the  Hebrew 
commentator  of  the  loth  century,  translated 
portions  (some  think  the  whole)  of  the  O.  T. 
into  Arabic.    His  version  of  the  Pentateuch 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 

was  printed  at  Constantinople  in  1546.  (B.) 
Made  from  the  Peshito  Syriac.  This  is  the 
base  of  the  Arabic  text  contained  in  the  Poly- 
glots of  the  books  of  Judges,  Ruth,  Samuel, 
Kings  and  Nehemiah.  (C.)  Made  from  the 
LXX.  The  version  in  the  Polyglots  of  the 
books  not  specified  above.  (II.)  Arabic  Ver- 
sions of  the  New  Test.  i.  The  Roman  editio 
princeps  of  the  four  Gospels,  1590-91.  2.  The 
Erpenian  Arabic.  The  whole  New  Test,  edited 
by  Erpenius,  1616,  at  Leyden,  from  a  MS.  of 
the  13th  or  14th  century.  3.  The  Arabic  of 
the  Paris  Polyglot,  1645.  4.  The  Carshuni 
Arabic  text  (i.  e.  in  Syriac  letters),  the  Syriac 
and  Arabic  New  Test.,  published  at  Rome,  in 
1703. 

Armenian  Version. — In  the  year  431,  Jo- 
seph and  Eznak  returned  from  the  council 
of  Ephesus,  bringing  with  them  a  Greek  copy 
of  the  Scriptures,  Isaac,  the  Armenian  Patri- 
arch, and  Miesrob,  threw  aside  what  they 
had  already  done,  in  order  that  they  might 
execute  a  version  from  the  Greek.  The  first 
printed  edition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments in  Armenian  appeared  at  Amsterdam 
in  1666,  under  the  care  of  a  person  commonly 
termed  Oscan,  or  Uscan,  and  described  as 
being  an  Armenian  bishop. 

Chaldee  Versions. — Targum,  a  Chaldee 
word  of  imcertain  origin,  is  the  general  term 
for  the  Chaldee,  or,  more  accurately,  Aramaic 
Versions  of  the  Old  Testament.  I.  The  Tar- 
gums  were  originally  oral,  and  the  earliest 
Targum,  which  is  that  of  Onkelos  on  the 
Pentateuch,  began  to  be  committed  to  writing 
about  the  2d  century  of  the  Christian  era ; 
though  it  did  not  assume  its  present  shape 
till  the  end  of  the  3d  or  the  beginning  of  the 
4th  century.  So  far,  however,  from  its  super- 
seding the  oral  Targum  at  once,  it  was,  on 
the  contrary,  strictly  forbidden  to  read  it  in 
public.  Its  language-  is  Chaldee,  closely  ap- 
proaching in  purity  of  idiom  to  that  of  Ezra 
and  Daniel.  It  follows  a  sober  and  clear, 
though  not  a  slavish  exegesis,  and  keeps  as. 
closely  and  minutely  to  the  text  as  is  at  all 
consistent  with  its  purposes,  viz.  to  be  chiefly, 
and  above  all,  a  version  for  the  people.  Its 
explanations  of  difficult  and  obscure  passages 
bear  ample  witness  to  the  competence  of  those 
who  gave  it  its  final  shape.  It  avoids  the 
legendary  character  with  which  all  the  later 
Targums  entwine  the  Biblical  word,  as  far 
as  ever  circumstances  would  allow.  As  to  the 
Bible  Text  from  which  the  Targum  was  pre- 
pared, we  have  no  certainty  whatever  on  this 
hqad,  owing  to  the  extraordinarily  corrupt 
state  of  our  Targum  texts.  II.  Targum  on 
the  Prophets, — viz.  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel, 


422 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


Kings,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  and  the 
twelve  Minor  Prophets, — called  Targuni  of 
Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel.  We  shall  probably  not 
be  far  wrong  in  placing  this  Targum  some 
time,  although  not  long,  after  Onkelos,  or 
about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century.  III.  and 
IV.  Targum  of  Jonathan-Ben-Uzziel  and 
Jerushalmi-Targum  on  the  Pentateuch. — On- 
kelos and  Jonathan  on  the  Pentateuch  and 
Prophets,  whatever  be  their  exact  date,  place, 
authorship  and  editorship,  are  the  oldest  of 
existing  Targums,  and  belong,  in  their  present 
shape,  to  Babylon  and  the  Babylonian  acad- 
emies flourishing  between  the  3d  and  4th  cen- 
turies A.  D. 

Egyptian  \'ersions.  I.  The  Memphitic  Ver- 
sion.— The  version  thus  designated  was  for 
a  considerable  time  the  only  Egyptian  transla- 
tion known  to  scholars :  Coptic  was  then  re- 
garded as  a  sufficiently  accurate  and  definite 
appellation.  But  when  the  fact  was  estab- 
lished that  there  were  at  least  two  Egyptian 
versions,  the  name  Coptic  was  found  to  be 
indefinite,  and  even  unsuitable  for  the  transla- 
tion then  so  termed ;  for  in  the  dialect  of  Up- 
per Egypt  there  was  another;  and  it,  is  from 
the  ancient  Coptor  in  Upper  Egypt  that  the 
term  Coptic  is  taken.  Thus  Copto-^Memphitic, 
or  more  simply  Memphitic,  is  the  better  name 
for  the  version  in  the  dialect  of  Lower  Egypt. 
When  Egyptian  translations  were  made  we 
do  not  know ;  probably  before  the  middle  of 
the  4th  century. 

Gothic  \'ersion.  In  the  year  318  the  Gothic 
l)ishop  and  translator  of  Scripture,  Ulphilas, 
was  born.  He  succeeded  Theophilus  as  bishop 
of  the  Goths  in  348;  through  him  it  is  said 
that  the  Goths  in  general  adopted  Arianism. 
The  great  work  of  Ulphilas  was  his  version  of 
the  Scriptures.  In  388  he  visited  Constanti- 
nople to  defend  his  heterodox  creed,  and  while 
there  he  died.  As  an  ancient  monument  of 
the  Gothic  language  the  version  of  Ulphilas 
possesses  great  interest ;  as  a  version  the  use  of 
which  was  once  extended  widely  through  Eu- 
rope, it  is  a  monument  of  the  Christianization 
of  the  Goths ;  and  as  a  version  known  to  have 
been  made  in  the  4th  century,  and  transmitted 
to  us  in  ancient  MSS.,  it  has  its  value  in 
textual  criticism.  In  certain  passages  it  has 
been  thought  that  there  is  some  proof  of  the 
influence  of  the  Latin  ;  but  its  Greek  origin  is 
not  to  be  mistaken.  The  Greek  from  which 
the  version  wa?  made  must  in  many  respects 
have  been  what  has  been  termed  the  transi- 
tion text  of  the  4th  century. 

Greek  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament,  i. 
Septuagint.  [See  Septuagint.]  2.  Aquila. — 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  in  the  second  cen- 


tury there  were  three  versions  executed  of  the 
Old  Testament  Scriptures  into  Greek.  The 
first  of  these  was  made  by  Aquila,  a  native 
of  Sinope  in  Pontus,  who  had  become  a  prose- 
lyte to  Judaism.  The  Jerusalem  Talmud  de- 
scribes him' as  a  disciple  of  Rabbi  Akiba ;  and 
this  would  place  him  in  some  part  of  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian  (A.  D.  1 17-138). 
It  is  supposed  that  his  object  was  to  aid  the 
Jews  in  their  controversies  with  the  Chris- 
tians. This  is  a  probable  account  of  the  origin 
of  his  version.  Extreme  literality  and  an  oc- 
casional polemical  bias  appear  to  be  its  chief 
characteristics.  3.  Theodotion. — The  second 
version,  of  which  we  have  information  as  ex- 
ecuted in  the  second  century,  is  that  of  Theo- 
dotion. He  is  stated  to  have  been  an  Ephesian 
and  he  seems  to  be  most  generally  described 
as  an  Ebionite.  4.  Symmachus  is  stated  by 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  to  have  been  an  Ebion- 
ite:  Epihanius,  how^ever,  and  others  style  him, 
a  Samaritan.  It  may  be  that  as  a  Samaritan 
he  made  this  version  for  some  of  that  people 
who  employed  Greek,  and  who  had  learned  to 
receive  more  than  the  Pentateuch. 

Latin  Versions.  '  [Vulgate.] 

Slavonic  Version.  In  the  year  862  there  was 
a  desire  expressed,  or  an  inquiry  made,  for 
Christian  teachers  in  Moravia,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  labors  of  missionaries  began 
amongst  them.  These  missionaries  were  Cyril- 
lus  and  Methodius,  two  brothers  from  Thes- 
salonica :  to  Cyrillus  is  ascribed  the  invention 
of  the  Slavonian  alphabet,  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures.  He 
appears  to  have  died  at  Rome  in  868,  while 
Methodius  continued  for  many  years  to  be 
the  bishop  of  the  Slavonians,  tie  is  stated 
to  have  continued  his  brother's  translation, 
although  how  much  they  themselves  actually 
executed  is  quite  uncertain. 

Syriac  Versions.  I.  Of  the  Old  Testament. 
A.  From  the  Hebrew. — In  the  early  times  of 
Syrian  Christianity  there  was  executed  a  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original 
Hebrew,  the  use  of  which  must  have  been 
widely  extended  as  was  the  Christian  profes- 
sion amongst  that  people.  It  is  highly  im- 
probable that  any  part  of  the  Syriac  version 
is  older  than  the  advent  of  our  Lord.  The  Old 
Syriac  has  the  peculiar  value  of  being  the  first 
version  from  the  Hebrew  original  made  for 
Christian  use.  The  first  printed  edition  of  this 
version  was  that  which  appeared  in  the  Paris 
Polyglot  of  Le  Jay  in  1645.  B.  The  Syriac 
Version  from  the  Hexaplar  Greek  Text — 
The  only  Syriac  version  of  the  O.  T.  up  to  the 
6th  century  was  apparently  the  Peshito.  The 
version  by  Paul  of  Tela,  a  Monophysite,  was 


423 


VERSION,  AUTHORIZED 

made  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century;  for 
its  basis  he  used  the  Hexaplar  Greek  text — 
that  is,  the  LXX.,  with  the  corrections  of  Ori- 
gen,  the  asterisks,  obeli,  &c.,  and  with  the  ref- 
erences to  the  other  Greek  versions.  In  fact, 
it  is  from  this  Syriac  version  that  we  obtain 
our  most  accurate  acquaintance  with  the  re- 
sults of  the  critical  labors  of  Origen.  It  is 
from  a  MS.  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan 
that  we  possess  accurate  means  of  knowing 
this  Syriac  version.  II.  The  Syriac  New 
Testament  Versions.  A.  The  Peshito  Syriac 
N.  T. — It  may  stand  as  an  admitted  fact 
that  a  version  of  the  N.  T.  in  Syriac  existed 
in  the  2d  century.  The  Curetonian  Syriac 
Gospels. — Among  the  MSS.  brought  from  the 
Nitrian  monasteries  in  1842,  Dr.  Curetor  no- 
ticed a  copy  of  the  Gospels,  differing  greatly 
from  the  common  text ;  and  this  is  the  form 
of  text  to  which  the  name  of  Curetonian 
Syriac  has  been  rightly  applied.  Every  cri- 
terion which  proves  the  common  Peshito  -not 
to  exhibit  a  text  of  extreme  antiquity,  equally 
proves  the  early  origin  of  this. 

Version,  Authorized.  I.  Wycliffe  (b.  1324; 
d.  1384). — The  N.  T.  was  translated  by 
Wycliffe  himself.  The  O.  T.  was  undertaken 
by  Nicholas  de  Hereford,  but  was  interrupted, 
and  ends  abruptly  (following  so  far  the  order 
of  the  Vulgate)  in  the  middle  of  Baruch. 
Many  of  the  MSS.  of  this  version  now  extant 
present  a  different  recension  of  the  text,  and 
It  is  probable  that  the  work  of  Wycliffe  and 
Hereford  was  revised  by  Richard  Purvey,  circ. 
A.  D.  1388.  The  version  was  based  entirely 
upon  the  Vulgate.  The  following  character- 
istics may  be  noticed  as  distinguishing  this 
version:  (i)  The  general  homeliness  of  its 
style.  (2)  The  substitution,  in  many  cases,  of 
English  equivalents  for  quasi-technical  words. 
(3)  The  extreme  literalness  with  which,  in 
some  instances,  even  at  the  cost  of  being  un- 
intelligible, the  Vulgate  text  is  followed,  as  in 
2  Cor.  i.  17-19.  II.  Tyndal. — Tyndal  is  the 
patriarch,  in  no  remote  ancestry,  of  the 
Authorized  Version.  "Ere  many  years,"  he 
said  at  the  age  of  thirty-six  (A.  D.  1520),  he 
would  cause  "a  boy  that  driveth  the  plough" 
to  know  more  of  Scripture  than  the  great  body 
of  the  clergy  then  knew.  He  prepared  himself 
for  the  work  by  long  years  of  labor  in  Greek 
and  Hebrew.  To  Tyndal  belongs  the  honor  of 
having  given  the  first  example  of  a  transla- 
tion based  on  true  principles,  and  the  excel- 
lence of  later  versions  has  been  almost  in  exact 
proportion  as  they  followed  his.  Believing 
that  every  part  of  Scripture  had  one  sense,  and 
one  only,  the  sense  in  the  mind  of  the  writer 
(Obedience,  p.  304),  he  made  it  his  work, 

424 


VERSION,  AUTHORIZED 

using  all  philological  helps  that  were  accessi- 
ble, to  attain  that  sense.  Believing  that  the 
duty  of  translator  was  to  place  his  readers  as 
nearly  as.  possible  on  a  level  with  those  for 
whom  the  books  were  originally  written,  he 
looked  on  all  the  later  theological  associations 
that  had  gathered  I'ound  the  words  of  the  N. 
T.  as  hinderances  rather  than  helps,  and 
sought,  as  far  as  possible,  to  get  rid  of  them. 
All  the  exquisite  grace  and  simplicity  which 
have  endeared  the  A.  V.  to  men  of  the  most 
opposite  tempers  and  contrasted  opinions,  is 
due  mainly  to  his  clear-sighted  truthfulness. 
III.  Coverdale. — A  complete  translation  of  the 
Bible,  different  from  Tyndal's,  bearing  the 
name  of  Miles  Coverdale,  printed  probably  at 
Zurich,'  appeared  in  1535.  The  undertaking 
itself,  and  the  choice  of  Coverdale  as  the 
translator,  were  probably  due  to  Cromwell. 
Tyndal's  controversial  treatises,  and  the 
polemical  character  of  his  prefaces  and  notes, 
had  irritated  the  leading  ecclesiastics  and  em- 
bittered the  mind  of  the  king  himself  against 
him.  But  the  idea  of  an  English  translation 
began  to  find  favor.  Cromwell  asked  Cover- 
dale  to  undertake  it.  He  was  content  to  make 
the  translation  at  second  hand  "out  of  the 
Douche  (Luther's  German  Version)  and  the 
Latine."  IV.  Matthew. — In  the  year  1537,  a 
large  folio  Bible  appeared  as  edited  and  dedi- 
cated to  the  king,  by  Thomas  Matthew.  Mat- 
thew's Bible  reproduces  Tyndal's  work,  in  the 
N.  T.  entirely,  in  the  O.  T.  as  far  as  2  Chr., 
the  rest  being  taken  with  occasional  modifica- 
tions'from  Coverdale.  A  copy  was  ordered, 
by  royal  proclamation,  to  be  set  up  in  every 
church,  the  cost  being  divided  between  the 
clergy  and  the  parishioners.  This  was,  there- 
fore, the  first  Authorized  V ersion.  V.  Taverner 
(1539). — In  most  respects  this  may  be  de- 
scribed as  an  expurgated  edition  of  Matthew's. 
VI.  Cranmer. — In  the  same  year  as  Taverner's, 
and  coming  from  the  same  press,  appeared  an 
English  Bible,  in  a  more  stately  folio,  with  a 
preface  containing  the  initials  T.  C,  which 
imply  the  archbishop's  sanction.  Cranmer's 
Version  presents,  as  might  be  expected,  many 
points  of  interest.  The  prologue  gives  a  more 
complete  ideal  of  what  a  translation  ought  to 
be  than  we  have  as  yet  seen.  Words  not  in 
the  original  are  to  be  printed  in  a  different 
type.  It  was  reprinted  again  and  again,  and 
was  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  English 
Church  till  1568 — the  interval  of  Mary's  reign 
excepted.  VII.  Geneva. — The  exiles  who  fled 
to  Geneva  in  the  reign  of  INIary  entered  on  the 
work  of  translation  with  more  vigor  than  ever. 
The  Genevan  refugees — among  them  Whit- 
tingham,  Goodman,    Pullain,    Sampson,  and 


MUSSULMAN'S  PRAYING.    FROM  A  PHOTOGRAPH. 


VERSION,  AUTHORIZED 


VINE 


Coverdale  himself — labored  "for  two  years  or 
more,  day  and  night."  Their  translation  of 
the  N.  T.  was  "diligently  revised  by  the  most 
approved  Greek  examples."  The  N.  T.,  trans- 
lated by  Whittingham,  was  printed  in  1557, 
and  the  whole  Bible  in  1560.  It  kept  its 
ground  for  some  time  even  against  the  A.  V., 
and  gave  way,  as  it  were,  slowly  and  under 
protest.  It  was  the  version  specially  adopted 
by  the  great  Puritan  party  through  the  whole 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  far  into  that  of  James. 
As  might  be  expected,  it  was  based  on  Tyn- 
dal's  Version.  It  was  the  first  English  Bible 
which  entirely  omitted  the  Apocrypha.  VIII. 
The  Bishops'  Bible. — Eight  bishops,  together 
with  some  deans  and  professors,  brought  out 
the  fruit  of  their  labors  in  a  magnificent  folio 
(1568  and  1572).  It  was  avowedly  based  on 
Cranmer's;  but  of  all  the  English  versions  it 
had  probably  the  least  success.  It  did  not 
command  the  respect  of  scholars,  and  its  size 
and  cost  were  far  from  meeting  the  wants  of 
the  people.  IX.  Rheims  and  Douay. — The 
successive  changes  in  the  Protestant  versions 
of  the  Scriptures  were,  as  might  be  expected, 
matter  of  triumph  to  the  controversialists  of 
the  Latin  Church.  Some  saw^  in  it  an  argu- 
ment against  any  translation  of  Scripture  into 
the  spoken  language  of  the  people.  The  Eng- 
lish Catholic  refugees  who  were  settled  at 
Rheims  undertook  a  new  English  version.  The 
N.  T.  was  published  at  Rheims  in  1582,  and 
professed  to  be  based  on  "the  authentic  text 
of  the  \*ulgate."  X.  Authorized  Version. — 
The  position  of  the  English  Church  in  relation 
to  the  versions  in  use  at  the  commencement 
of  the. reign  of  James  was  hardly  satisfactory. 
The  Bishops'  Bible  was  sanctioned  by  author- 
ity. That  of  Geneva  had  the  strongest  hold 
on  the  affections  of  the  people.  Scholars, 
Hebrew  scholars  in  particular,  found  grave 
fault  with  both.  Among  the  demands  of  the 
Puritan  representatives  at  the  Hampton  Court 
Conference  in  1604,  was  one  for  a  new,  or  at 
least  a  revised  translation.  The  work  of 
organizing  and  superintending  the  arrange- 
ments for  a  new  translation  was  one  specially 
congenial  to  James,  and  in  1606  the  task  was 
accordingly  commenced.  It  was  intrusted  to 
54  scholars.  Nothing  is  more  striking  than 
the  silence  with  which  the  version  that  was  to 
be  the  inheritance  of  the  English  people  for  at 
least  two  centuries  and  a  half  was  ushered 
into  the  world.  For  three  years  the  work  went 
on,  the  separate  companies  comparing  notes, 
as  directed.  \\'hen  the  work  drew  towards  its 
completion,  it  was  necessary  to  place  it  under 
the  care  of  a  select  few.  Two  from  each  of 
the  three  groups  were  accordingly  selected, 


and  the  six  met  in  London,  to  superintend  the 
publication.  The  final  correction,  and  the  task 
of  writing  the  arguments  of  the  several  books, 
were  given  to  Bilson,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
and  Dr.  Miles  Smith,  the  latter  of  whom  also 
wrote  the  Dedication  and  Preface.  The 
version  thus  published  did  not  all  at  once 
supersede  those  already  in  possession.  The 
fact  that  five  editions  were  published  in  three 
years,  shows  that  there  was  a  good  demand. 
But  the  Bishops'  Bible  probably  remained  in 
many  Churches,  and  the  popularity  of  the 
Geneva  Version  is  shown  by  not  less  than 
thirteen  reprints,  in  whole  or  in  part,  between 
161 1  and  1617.  It  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  the 
impression  which  the  A.  V.  made  at  the  time 
of  its  appearance.  Selden  says  it  is  "the  best 
of  all  translations,  as  giving  the  true  sense  of 


Vine. 

the  original."  It  would  be  easy  to  put  to- 
gether a  long  catena  of  praises  stretching  from 
that  time  to  the  present. 

Village.  This  word,  in  addition  to  its 
ordinary  sense,  is  often  used,  especially  in  the 
enumeration  of  towns  in  Josh,  xiii.,  xv.,  xix., 
to  imply  unwalled  suburbs  outside  the  walled 
towns.  Arab  villages,  as  found  in  Arabia,  are 
often  mere  collections  of  stone  huts,  "long, 
low,  rude  hovels,  roofed  only  with  the  stalks 
of  palm-leaves,"  or  covered  for  a  time  with 
tent-cloths,  which  are  removed  when  the  tribe 
change  their  quarters.  Others  are  more  solidly 
built,  as  are  most  of  the  modern  villages  of 
Palestine,  though  in  some  the  dwellings  are 
mere  mud-huts.  There  is  little  in  the  O.  T.  to. 
enable  us  more  precisely  to  define  a  village 
of  Palestine,  beyond  the  fact  that  it  was  desti- 
tute of  walls  or  external  defences.  Persian 
villages  are  spoken  of  in  similar  terms  (Ez. 
xxxviii.  11;  Esth.  ix.  19).  By  the  Talmudists 
a  village  was  defined  as  a  place  destitute  of  a 
synagogue. 

Vine,  the  well-known  vakiable  plant  very 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  and  cultivated  from  the  earliest 
times.   The  first  mention  of  this  plant  occurs 


425 


VINE  OF  SODOM 


VULGATE,  THE 


in  Gen.  ix.  20,  21.  That  it  was  abundantly 
cultivated  in  Egypt  is  evident  from  the  fre- 
quent representations  dn  the  monuments,  as 
well  as  from  the  Scriptural  allusions  (Gen.  xl. 
9-1 1 ;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  47).  The  vines  of  Palestine 
were  celebrated  both  for  luxuriant  growth  ^and 
for  the  immense  clusters  of  grapes  which  they 
produced.  When  the  spies  were  sent  forth  to 
view  the  promised  land,  we  are  told  that  on 
their  arrival  at  the  valley  of  Eshcol  they  cut 
down  a  branch  with  one  cluster  of  grapes,  and 
bare  it  between  two  on  a  staff  (Num.  xiii.  23). 
Travellers  have  frequently   testified   to  the 


Gathering  Grapes. 

large  size  of  the  grape-clusters  of  Palestine. 
Especial  mention  is  made  in  the  Bible  of  the 
vines  of  Eshcol  (Num.  xiii.  24,  xxxii.  9),  of 
Sibmah,  Heshbon,  and  Elealeh  (Is.  xvi.  8,  9, 
10;  Jer.  xlviii.  32),  and  Engedi  (Cant.  i.  14). 
From  the  abundance  and  excellence  of  the 
vines,  it  may  readily  be  understood  how  fre- 
quently this  plant  is  the  subject  of  metaphor 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

Vine  of  Sodom  occurs  only  in  Deut.  xxxii. 
32.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  this  passage 
alludes  to  the  celebrated  apples  of  Sodom,  of 
which  Josephus  speaks,  "which  indeed  re- 
semble edible  fruit  in  color,  but,  on  being 
plucked  by  the  hand,  are  dissolved  into  smoke 
and  ashes." 

Vinegar.  The  Hebrew  word'  translated 
"vinegar"  was  applied  to  a  beverage  consist- 
ing generally  of  wine  or  strong  drink  turned 
sour,  but  sometimes  artificially  made  by  an 
admixture  of  barley  and  wine,  and  thus  liable 
to  fermentation.  It  was  acid  even  to  a  proverb 
(Prov.  X.  26),  and  by  itself  formed  a  nauseous 
draught  (Ps.  Ixix.  21),  but  was  used  by  labor- 
ers (Ruth  ii.  14).  Similar  was  the  acetum  of 
the  Romans — a  thin,  sour  wine,  consumed  by 
soldiers.  This  was  the  beverage  of  which  the 
Saviour  partook  in  His  dying  moments  (Matt, 
xxvii.  48;  Mark  xv.  36;  John  xix.  29,  30). 

Viol.  [Psaltery.] 

Viper.  [Serpent.] 

Vows.  The  earliest  mention  of  a  vow  is 
that  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxviii.  18-22,  xxxi.  13). 
Vows  in  general  are  also  mentioned   in  the 


Book  of  Job  (xxii.  27).  The  Law  therefore 
did  not  introduce,  but  regulated  the  practice 
of  vows.  Three  sorts  are  mentioned:  I.  Vows 
of  devotion  ;  II.  Vows  of  abstinence  ;  III.  Vows 
of  destruction.  I.  As  to  vows  of  devotion,  the 
following  rules  are  laid  down :  A  man  might 
devote  to  sacred  uses  possessions  or  persons, 
but  not  the  firstborn  either  of  man  or  beast, 
which  was  devoted  already  (Lev.  xxvii.  26). 
a.  If  he  vowed  land,  he  might  either  redeem  it 
or  not  (Lev.  xxv.,  xxvii.),  b.  Animals  fit  for 
sacrifice,  if  devoted,  were  not  to  be  redeemed 
or  changed  (Lev.  xxvii.  9,  lo,  33).  c.  The  case 
of  persons  devoted  stood  thus :  A  man  might 
devote  either  himself,  his  child  (not  the  first- 
born), or  his  slave.  If  no  redemption  took 
place,  the  devoted  person  became  a  slave  of 
the  sanctuary :  see  the  case  of  Absalom  (2 
Sam.  XV.  8).  Otherwise  he  might  be  redeemed 
at  a  valuation  according  to  age  and  sex,  on  the 
scale  given  in  Lev.  xxvii.  1-7.  Among  general 
regulations  affecting  vows,  the  following  may 
be  mentioned:  i.  Vows  were  entirely  volun- 
tary, but  once  made  were  regarded  as  com- 
pulsory (Num.  xxx.  2;  Deut.  xxiii.  21;  Eccl. 
V.  4).  2.  If  persons  in  a  dependent  condition 
made  vows,  as  (a)  an  unmarried  daughter  liv- 
ing in  her  father's  house,  or  (b)  a  wife,  even  if 
she  afterwards  became  a  widow,  the  vow,  if 
(a)  in  the  first  case  her  father,  or  (b)  in  the 
second,  her  husband,  heard  and  disallowed  it, 
was  void ;  but  if  they  heard  without  disallow- 
ance, it  was  to  remain  good  (Num.  xxx.  3-16). 
3.  Votive  offerings  arising  from  the  produce 
of  any  impure  traffic  were  wholly  forbidden 
(Deut.  xxiii.  18).  II.,  III.  For  vows  of  ab- 
stinence, see  Corban ;  and  for  vows  of  ex- 
termination, Anathema,  and  Ezr.  x.  8;  Mic.  iv. 
13.  It  seems  that  the  practice  of  shaving  the 
head  at  the  expiration  of  a  votive  period  was 
not  limited  to  the  Nazaritic  vow  (Acts  xviii. 
18,  xxi.  24). 

Vulgate,  The,  the  Latin  version  of  the 
Bible.  The  influence  which  it  exercised  upon 
Western  Christianity  is  scarcely  less  than  that 
of  the  LXX.  upon  the  Greek  Churches.  But 
both  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  Vulgates  have 
been  long  neglected.  Yet  the  Vulgate  should 
have  a  very  deep  interest  for  all  the  Western 
Churches.  For  many  centuries  it  was  the 
only  Bible  generally  used ;  and,  directly  or  in- 
directly, it  is  the  real  parent  of  all  the  vernacu- 
lar versions  of  Western  Europe.  The  Gothic 
Version  of  Ulphilas  alone  is  independent  of  it. 
In  the  age  of  the  Reformation  the  Vulgate  was 
rather  the  guide  than  the  source  of  the  popu- 
lar versions.  That  of  Luther  (N.  T.  in  1523) 
was  the  most  important,  and  in  this  the  Vul- 
gate had  great  weight.    From  Luther  the  in- 


426 


VULGATE,  THE 


VULGATE,  THE 


fluencc  of  the  Latin  passed  to  our  own  Author- 
ized Version.  But  the  chiims  of  the  Vulgate 
to  the  attention  of  scholars  rest  on  wider 
grounds.  It  is  not  only  the  source  of  our  cur- 
rent theological  terminology,  but  it  is,  in  one 
shape  or  other,  the  most  important  early  wit- 
ness to  the  text  and  interpretation  of  the  whole 
Bible.  The  name  is  equivalent  to  Vulgata 
editio  (the  current  text  of  Holy  Scripture).  L 
The  Old  Latin  \'ersions. — The  history  of  the 
earliest  Latin  Version  of  the  Bible  is  lost  in 
obscurity.  All  that  can  be  affirmed  with  cer- 
tainty is,  that  it  was  made  in  Africa  in  the  2d 
century.  During  the  first  two  centuries  the 
Churches  of  Rome  and  Gaul  were  essentially 
Greek,  but  the  Church  of  N.  Africa  seems  to 
have  been  Latin-speaking  from  the  first.  This 
version  was  known  by  the  name  of  the  Old 
Latin  (Vetus  Latina),  and  the  language  was 
rude  and  provincial.  In  the  4th  century  an 
ecclesiastical  recension  appears  to  have  been 
made  in  Northern  Italy,  which  was  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  Itala.  At  the  close 
of  the  4th  century  the  Latin  texts  of  the  Bible 
current  in  the  Western  Church  had  fallen  into 
the  greatest  corruption.  The  evil  was  yet 
greater  in  prospect  than  at  the  time ;  for  the 
separation  of  the  East  and  West  was  growing 
imminent.  In  the  crisis  of  danger  the  great 
scholar  was  raised  up  who  probably  alone  for 
1500  years  possessed  the  qualifications  neces- 
sary for  producing  an  original  version  of  the 
Scriptures  for  the  use  of  the  Latin  Churches, 
viz.  Jerome — Eusebius  Hieronymus — who  was 
born  in  329  A.  D.  at  Stridon  in  Dalmatia,  and 
died  at  Bethlehem  in  420  A.  D.  After  long 
and  self-denying  studies  in  the  East  and  West, 
Jerome  went  to  Rome  A.  D.  382,  probably  at 
the  request  of  Damascus  the  Pope,  to  assist 
in  a  revision  of  the  current  Latin  version  of 
the  X.  T.  by  the  help  of  the  Greek  original. 
Jerome  was  fully  sensible  of  the  prejudices 
which  such  a  work  would  excite  among  those 
"who  thought  that  ignorance  was  holiness ;" 
but  the  need  of  it  was  urgent.  '"There  were," 
he  says,  "almost  as  many  forms  of  text  as 
copies."  The  Gospels  had  naturally  suffered 
most.  Jerome  therefore  applied  himself  to 
these  first.  But  his  aim  was  to  revise  the  Old 
Latin,  and  not  to  make  a  new  version.  Yet 
although  he  proposed  to  himself  this  limited 
object,  the  various  forms  of  corruption  which 
had  been  introduced  were,  as  he  describes,  so 
numerous  that  the  difference  of  the  Old  and 
Revised  (Hieronymian)  text  is  throughout 
clear  and  striking.  Subsequently  Jerome  under- 
took a  still  more  important  work,  namely,  the 
translation  of  the  O.  T.  from  the  Hebrew. 
He  commenced  the  study  of   Hebrew  when 


he  was  already  advanced  in  middle  life 
(about  A.  D.  374).  This  version  was  not  un- 
dertaken with  any  ecclesiastical  sanction,  as 
the  revision  of  the  Gospels  was,  but  at  the 
urgent  request  of  private  friends,  or  from  his 
own  sense  of  the  imperious  necessity  of  the 
work.  Its  history  is  told  in  the  main  in  the 
Prefaces  to  the  several  instalments  which  were 
successively  published.  The  Books  of  Samuel 
and  Kings  were  issued  first,  and  to  these  he 
prefixed  the  famous  Prologus  galeatus,  ad- 
dressed to  Paula  and  Eustochium,  in  which  he 
gives  an  account  of  the  Hebrew  Canon  (about 
A.  D.  391,  392).  The  other  books  followed  in 
succession,  and  the  whole  work  was  completed 
in  A.  D.  404.  III.  The  History  of  Jerome's 
Translation  to  the  Invention  of  Printing. — • 
The  critical  labors  of  Jerome  were  received 
with  a  loud  outcry  of  reproach.  He  was  ac- 
cused of  disturbing  the  repose  of  the  Church, 
and  shaking  the  foundations  of  faith.  But 
clamor  based  upon  ignorance  soon  dies  away ; 
and  the  New  translation  gradually  came  into 
use  equally  with  the  Old,  and  at  length  sup- 
planted it.  In  the  6th  century  the  use  of 
Jerome's  Version  was  universal  among  schol- 
ars except  in  Africa,  where  the  other  still 
lingered.  In  the  7th  century  the  traces  of  the 
Old  Version  grow  rare.  In  the  8th  century 
Bede  speaks  of  Jerome's  Version  as  "our  edi- 
tion ;"  and  from  this  time  it  is  needless  to  trace 
its  history,  though  the  Old  Latin  was  not 
wholly  forgotten.  Yet  throughout,  the  New 
Version  made  its  way  without  any  direct  ec- 
clesiastical authority.  It  was  adopted  in  the 
different  Churches  gradually,  or  at  least  with- 
out any  formal  command.  But  the  Latin 
Bible  which  thus  passed  gradually  into  use 
under  the  name  of  Jerome  was  a  strangely 
composite  work.  The  books  of  the  O.  T., 
with  one  exception,  were  certainly  taken  from, 
his  Version  from  the  Hebrew ;  but  this  had 
not  only  been  variously  corrupted,  but  was 
itself  in  many  particulars  (especially  in  the 
Pentateuch) -  at  variance  with  his  later  judg- 
ment. Long  use,  however,  made  it  impossible 
to  substitute  his  Psalter  from  the  Hebrew  for 
the  Galilean  Psalter ;  and  thus  this  book  was 
retained  from  the  Old  Version,  as  Jerome  had 
corrected  it  from  the  LXX.  Of  the  Apocryphal 
books  Jerome  hastily  revised  or  translated  two 
only,  Judith  and  Tobit.  The  remainder  were 
retained  from  the  Old  Version  against  his 
judgment;  and  the  Apocryphal  additions  to 
Daniel  and  Esther,  which  he  had  carefully 
marked  as  apocryphal  in  his  own  Version, 
were  treated  as  integral  parts  of  the  books. 
In  the  N.  T.  the  text  of  the  Gospels  was  in  the 
main  Jerome's  revised  edition ;  that  of  the  re- 


427 


VULGATE,  THE 


VULTURE 


maining  books  his  very  incomplete  revision  of 
llie  Old  Latin.  Meanwhile  the  text  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  Latin  Bible  was  rapidly 
deteriorating.  The  simultaneous  use  of  the 
Old  and  New  Versions  necessarily  led  to  great 
corruptions  of  both  texts.  Mixed  texts  were 
formed  according  to  the  taste  or  judgment  of 
scribes,  and  the  confusion  was  further  in- 
creased by  the  changes  which  were  sometimes 
introduced  by  those  who  had  some  knowledge 
of  Greek.  In  the  8th  century  the  corruption 
had  arrived  at  such  a  height,  that  Char- 
lemagne intrusted  to  Alcuin  (circ.  A.  D.  802) 
the  task  of  revising  the  Latin  text  for  public 
use.  Alcuin's  revision  probably  contributed 
much  towards  preserving  a  good  Vulgate  text. 
It  was  subsequently  revised  by  many  eminent 
scholars,  both  before  and  after  the  invention 
of  printing.  IV.  The  History  of  the  Printed 
Text. — It  was  a  noble  omen  for  the  future 
progress  of  printing  that  the  first  book  which 
issued  from  the  press  was  the  Bible;  and  the 
splendid  pages  of  the  Mazarin  Vulgate 
(Mainz,  Gutenburg,  and  Fust)  stand  yet  un- 
surpassed by  the  latest  efforts  of  typography. 
This  work  is  referred  to  about  the  year  1455, 
and  presents  the  common  text  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury. Other  editions  followed  in  rapid  succes- 
sion. The  first  collection  of  various  readings 
appears  in  a  Paris  edition  of  1504,  and  others 
followed  at  Venice  and  Lyons  in  151 1,  1513; 
but  Cardinal  Ximenes  (1502-1517)  was  the 
first  who  seriously  revised  the  Latin  text,  to 
which  he  assigned  the  middle  place  of  honor 
in  his  Polyglot  between  the  Hebrew  .and 
Greek  texts.  This  was  followed  by  others. 
When  the  Council  of  Trent  declared  the  Vul- 
gate to  be  the  authoritative  text  of  Scripture, 
the  want  of  a  standard  text  became  more 
urgent  than  ever.  At  length  an  edition  was 
published  in  1590,  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  Pope  Sixtus  V.,  with  the  famous  consti- 
tution prefixed,  in  which  Sixtus  affirmed  the 
plenary  authority  of  the  edition  for  all  future 
time.  It  was,  however,  soon  found  that  this 
edition  also  was  defective ;  and  accordingly 
another  edition  was  prepared  under  papal 
authority.  It  appeared  in  1592  in  the  Pontifi- 
cate of  Clement  VHL,  with  a  Preface,  written 
by  Bellarmin.  More  than  a  century  elapsed 
before  anything  more  of  importance  was  done 
for  the  text  of  the  Latin  version  of  the  O.  T., 
when  at  length  the  fortunate  discovery  of  the 
original  revision  of  the  Sixtine  correctors 
again  directed  the  attention  of  Roman  scholars 
to  their  authorized  text.  The  first  fruits  of 
their  labors  are  given  in  the  volume  of  Ver- 
cellone,  which  has  thrown  more  light  upon  the 
history  and  criticism  of  the  Vulgate  than  any 


previous  work.  The  neglect  of  the  Latin,  text 
of  the  O.  T.  is  but  a  consequence  of  the  gen- 
eral neglect  of  the  criticism  of  the  Hebrew 
text.  In  the  N.  T.  far  more  has  been  done 
for  the  correction  of  the  Vulgate,  though  even 
here  no  critical  edition  has  yet  been  published. 
V.  The  Influence  and  Value  of  the  Latin  Ver- 
sion.— The  vast  power  which  the  Vulgate  has 
had  in  determining  the  theological  terms  of 
Western  Christendom  can  hardly  be  overrated. 
By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  current  doctrinal 
terminology  is  based  on  the  Vulgate.,  Pre- 
destination, justification,  supererogation  (su- 
pererogo),  sanctification,  salvation,  mediation, 
regeneration,  revelation,  visitation  (met.),  pro- 


The  Vulture. 


pitiation,  first  appear  in  the  Old  Vulgate. 
Grace,  redemption,  election,  reconciliation,  sat- 
isfaction, inspiration,  scripture,  were  devoted 
there  to  a  new  and  holy  use.  Sacrament  and 
communion  are  from  the  same  source ;  and 
though  baptism  is  Greek,  it  comes  to  us  from 
the  Latin.  It  would  be  easy  to  extend  the  list 
by  the  addition  of  orders,  penance,  congrega- 
tion, priest.  But  it  can  be  seen  from  the  forms 
already  brought  forward  that  the  Vulgate  has 
left  its  mark  both  upoii  our  language  and  upon 
our  throughts.  It  was  the  Version  which  alone 
they  knew  who  haitded  down  to  the  Reformers 
the  rich  stores  of  mediaeval  wisdom ;  the  Ver- 
sion with  which  the  greatest  of  the  Reformers 
were  most  familiar,  and  from  which  they  had 
drawn  their  earliest  knowledge  of  Divine 
truth. 

Vulture.  The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the 
Pleb.  daah,  dayyah,  and  also  in  Job  xxviii.  7,  of 
ayyah.  There  seems  no  doubt  but  that  the  A. 
V.  translation  is  incorrect,  and  that  the  original 
words  refer  to  some  of  the  smaller  species  of 
raptorial  birds,  as  kites  or  buzzards.  [Kite.] 
But  the  Hebrew  word  nesher,  invariably  ren- 
dered "eagle"  in  the  A.  V.,  is  probably  the 
vulture.  [Eagle.] 


WAGES 


WAR 


W. 


Wages.  The  earliest  mention  of  wages  is  of 
a  recompense,  not  in  money,  but  in  kind,  to 
Jacob  from  Laban  (Gen.  xxix.  15,  20,  xxx.  28, 
xxxi.  7,  8,  41).  In  Egypt,  money  payments  by 
way  of  wages  were  in  use,  but  the  terms  can- 
not now  be  ascertained  (Ex.  ii.  9).  The  only 
mention  of  the  rate  of  wages  in  Scripture  is- 
found  in  the  parable  of  the  householder  and 
the  vineyard  (Matt.  xx.  2),  where  the  laborer's 
wages  are  set  at  .one  denarius  per  day,  proba- 
bly=i5c,  a  sum  which  may  be  fairly  taken 
as  equivalent  to  the  denarius,  and  to  the  usual 
pay  of  a  soldier  (ten  asses  per  diem)  in  the 
later  days  of  the  Roman  republic  (Tac.  Ann.  i. 
17;  Polyb.  vi.  39).  In  earlier  times  it  is  proba- 
ble that  the  rate  was  lower.  But  it  is  like!}' 
that  laborers,  and  also  soldiers,  were  supplied 
with  provisions.  The  law  was  very  strict  in 
requiring  daily  payment  of  wages  (Lev.  xix. 
13;  Deut.  xxiv.  14,  15).  The  employer  who  re- 
fused to  give  his  laborers  sufficient  victuals  is 
censured  (Job.  xxiv.  11),  and  the  iniquity  of 
withholding  wages  is  denounced  (Jer.  xxii.  13  ; 
Mai.  iii.  5  ;  James  v.  4). 

Wagon.  The  Oriental  wagon,  or  arabah,  is 
a  vehicle  composed  of  two  or  three  planks 
fixed  on  two  solid  circular  blocks  of  wood, 
from  two  to  five  feet  in  diameter,  which  serve 
as  wheels.  For  the  conveyance  of  passengers, 
mattresses  or  clothes  are  laid  in  the  bottom, 
and  the  vehicle  is  drawn  by  bufifaloes  or  oxen. 
[Cart  and  Chariot.] 

•  Walls.  Only  a  few  points  need  be  noticed. 
I.  The  practice  common  in  Palestine  of  carry- 
ing foundations  down  to  the  solid  rock,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Temple,  with  structures  in- 
tended to  be  permanent  (Luke  vi.  48).  2.  A 
feature  of  some  parts  of  Solomon's  buildings, 
as  described  by  Josephus,  corresponds  re- 
markably to  the  method  adopted  at  Nineveh  of 
incrusting  or  veneering  a  wall  of  brick  or  stone 
with  slabs  of  a  more  costly  material,  as  marble 
or  alabaster.  3.  Another  use  of  walls  in  Pales- 
tine is  to  support  mountain-roads  or  terraces 
formed  on  the  sides  of  hills  for  purposes  of  cul- 
tivation. 4.  The  "path  of.  the  vineyards" 
(Num.  xxii.  24)  is  a  pathway  through  vine- 
yards, with  walls  on  each  side. 

War.  The  most  important  topic  in  connec- 
tion with  war  is  the  formation  of  the  army 
which  is  destined  to  carry  it  on.  [Army.]  In 
I  K.  ix.  22,  at  a  period  (Solomon's  reign)  when 
the  organization  of  the  army  was  complete,  we 
have  apparently  a  list  of  the  various  gradations 
of  rank  in  the  service,  as  follow:  (i.)  "Men  of 
war"=privates ;  (2.)  "servants,"  the  lowest 
rank  of  ofificers=lieutenants ;  (3.)  "princes"= 


captains;  (4.)  "captains,"  perhaps=staff  offi- 
cers; (5.)  "rulers  of  his  chariots  and  his  horsc- 
men"=cavalry  officers.  Formal  proclamations 
of  war  were  not  interchanged  between  the  bel- 
ligerents. Before  entering  the  enemy's  district 
spies  were  sent  to  ascertain  the  character  of 
the  country  and  the  preparations  of  its  in- 
habitants for  resistance  (Num.  xiii.  17;  Josh, 
ii.  I  ;  Judg.  vii.  10;  i  Sam.  xxvi.  4).  The  combat 
assumed  the  form  of  a  number  of 
hand  contests.    Hence  the  high  value 


hand-to- 
attached 


The  Catapult,  a 


machine  for  throwing 


heavy  darts. 


to  fleetness  of  foot  and  strength  of  arm  (2 
Sam.  i.  23,  ii.  18;  i  Chr.  xii.  8).  At  the  same 
time  various  strategic  devices  were  practised, 
such  as  the  ambuscade  (Josh.  viii.  2,  12;  Judg. 
XX.  36),  surprise  (Judg.  vii.  16),  or  circumven- 
tion (2  Sam.  V.  23).  Another  mode  of  settling 
the  dispute  was  by  the  selection  of  champions 
(l  Sam.  xvii. ;  2  Sam.  ii.  14),  who  were  spurred 


The  Crow. 


on  to  exertion  by  the  ofifer  of  high  reward  (i 
Sam.  xvii.  25,  xviii.  25 ;  2  Sam.  xviii.  11  ;  i  Chr. 
xi.  6).  The  contest  having  been  decided,  the 
conquerors  were  recalled  from  the  pursuit  by 
the  sound  of  a  trumpet  (2  Sam.  ii.  28,  xviii.  16, 
XX.  22).  The  siege  of  a  town  or  fortress  was 
conducted  in  the  following  manner:   A  line 


429 


WAR 


WATCHES  OF  NIGHT 


of,  circiimvallation  was  drawn  round  the  place 
(Ez.  iv.  2;  Mic.  V.  i),  constructed  out  of  the 
trees  found  in  the  neighborhood  (Deut.  xx. 
20),  together  with  earth  and  any  other  ma- 
terials at  hand.  This  line  not  only  cut  off  the 
besieged  from  the  surrounding  country,  but 
also  served  as  a  base  of  operations  for  the  be- 
siegers. .  The  next  step  was  to  throw  out  from 
this  line  one  or  more  mounds  or  "banks"  in 
the  direction  of  the  city  (2  Sam.  xx.  15;  2  K. 


Bat  tori  ng-ram  and  Tower. 


xix.  32;  Is.  xxxvii.  33),  which  were  gradually 
increased  in  height  until  they  were  about  half 
as  high  as  the  city  wall.  On  this  mound  or 
bank  towers  were  erected  (2  K.  xxv.  i ;  Jer. 
Hi.  4;  Ez.  iv.  2,  xvii.  17,  xxi.  22,  xxvi.  8), 
whence  the  slingers  and  archers  might  attack 
with  effect.  The  crow,  a  long  spar,  with  iron 
claws  at  one  end  and  ropes  at  the  other,  was  used 
to  pull  down  stones  or  men  from  the  top  of 
the  wall.  Battering-rams  (Ez.  iv.  2,  xxi.  22) 
were    brought  up  to  the  walls  by  means  of 


Washing  the  Hands. 


the  bank,  and  scaling-ladders  might  also  be 
placed  on  it.  The  treatment  of  the  conquered 
was  extremely  severe  in  ancient  times.  The 
bodies  of  the  soldiers  killed  in  action  were 
plundered  (i  Sam.  xxxi.  8;  2  Mace.  viii.  27): 
the  survivors  were  either  killed  in  some  sav- 
age manner  (Judg.  ix.  45;  2  Sam.  xii.  31;  2 
Chr.  xxv.  12),  mutilated  (Judg.  i.  6;  i  Sam.  xi. 
2),  or  carried  into  captivity  (Num.  xxxi.  26; 
Deut.  xx.  14). 

430 


Washing  the  Hands  and  Feet.  As  knives 
and  forks  were  dispensed  with  in  eating,  it  was 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  hand,  which  was 
thrust  into  the  common  dish,  should  be 
scrupulously  clean ;  and  again,  as  sandals  were 
ineffectual  against  the  dust  and  heat  of  an 
Eastern  climate,  washing  the  feet  on  entering 
a  house  was  an  act  both  of  respect  to  the  com- 
pany and  of  refreshment  to  the  traveller.  The 
former  of  these  usages  was  transformed  by  the 
Pharisees  of  the  New  Testament  age  into  a 
matter  of  ritual  observance  (Mark  vii.  3),  and 
special  rules  were  laid  down  as  to  the  times 
and  manner  of  its  performance.  Washing  the 
feet  did  not  rise  to  the  dignity  of  a  ritual  ob- 
servance except  in  connection  with  the  services 
of  the  sanctuary  (Ex.  xxx.  19,  21).  It  held  a 
high  place,  however,  among  the  rites  of  hos- 
pitality. Immediately  that  a  guest  presented 
himself  at  the  tent-door,  it  was  usual  to  offer 
the  necessary  materials  for  washing  the  feet 
(Gen.  xviii.  4,  xix.  2,  xxiv.  32,  xliii.  24;  Judg. 
xix.  21).    It  was  a  yet  more  complimentary 


Eastern  Washing-vessels. 

act,  betokening  equally  humility  and  affection, 
if  the  host  actually  performed  the  office  for  his 
guest  (i  Sam.  xxv.  41  ;  Luke  vii.  38,  44;  John 
xiii.  5-14;  I  Tim.  v.  10).  Such  a  token  of  hos- 
pitality is  still  occasionally  exhibited  in  the 
East. 

Watches  of  Night.  The  Jews,  like  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  divided  the  night  into 
military  watches  instead  of  hours,  each  watch 
representing  the  period  for  which  sentinels  or 
pickets  remained  on  duty.  The  proper  Jewish 
reckoning  recognized  only  three  such  watches, 
entitled  the  first  or  "beginning  of  the  watches" 
(Lam.  ii.  19),  the  middle  watch  (Judg.  vii.  19), 
and  the  morning  watch  (Ex.  xiv.  24;  i  Sam.  xi. 
11).  These  would  last  respectively  from  sun- 
set to  10  P.  M. ;  from  10  P.  M.  to  2  A.  M. ;  and 
from  2  A.  M.  to  sunrise.  Subsequently  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Roman  supremacy,  the 
number  of  watches   was   increased   to  forr, 


WEAPONS 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


which  were  described  either  according  to  their 
numerical  order,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "fourth 
watch"  (Matt.  xiv.  25),  or  by  the  terms  "even, 
midnight,  cock-crowing,  and  morning"  (Mark 
xiii.  35).  These  terminated  respectively  at  9 
P.  M.,  midnight,  3  A.  M.,  and  6  A.  M. 
Weapons.  [Arms.] 

Weasel  (choled)  occurs  only  in  Lev.  xi.  29, 

in  the  list  of  unclean  animals ;  but  the  Hebrew 
word  ought  more  probably  to  be  translated 
"mole."   Moles  are  common  in  Palestine. 

Weaving.  The  art  of  weaving  appears  to  be 
coeval  with  the  first  dawning  of  civilization. 
We  find  it  practised  with  great  skill  by  the 
Egyptians  at  a  very  early  period.  The  "ves- 
tures of  fine  linen"  such  as  Joseph  wore  (Gen. 
xli.  42)  were  the  product  of  Egyptian  looms. 
The  Israelites  were  probably  acquainted  with 
the  process  before  their  sojourn  in  Egypt ;  but 
it  was  undoubtedly  there  that  they  attained  the 
proficiency  which  enabled  them  to  execute  the 


1 

ml 

'Ml 

Ancient  Roman  Loom. 


hangings  of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxv.  35 ;  i 
Chr.  iv.  21),  and  other  artistic  textures.  The 
Egj'ptian  loom  was  usually  upright  ,and  the 
weaver  stood  at  his  work.  The  cloth  was  fixed 
sometimes  at  the  top,  sometimes  at  the  bottom. 
The  modern  Arabs  use  a  procumbent  loom, 
raised  above  the  ground  by  short  legs.  The 
textures  produced  by  the  Jewish  weavers  were 
very  various.  The  coarser  kinds,  such  as  tent- 
cloth,  sack-cloth,  and  the  "hairy  garments"  of 
the  poor  were  made  of  goat's  or  camel's  hair 
(Ex.  xxvi.  7;  Matt.  iii.  4).  Wool  was  exten- 
sively used  for  ordinary  clothing  (Lev.  xiii. 
47;  Prov.  xxvii.  26,  xxxi.  13;  Ez.  xxvii.  18), 
while  for  finer  work  flax  was  used,  varying  in 
quality,  and  producing  the  different  textures 
described  in  the  Bible  as  "linen"  and  "fine 
linen."  The  mixture  of  wool  and  flax  in  cloth 
intended  for  a  garment  was  interdicted  (Lev. 
xix.  19;  Deut.  xxii.  11). 
Wedding.  [Marriage.] 

Week.  There  can  be  no  doubt  about  the 
great  antiquity  of  measuring  time  by  a  period 
of  seven  days  (Gen.  viii.  10,  xxix.  27).  The 
origin  of  this  division  of  time   is   a  matter 


which  has  given  birth  to  much  speculation. 
Its"  antiquity  is  so  great,  its  observance  so 
wide-spread,  and  it  occupies  so  important  a 
place  in  sacred  things,  that  it  must  probably 
be  thrown  back  as  far  as  the  creation  of  man. 
The  week  and  the  Sabbath  are  thus  as  old  as 
man  himself.  A  purely  theological  ground  is 
thus  established  for  the  week.  They  who  em- 
brace this  view  support  it  by  a  reference  to  the 
six  days'  creation  and  the  Divine  rest  on  the 
seventh.  I  St.  That  the  week  rests  on  a  theo- 
logical ground  may  be  cheerfully  acknowledged 
by  both  sides ;  but  nothing  is  determined  by 
such  acknowledgment  as  to  the  original  cause 
of  adopting  this  division  of  time.  Whether  the 
week  gave  its  sacredness  to  the  number  seven, 
or  whether  the  ascendency  of  that  number 
helped  to  determine  the  dimensions  of  the 
week,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  2dly.  The 
weekly  division  was  adopted  by  all  the 
Shemitic  races,  and,  in  the  later  period  of  their 
history  at  least,  by  the  Egyptians.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  no  reason  for  thinking 
the  week  known  till  a  late  period  either  to 
Greeks  or  Romans.  3dly.  So  far  from  the 
week  being  a  division  of  time  without  ground 
in  nature,  there  was  much  to  recommend  its 
adoption.  And,  further,  the  week  is  a  most 
natural  and  nearly  an  exact  quadri-partition 
of  the  month,  so  that  the  quarters  of  the  moon 
may  easily  have  suggested  it.  It  is  clear  that 
in  Paul's  time  the  whole  Roman  world  had 
adopted  the  hebdomadal  division. 

Weeks,  Feast  of.  [Pentecost.] 

Weights  and  Measures.  A.  Weights.  The 
general  principle  of  the  present  inquiry  is  to 
give  the  evidence  of  the  monuments  the  pref- 
erence on  all  doubtful  points.  All  ancient 
Greek  systems  of  weight  were  derived,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  from  an  Eastern  source. 
The  older  systems  of  ancient  Greece  and 
Persia  were  the  Aeginetan,  the  Attic,  the 
Babylonian,  and  the  Emboic.  i.  The  Aeginetan 
talent  is  stated  to  have  contained  60  minae, 
and  6000  drachms.  2.  The  Attic  talent  is  the 
standard  weight  introduced  by  Solon.  3.  The 
Babylonian  talent  may  be  determined  from 
existing  weights  found  by  Mr.  Layard  at 
Nineveh.  Pollux  makes  it  equal  to  7000  Attic 
drachms.  4.  The  Euboic  talent,  though  bear- 
ing a  Greek  name,  is  rightly  held  to  have  been 
originally  an  Eastern  system.  The  proportion 
of  the  Euboic  talent  to  the  Babylonian  was 
probably  as  60  to  72,  or  5  to  6.  Taking  the 
Babylonian  maneh  at  7992  grs.  we  obtain  899,- 
600  for  the  Euboic  talent.  The  principal,  if 
not  the  only,  Persian  gold  coin  is  the  Daric, 
weighing  about  129  grs.  5.  The  Hebrew  talent 
or  talents  and  divisions.    A  talent  of  silver  is 


431 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

mentioned  in  Exodus,  which  contained  3000 
shekels,  distinguished  as  "the  holy  shekel,"  or 
"shekel  of  the  sanctuary."  The  gold  talent 
contained  100  manehs,  and  lo.ooD  shekels.  The 
silver  talent  contained  3000  shekels,  6000 
bekas,  and  60,000  gerahs.  The  significations 
of  the  names  of  the  Hebrew  weights  must  be 
here  stated.  The  chief  Unit  was  the  Shekel 
(i.  e.  weight),  called  also  the  Holy  Shekel  or 
Shekel  of  the  Sanctuary ;  subdivided  into  the 
Beka  (i.  e.  half)  or  half-shekel,  and  the  Gerah 
(i.  e.  a  grain  or  bean).  The  chief  multiple,  or 
higher  unit,  was  the  Kikkar  (i.  e.  circle  or 
globe,  probably  for  an  aggregate  sum)  trans- 
lated in  our  Version,  after  the  LXX.,  Talent; 
subdivided  into  the  Maneh  (i.  e.  part,  portion, 
or  number). 

B.  Measures.  I.  INIeasures  of  Length. — 
In  the  Hebrew,  as  in  every  other  system,  these 
measures  are  of  two  classes ;  length,  in  the 
ordinary  sense,  for  objects  whose  size  we  wish 
to  determine,  and  distance,  or  itinerary  meas- 
ures ;  and  the  two  are  connected  by  some 
definite  relation,  more  or  less  simple,  between 
their  units,  i.  The  measures  of  the  former 
class  have  been  universally  derived,  in  the  first 
instance,  from  the  parts  of  the  human  body; 
but  it  is  remarkable  that,  in  the  Hebrew  sys- 
tem, the  only  part  used  for  this  purpose  is  the 
hand  and  fore-arm,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
foot,  which  was  the  chief  unit  of  the  Western 
nations.  Hence  arises  the  difficulty  of  deter- 
mining the  ratio  of  the  foot  to  the  Cubit, 
which  appears  as  the  chief  Oriental  unit  from 
the  very  building  of  Noah's  ark  (Gen.  vi.  15, 
16,  vii.  20).  The  Hebrew  lesser  measures  were 
the  finger's  breadth  (Jer.  lii.  21,  only)  ;  the 
palm  or  handbreadth  (Ex.  xxv.  25 ;  i  K.  vii. 
26;  2  Chr.  iv.  5,  used  metaphorically  in  Ps. 
xxxix.  5) ;  the  span,  i.  e.  the  full  stretch  be- 
tween the  tips  of  the  thumb  and  the  little 
finger  (Ex.  xxviii.  16;  i  Sam.  xvii.  4;  Ez.  xliii. 
13,  and  figuratively  Is.  xl.  12).  The  data  for 
determining  the  actual  length  of  the  Mosaic 
cubit  involve  peculiar  difficulties,  and  absolute 
certainty  seems  unattainable.  The  following, 
however,  seem  the  most  probable  conclusions : 
first,  that  three  cubits  were  used  in  the  times 
of  the  Hebrew  monarchy;  namely:  (i.)  The 
cubit  of  a  man  (Deut.  iii.  11),  or  the  common 
cubit  of  Canaan  (in  contradistinction  to  the 
Mosaic  cubit)  of  the  Chaldaean  standard ;  (2.) 
The  old  Mosaic  or  legal  cubit,  a  handbreadth 
larger  than  the  first,  and  agreeing  with  the 
smaller  Egyptian  cubit;  (3.)  The  new  cubit, 
which  was  still  larger,  and  agreed  with  the 
larger  Egyptian  cubit,  of  about  20-6  inches, 
used  in  the  Nilometer;  and,  secondly,  that  the 
ordinary  cubit  of  the  Bible  did  not  come  up 


WEIGHTS  AND  IsiEASURES 

to  the  full  length  of  the  cubit  of  other  coun- 
tries. The  reed  (kaneh)  for  measuring  build- 
ings (like  the  Roman  decempeda)  was  equal 
to  6  cubits.  It  only  occurs  in  Ezekiel  (xl.  5-8, 
xli.  8,  xlii.  16-19). 

2.  Of  Measures  of  Distance  the  smallest  is 
the  pace,  and  the  largest  the  day's  journey, 
(a)  The  Pace  (2  Sam.  vi.  13),  whether  it  be 
single,  like  our  pace,  or  double,  like  the  Latin 
passus,  is  defined  by  nature  within  certain 
limits,  its  usual  length  being  about  30  inches 
for  the  former,  and  5  feet  for  the  latter.  There 
is  some  reason  to  suppose  that  even  before  the 
Roman  measurement  of  the  roads  of  Palestine, 
the  Jews  had  a  Mile  of  1000  paces,  alluded  to 
in  Matt.  v.  41.  It  is  said  to  have  been  single 
or  double,  according  to  the  length  of  the  pace ; 
and  hence  the  peculiar  force  of  our  Lord's 
saying:  "Whosoever  shall  compel  thee  [as  a 
courier]  to  go  a  mile,  go  with  him  twain" — 
put  the  most  liberal  construction  on  the  de- 
mand, (b)  The  Day's  Journey  was  the  most 
usual  method  of  calculating  distances  in  trav- 
elling (Gen.  XXX.  36,  xxxi.  23 ;  Ex.  iii.  18,  v.  3 ; 
Num.  X.,  33,  xi.  31,  xxxiii.  8;  Deut.  i.  2 ;  i  K. 
xix.  4;  2  K.  iii.  g;  Jon.  iii.  9;  i  Mace.  v.  24,  28, 
vii.  45;  Tob.  vi.  i),  though  but  one  instance 
of  it  occurs  in  the  New  Testament  (Luke  ii. 
44).  The  ordinary  day's  journey  among  the 
Jews  was  30  miles ;  but  when  they  travelled 
in  companies,  only  10  miles;  Neapolis  formed 
the  first  stage  out  of  Jerusalem,  according  to 
the  former,  and  Beeroth  according  to  the  lat- 
ter computation,  (c)  The  Sabbath-day's  Jour- 
ney of  2000  cubits  (Acts  i.  12)  is  peculiar  to 
the  N.  T.,  and  arose  from  a  Rabbinical  re- 
striction. It  was  founded  on  a  universal  ap- 
plication of  the  prohibition  given  by  Moses 
for  a  special  occasion :  "Let  no  man  go  out  of 
his  place  on  the  seventh  day"  (Ex.  xvi.  29). 
An  exception  was  allowed  for  the  purpose  of 
worshipping  at  the  Tabernacle ;  and,  as  2000 
cubits  was  the  prescribed  space  to  be  kept  be- 
tween the  Ark  and  the  people,  as  well  as  the 
extent  of  the  suburbs  of  the  Levitical  cities 
on  every  side  (Num.  xxxv.  5),  this  was  taken 
for  the  length  of  a  Sabbath-day's  journey, 
measured  from  the  wall  of  the  city  in  which 
the  traveller  lived.  Computed  from  the  value 
given  above  for  the  cubit,  the  Sabbath-day's 
journey  would  be  just  six-tenths  of  a  mile,  (d) 
After  the  Captivity,  the  relations  of  the  Jews 
to  the  Persians,  Greeks  and  Romans,  caused 
the  use.  probably,  of  the  Parasang,  and  cer- 
tainly of  the  Stadium  and  the  Mile.  Though 
the  first  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  it  is 
well  to  exhibit  the  ratios  of  the  three.  The 
universal  Greek  standard,  the  stadium  of  600 
Greek  feet,  which  was  the  length  of  the  race- 


432 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


WELL 


course  at  Olympia,  occurs  first  in  the  Mac- 
cabees, and  is  common  in  the  N.  T.  Our  ver- 
sion renders  it  furlong;  it  being,  in  fact,  the 
8th  part  of  the  Roman  mile,  as  the  furlong  is 
of  ours  (2  Mace.  xi.  5,  xii.  9,  17,  29;  Luke  xxiv. 
13;  John  vi.  19,  xi.  18;  Rev.  xiv.  20,  xxi.  16). 
One  measure  remains  to  be  mentioned.  The 
fathom,  used  in  sounding  by  the  Alexandrian 
mariners  in  St.  Paul's  voyage,  is  the  full 
Stretch  of  the  two  arms  from  tip  to  tip  of  the 
middle  finger,  which  is  about '  equal  to  the 
height,  and  in  a  man  of  full  stature  is  six  feet. 
For  estimating  Area,  and  especially  Land, 
there  is  no  evidence  that  the  Jews  used  any 
special  system  of  Square  Measures,  but  they 
were  content  to  express  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  surface  to  be  measured,  by  the  cubit 
(Num.  XXXV.  4,  5 ;  Ez.  xl.  27)  or  by  the  reed 
(Ez.  xlii.  20,  xliii.  17,  xlv.  2,  xlviii.  20;  Rev. 
xxi.  16). 

IL  ^Measures  of  Capacity. — i.  The  meas- 
ures of  capacity  for  Liquids  were:  (a)  The  log 
(Lev.  xiv.  10,  &c.),  the  name  originally  sig- 
nifying a  "basin."  (b)  The  hin,  a  name  of 
Egyptian  origin,  frequently  noticed  in  the 
Bible  (Ex.  xxix.  40,  xxx.  24;  Num.  xv.  4,  7,  9; 
Ez.  iv.  II,  &c.).  (c)  The  bath,  the  name  mean- 
ing "measured,"  the  largest  of  the  liquid  meas- 
ures (i  K.  vii.  26,  38;  2  Chr.  ii.  10;  Ezr.  vii. 
32;  Is.  V,  10).  2.  The  Dry  measure  contained 
the  following  denominations :  (a)  The  cab, 
mentioned  only  in  2  K.  vi.  25,  the  name  mean- 
ing literally  hollow  or  concave,  (b)  The 
omer,  mentioned  only  in  Ex.  xvi.  16-36.  The 
word  implies  a  heap,  and  secondarily,  a  sheaf, 
(c)  The  seah,  or  "measure,"  this  being  the 
etymological  meaning  of  the  term,  and  ap- 
propriately applied  to  it,  inasmuch  as  it  was 
the  ordinary  measure  for  household  purposes 
(Gen.  xviii.  6;  i  Sam.  xxv.  18;  2  K.  vii.  i,  16). 
The  Greek  equivalent  occurs  in  Matt.  xiii.  33, 
Luke  xiii.  21.  (d)  The  ephah,  a  word  of  Egyp- 
tian origin,  and  of  frequent  recurrence  in  the 
Bible  (Ex.  xvi.  36;  Lev.  v.  11,  vi.  20;  Num.  v. 
15,  x.xviii.  5;  Judg.  vi.  19;  Ruth  ii.  17;  i  Sam. 
i.  24,  xvii.  17;  Ez.  xlv.  11,  13,  14,  xlvi.  5,  7,  11, 
14).  (e)  The  lethec,  or  "half  homer,"  literally 
meaning  what  is  poured  out;  it  occurs  only  in 
Hos.  iii.  2.  (f)  The  homer,  meaning  heap 
(Lev.  xxvii.  16;  Num.  xi.  32;  Is.  v.  10;  Ez.  xlv. 
13).  It  is  elsewhere  termed  cor,  from  the 
circular  vessel  in  which  it  was  measured  (i  K. 
iv.  22,  V.  II  ;  2  Chr.  ii.  10,  xxvii.  5  ;  Ezr.  vii.  22; 
Ez.  xlv.  14).  The  Greek  equivalent  occurs  in 
Luke  xvi.  7.  In  the  N.  T.  we  have  notices  of 
the  following  foreign  measures :  (a)  The 
metretes  (John  ii.  6;  A.  V.  "firkin"),  for  liq- 
uids, (b)  The  choenix  (Rev.  vi.  6;  A.  V. 
"measure"),  for  dry  goods,    (c)  The  xestec. 


applied,  however,  not  to  the  peculiar  measure 
so  named  by  the  Greeks,  but  to  any  small  ves- 
sel, such  as  a  cup  (Mark  vii.  4,  8;  A.  V.  "pot"), 
(d)  The  modius,  similarly  applied  to  describe 
any  vessel  of  moderate  dimensions  (Matt.  v. 
15;  Mark  iv.  21;  Luke  xi.  33;  A.  V.  "bushel"), 
though  properly  meaning  a  Roman  measure, 
amounting  to  about  a  peck.  The  value  of  the 
Attic  metretes  was  8.6696  gallons,  and  conse- 
quently the  amount  of  liquid  in  six  stone  jars, 
containing  on  the  average  23/2  metretae  each, 
would  exceed  no  gallons  (John  ii.  6).  Very 
possibly,  however,  the  Greek  term  represents 
the  Hebrew  bath ;  and,  if  the  bath  be  taken 
at  the  lowest  estimate  assigned  to  it,  the 
amount  would  be  reduced  to  about  60  gallons. 
The  choenix  was  i-48th  of  an  Attic  medimnus, 
and  contained  nearly  a  quart.  It  represented 
the  amount  of  corn  for  a  day's  food;  and  hence 
a  choenix  for  a  penny  (or  denarius),  which 
usually  purchased  a  bushel  (Cic.  Verr.  iii.  81), 
indicated  a  great  scarcity  (Rev.  vi.  6). 

Well.  The  special  necessity  of  a  supply  of 
water  (Judg.  i.  15)  in  a  hot  climate  has  al- 
ways involved  among  Eastern  nations  ques- 


Modern  Shadoof. 

tions  of  property  of  the  highest  importance, 
and  sometimes  given  rise  to  serious  conten- 
tion. Thus  the  well  Beersheba  was  opened, 
and  its  possession  attested  with  special  for- 
mality by  Abraham  (Gen.  xxi.  30,  31).  To 
acquire  wells  which  they  had  not  themselves 
dug,  was  one  of  the  marks  of  favor  foretold 
to  the  Hebrews  on  their  entrance  into  Canaan 
(Deut.  vi.  11).  To  possess  one  is  noticed  as 
a  mark  of  independence  (Prov.  v.  15),  and  to 
abstain  from  the  use  of  wells  belonging  to 
others,  a  disclaimer  of  interference  with  their 
property  (Num.  xx.  17,  19,  xxi.  22).  Similar 
rights  of  possession,  actual  and  hereditary. 


433 


WELL 


WHEAT 


exist  among  the  Arabs  of  the  present  day.  It 
is  thus  easy  to  understand  how  wells  have 
become  in  many  cases  links  in  the  history 
and  landmarks  in  the  topography  both  of 
Palestine  and  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula.  Wells 
in  Palestine  are  usually  excavated  from  the 
solid  limestone  rock,  som'etimes  with  steps  to 
descend  into  them  (Gen.  xxiv.  i6).  The 
brims  are  furnished  with  a  curb  or  low  wall 
of  stone,  bearing  marks  of  high  antiquity  in 
the  furrows  worn  by  the  ropes  used  in  draw- 
ing water.  It  was  on  a  curb  of  this  sort  that 
our  Lord  sat  when  He  conversed  with  the 
woman  of  Samaria  (John  iv.  6),  and  it  was 
this,  the  usual  stone  cover,  which  the  woman 
placed  on  the  mouth  of  the  well  at  Bahurim 
(2  Sam. -xvii.  19),  where  the  A.  V.  weakens 
the  sense  by  omitting  the  article.  The  usual 
methods  for  raising  water  are  the  following: 
I.    The  rope  and  bucket,  or  water-skin  (Gen. 


Ancieut  Well  in  Palestine. 

xxiv.  14-20;  John  iv.  11).  2.  The  sakiyeh,  or 
Persian  wheel.  This  consists  of  a  vertical 
wheel  furnished  with  a  set  of  buckets  or  earth- 
en jars,  attached  to  a  cord  passing  over  the 
wheel,  which  descend  empty  and  return  full 
as  the  wheel  revolves.  3.  A  modification  of 
the  last  method,  by  which  a  man,  sitting  op- 
posite to  a  wheel  furnished  with  buckets,  turns 
it  by  drawing  with  his  hands  one  set  of  spokes 
prolonged  beyond  its  circumference,  and  push- 
ing another  set  from  him  with  his  feet.  4.  A 
metliod  very  common,  both  in  ancient  and 
modern  Egypt,  is  the  shadoof,  a  simple  con- 
trivance consisting  of  a  lever  moving  on  a 
pivot,  which  is  loaded  at  one  end  with  a  lump 
of  clay  or  some  other  weight,  and  has  at  the 
other  a  bowl  or  bucket. — Wells  are  usually 
furnished  with  troughs  of  wood  or  stone,  into 
which  the  water  is  emptied  for  the  use  of  per- 
sons or  animals  coming  to  the  wells.  Unless 
machinery  is  used,  which  is  commonly  worked 
by  men,  women  are  usually  the  water-carriers. 


Whale.  As  to  the  signification  of  the  He- 
brew terms  tan  and  tannin,  variously  rendered 
in  the  A.  V.  by  "dragon,"  "whale,"  "serpent," 
"sea-monster,"  see  Dragon.  It  remains  for 
us  in  this  article  to  consider  the  transaction 
recorded  in  the  Book  of  Jonah,  of  that  prophet 
having  been  swallowed  up  by  some  "great 
fish"  which  in  Matt.  xii.  40  is  called  cetos, 
rendered  in  our  version  by  "whale."  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that  the 
Greek  word  cetos,  used  by  St.  Matthew,  is  not 
restricted  in  its  meaning  to  "a  whale,"  or  any 
Cetacean ;  like  the  Latin  cete  or  cetus,  it  may 
denote  any  sea-monster,  either  "a  whale,"  or 
"a  shark,"  or  "a  seal,"  or  "a  tunny  of  enor- 
mous size."  Although  two  or  three  species  of 
whale  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
yet  the  "great  fish"  that  swallowed  the  prophet 
cannot  properly  be  identified  with  any  Ceta- 
cean, for,  although  the  Sperm  whale  has  a 
gullet  sufficiently  large  to  admit  the  body  of 
a  man,  yet  it  can  hardly  be  the  fish  intended ; 
as  the  natural  food  of  Cetaceans  consists  of 
small  animals,  such  as  medusae  and  Crustacea. 
The  only  fish,  then,  capable  of  swallowing  a 
man  would  be  a  large  specimen  of  the  White 
Shark  (Carcharias  vulgaris),  that  dreaded 
enemy  of  sailors,  and  the  most  voracious  of 
the  family  of  Squalidae.  This  shark,  which 
sometimes  attains  the  length  of  thirty  feet,  is 
quite  able  to  swallow  a  man  whole.  The 
whole  body  of  a  man  in  armor  has  been  found 
in  the  stomach  of  a  white  shark ;  and  Captain 
King,  in  his  Survey  of  Australia,  says  he  had 
caught  one  which  could  have  swallowed  a  man 
with  the  greatest  ease.  Blumenbach  mentions 
that  a  whole  horse  has  been  found  in  a  shark, 
and  Captain  Basil  Hall  reports  the  taking  of 
one  in  which,  besides  other  things,  he  found 
the  whole  skin  of  a  buffalo  which  a  short  time 
before  had  been  thrown  overboard  from  his 
ship  (i.  p.  27).  The  white  shark  is  not  uncom- 
mon in  the  Mediterranean. 

Wheat,  the  well-known  valuable  cereal,  cul- 
tivated from  the  earliest  times,  is  first  men- 
tioned in  Gen.  xxx.  14,  in  the  account  of  Ja- 
cob's sojourn  with  Laban  in  Mesopotamia. 
Egypt  in  ancient  times  was  celebrated  for  the 
growth  of  its  wheat;  the  best  quality  was  all 
bearded ;  and  the  same  varieties  existed  in 
ancient  as  in  modern  times,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  the  seven-eared  quality  described 
in  Pharaoh's  dream  (Gen.  xli.  22).  Babylonia 
was  also  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  wheat 
and  other  cereals.  Syria  and  Palestine  pro- 
duced wheat  of  fine' quality  and  in  large  quan- 
tities (Ps.  cxlvii.  14,  Ixxxi.  16,  &c.).  There 
appear  to  be  two  or  three  kinds  of  wheat  at 
present  grown  in  Palestine,  the  Triticum  vul- 


434 


WHIRLWIND 


WILDERNESS  OF  THE  WANDERING 


gare,  the  T.  spelta,  and  another  variety  of 
bearded  wheat  which  appears  to  be  the  same 
as  the  Egyptian  kind,  the  T.  compositum.  In 
the  parable  of  the  sower  our  Lord  alkides  to 
grains  of  wheat  which  in  good  ground  pro- 
duce a  hundredfold  (iNIatt.  xiii.  8).  The  com- 
mon Triticum  vulgare  will  sometimes  produce 
one  hundred  grains  in  the  ear.  Wheat  is 
reaped  towards  the  end  of  April,  in  May,  and 
in  June,  according  to  the  diflferences  of  soil 
and  position ;  it  was  sown  either  broadcast, 
and  then  ploughed  in  or  trampled  in  by  cattle 
(Is.  xxxii.  20),  or  in  rows,  if  we  rightly  under- 


Egyptian  Wheat. 


Stand  Is.  xxviii.  25,  which  seems  to  imply 
that  the  seeds  were  planted  apart  in  order  to 
insure  larger  and  fuller  ears.  The  wheat  was 
put  into  the  ground  in  the  winter,  and  some 
time  after  the  barley ;  in  the  Egyptian  plague 
of  hail,  consequently,  the  barley  suffered,  but 
the  wheat  had  not  appeared,  and  so  escaped 
injury. 

Whirlwind.  The  Hebrew  terms  suphah  and 
se'arah  convey  the  notion  of  a  violent  wind  or 
hurricane,  the  former  because  such  a  wind 
sweeps  away  every  object  it  encounters,  the 
latter  because  the  objects  so  swept  away  are 
tossed  and  agitated.  It  does  not  appear  that 
the  above  terms  express  the  specific  notion  of 
a  whirlwind.  The  whirlwind  is  frequently  used 
as  a  metaphor  of  violent  and  sweeping  destruc- 
tion. 

Widow.  Under  the  ^losaic  dispensation  no 
legal  provision  was  made  for  the  maintenance 
of  widows.  They  were  left  dependent  partly 
on  the  affection  of  relations,  more  especially  of 
the  eldest  son,  whose  birthright,  or  extra  share 
of  the  property,  imposed  such  a  duty  upon 
him,  and  partly  on  the  privileges  accorded  to 
other  distressed  classes,  such  as  a  participa- 
tion in  the  triennial  third  tithe  (Deut.  xiv.  29, 


xxvi.  12),  in  leasing  (Deut.  xxiv.  19-21),  and 
in  religious  feasts  (Deut.  xvi.  11,  14).  With 
regard  to  the  remarriage  of  widows,  the  only 
restriction  imposed  by  the  Mosaic  law  had 
reference  to  the  contingency  of  one  being  left 
childless,  in  which  case  the  brother  of  the 
deceased  husband  had  a  right  to  marry  the 
widow  (Deut.  xxv.  5,  6;  Matt.  xxii.  23-30). 
In  the  Apostolic  Church  the  widows  were  sus- 
tained at  the  public  expense,  the  relief  being 
daily  administered  in  kind,  under  the  superin- 
tendent of  officers  appointed  for  this  special 
purpose  (Acts.  vi.  1-6).  Particular  directions 
are  given  by  St.  Paul  as  to  the  class  of  per- 
sons entitled  to  such  public  maintenance  (i 
Tim.  v.  3-16).  Out  of  the  body  of  such  wid- 
ows a  certain  number  were  to  be  enrolled,  the 
qualifications  for  such  enrolment  being  that 
they  were  not  under  sixty  years  of  age ;  that 
they  had  been  "the  wife  of  one  man,"  prob- 
ably meaning  but  once  married;  and  that  they 
had  led  useful  and  charitable  lives  (vers.  9, 
10).  We  are  not  disposed  to  identify  the  wid- 
ows of  the  Bible  with  the  deaconesses  of  the  early 
Church.  The  order  of  widows  existed  as  a  sepa- 
rate institution,  contemporaneously  with  this 
office,  apparently  for  the  same  eleemosynary  pur- 
pose for  which  it  was  originally  instituted. 
Wife.  [Marriage.] 

Wild  Beasts,  i.  Behemah,  which  is  the  gen- 
eral name  for  "domestic  cattle"  of  any  kind,  is 
used  also  to  denote  "any  large  quadruped," 
as  opposed  to  fowls  and  creeping  things ;  or 
for  "beasts  of  burden,"  horses,  mules,  &c.,  as 
in  I  K.  xviii.  5  ;  Neh.  ii.  12,  14,  &c. ;  or  the  word 
may  denote  "wild  beasts,"  as  in  Deut.  xxxii. 
24;  Hab.  ii.  17;  i  Sam.  xvii.  44.  2  Chayyah  is 
used  to  denote  any  animal.  It  is,  however, 
very  frequently  used  specially  of  "wild  beast," 
when  the  meaning  is  often  more  fully  ex- 
pressed by  the  addition  of  the  word  hassadeh, 
(wild  beast)  "of  the  field"  (Ex.  xxiii.  11 ;  Lev. 
xxvi.  22;  Deut.  vii.  22;  Hos.  ii.  12  [14],  xiii.  8; 
Jer.  xii.  9,  &c.). 

Wilderness  of  the  Wandering.  With  all  the 
material  for  fixing  the  localities  of  the  Exodus, 
the  evidence  for  many  of  them  is  so  slight 
that  the  whole  question  is  involved  in  much 
obscurity.  The  uncertainties  commence  from 
the  very  starting-point  of  the  route  of  the 
Wandering.  It  is  impossible  to  fix  the  point 
at  which  in  "the  wilderness  of  Etham"  (Num. 
xxxiii.  6,  7)  Israel,  now  a  nation  of  freemen, 
emerged  from  that  sea  into  which  they  had 
passed  as  a  nation  of  slaves.  The  fact  that 
from  "Etham  in  the  edge  of  the  wilderness," 
their  path  struck  across  the  sea  (Ex.  xiii  20), 
and  from  the  sea  into  the  same  wilderness  of 
Etham,  seems  to  indicate  the  upper  end  of 


WILLOWS 


WINE 


the  farthest  tongue  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez  as  the 
point  of  crossing.  There  seems  reason  also 
to  think  that  this  gulf  had  then,  as  also  at 
Ezion-Geber,  a  farther  extension  northward 
than  at  present,  owing  to  the  land  having 
upheaved  its  level.  [Red  Sea,  Passage  of. J 
Their  route  lay  southwards  down  the  east 
side  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  and  at  first  along 
the  shore.  Kadesh  may  very  well  be  taken  for 
a  general  name  of  the  wilderness  (see  Ps. 
xxix.  8).  The  direction  in  which  the  people 
started  on  their  wanderings  is  defined,  "by  the 
way  of  the  Red  Sea"  (Num.  xiv.  25;  Dcut.  i. 
40),  which  seems  clearly  to  mean  down  the 
Arabah  to  the  head  of  the  Elanitic  Gulf.  Now 
it  seems  that  the  passage  in  Deut.  ii.  i  must 
be  referred  to  this  same  "turning  into  -the 
wilderness  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea,"  and  not 
to  the  final  march,  the  signal  for  which  is 
recorded  at  v.  3 ;  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the 
computation  of  the  thirty-eight  years  of  wan- 
dering from  the  time  they  left  Kadesh-barnea 
(Num.  xiv.  14).  If  this  be  so,  we  have  a  clew 
to  the  direction  of  the  wandering  in  the  words, 
"and  we  compassed  Mount  Seir  many  days ;" 
words  which  point  to  the  Arabah.  With  this 
agrees  the  notice  of  their  last  march  back  to 
Kadesh,  being  from  Ezion-gaber  at  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  (Num.  xxxiii.  36). 

Willows  are  mentioned  in  Lev.  xxiii.  40;  Job 
xl.  22;  Is.  xliv.  4;  Ps.  cxxxvii.  2.  With  re- 
spect to  the  tree  upon  which  the  captive  Is- 
raelites hung  their  harps,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  weeping  willow  is  intended. 
This  tree  grows  abundantly  on  the  banks  of 
the  Euphrates,  in  other  parts  of  Asia  as  in 
Palestine.  The  Hebrew  vv^ord  translated  wil- 
lows is  generic,  and  includes  several  species 
of  the  large  family  of  Salices,  which  is  well 
represented  in  Palestine  and  the  Bible  lands! 

Wills.  Under  a  system  of  close  inheritance 
like  that  of  the  Jews,  the  scope  for  bequest  in 
respect  of  land  was  limited  by  the  right  of  re- 
demption and  general  re-entry  in  the  Jubilee 
year.  But  the  law  does  not  forbid  bequests 
by  will  of  such  limited  interest  in  land  as  was 
consistent  with  those  rights.  The  case  of 
houses  in  walled  towns  was  dif¥erent,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  must,  in  fact, 
have  frequently  been  bequeathed  by  will  (Lev. 
xxv.  30).  Two  instances  are  recorded  in  the 
.  O.  T.  under  the  Law,  of  testamentary  disposi- 
tion, (i)  effected  in  the  case  of  Ahithophel  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  23),  (2)  recommended  in  the  case 
of  Plezekiah  (2  K.  xx.  i  ;  Is.  xxxviii.  i).  [Heir.] 

Window.  The  window  of  an  Oriental  house 
consists  generally  of  an  aperture  closed  in 
with  lattice-work  (Eccl.  xii.  3,  A.  V.  "win- 
dow ;"  Hos.  xiii.  3,  A.  V.  "chimney ;"  Cant.  ii. 


9;  Judg.  V.  28;  Prov.  vii.  6,  A.  V.  "casement"). 
Glass  has  been  introduced  into  Egypt  in  mod- 
ern times  as  a  protection  against  the  cold  of 
winter,  but  lattice-work  is  still  the  usual,  and 
with  the  poor  the  only,  contrivance  for  clos- 
ing the  window.  The  windows  generally  look 
into  the  inner  court  of  the  house,  but  in  every 
house  one  or  more  look  into  the  street.  In 
Egypt  these  outer  windows  generally  project 
over  the  doorway.  [House.] 

Winds.  Tloat  the  Hebrews  recognized  the 
existence  of  four  prevailing  winds  as  issuing, 
broadly  speaking,  from  the  four  cardinal 
points,  north  south,  east  and  west,  may  be  in- 
ferred from  their  custom  of  using  the  expres- 
sion "four  winds"  as  equivalent  to  the  "four 
quarters"  of  the  hemisphere  (Ez.  xxxvii.  9; 
Dan.  viii.  8;  Zech.  ii.  6;  Matt.  xxiv.  31).  The 
North  wind,  or,  as  it  was  usually  called,  "the 
north,"  was  naturally  the  coldest  of  the  four 
(Ecclus.  xliii.  20),  and  its  presence  is  hence  in- 
voked as  favorable  to  vegetation  in  Cant.  iv. 
16.  It  is  described  in  Prov.  xxv.  23,  as  bring- 
ing rain ;  in  this  case  we  must  understand 
the  north-west  wind.  The  north-west  wind 
prevails  from  the  autumnal  equinox  to  the  be- 
ginning of  November,  and  the  north  wind 
from  June  to  the  equinox.  The  East  wind 
crosses  the' sandy  wastes  of  Arabia  Deserta 
before  reaching  Palestine,  and  was  hence 
termed  "the-  wind  of  the  wilderness"  (Job  i. 
19;  Jer.  xiii.  24).  It  blows  with  violence,  and 
is  hence  supposed  to  be  used  generally  for 
any  violent  wind  (Job  xxvii.  21,  xxxviii.  24; 
Ps.  xlviii.  7;  Is.  xxvii.  8;  Ez.  xxvii.  26).  *■  In 
Palestine  the  east  wind  prevails  from  Febru- 
ary to  June.  The  South  wind,  which  traverses 
the  Arabian  peninsula  before  reaching  Pales- 
tine, must  necessarily  be  extremely  hot  (Job 
xxxvii.  17;  Luke  xii.  55).  The  West  and 
south-west  winds  reach  Palestine  Ipaded  with 
moisture  gathered  from  the  Mediterranean, 
and  are  hence  expressively  termed  by  the 
Arabs  "the  fathers  of  the  rain.''  Westerly 
winds  prevail  in  Palestine  from  November  to 
February.  In  addition  to  the  four  regular 
winds,  we  have  notice  ii>  the  Bible  of  the  local 
squalls  (Mark  iv.  37;  Luke  viii.  23),  to  which 
the  Sea  of  Gennesareth  was  liable.  In  the 
narrative  of  St.  Paul's  voyage  we  meet  with 
the  Greek  term  Lips  to  describe  the  south- 
west wind ;  the  Latin  Carus  or  Caurus  the 
north-west  wind  (Acts  xxvii.  12),  and  Euro- 
clydon^  a  wind  of  a  very  violent  character  com- 
ing from  E.  N.  E.  (Acts  xxvii.  14). 

Wine.  The  manufacture  of  wine  is  carried 
back  in  the  Bible  to  the  age  of  Noah  (Gen. 
ix.  20,  21),  to  whom  the  discovery  of  the  proc- 
ess is  apparently,  though  not'  explicitly,  at- 


436 


WINE 


WINE 


tributed.  The  natural  history  and  culture  of 
the  vine  are  described  under  a  separate  head. 
[Vine.]  The  only  other  plant  whose  fruit  is 
noticed  as  having  been  converted  into  wine, 
was  the  pomegranate  (Cant.  viii.  2).  In  Pales- 
tine the  vintage  takes  place  in  September,  and 
is  celebrated  with  great  rejoicings.  The  ripe 
fruit  was  gathered  in  baskets  (Jer.  vi.  9).  as 
represented  in  Egyptian  paintings,  and  was 
carried  to  the  wine-press.  It  was  then  placed 
in  the  upper  one  of  the  two  vats  or  receptacles 


Egyptian  Wine  Press. 

of  which  the  wine-press  was  formed,  and  was 
subjected  to  the  process  of  "treading,"  which 
has  prevailed  in  all  ages  in  Oriental  and  South- 
European  countries  (Neh.  xiii.  15;  Job  xxiv. 
II ;  Is.  xvi.  10;  Jer.  xxv.  30,  xlviii.  33;  Am.  ix. 
13;  Rev.  xix.  15).  A  certain  amount  of  juice 
exuded  from  the  ripe  fruit  from  its  own  pres- 
sure before  the  treading  commenced.  This  ap- 
pears to  have  been  kept  separate  from  the  rest 
of  the  juice,  and  to  have  formed  the  "sweet 
wine"  noticed  in  Acts  ii.  13.  The  "treading" 
was  effected  by  one  or  more  men,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  vat.  They  encouraged  one 
another  by  shouts  (Is.  xvi.  9,  10;  Jer.  xxv.  30, 
xlviii.  33).  Their  legs  and  garments  were 
dyed  red  with  the  juice  (Gen.  xlix.  11  ;  Is.  Ixiii. 
2,  3).  The  expressed  juice  escaped  by  an 
aperture  into  the  lower  vat,  or  was  at  once 
collected  in  vessels.  A  hand-press  was  occa- 
sionally used  in  Egypt,  but  we  have  no  notice 
of  such  an  instrument  in  the  Bible.  As  to 
the  subsequent  treatment  of  the  wine,  we 
have  but  little  information.  Sometimes  it  was 
preserved  in  its  unfermented  state,  and  drunk 
as  must,  but  more  generally  it  was  bottled 
off  after  fermentation,  and,  if  it  were  designed 
to  be  kept  for  some  time,  a  certain  amount  of 
lees  was  added  to  give  it  body  (Is.  xxv.  6). 
The  wine  consequently  required  to  be  "re- 
fined" or  strained  previously  to  being  brought 


to  table  (Is.  xxv.  6).  To  wine  is  attributed 
the  "darkly  flashing  eye"  (Gen.  xlix.  12;  A.  V. 
•"red"),  the  unbridled  tongue  (Prov.  xx.  i  ;  Is. 
xxviii.  7),  the  excitement  of  the  spirit  (Prov. 
xxxi.  6;  Is.  v.  II;  Zech.  ix.  15,  x.  7),  the  en- 
chained affections  of  its  votaries  (Hos.  iv.  11), 
the  perverted  judgment  (Prov.  xxxi.  5;  Is. 
xxviii.  7),  the  indecent  exposure  (Hab.  ii.  15, 
16),  and  the  sickness  resulting  from  the  heat 
(chemah,  A.  V.  "bottles")  of  wine  (Hos.  vii. 
5).  The  allusions  to  the  effects  of  tirosh  are 
confined  to  a  single  passage,  but  this  a  most 
decisive  one,  viz.  Hos.  iv.  11.  Mingled  liquor 
was  prepared  for  high  festivals  (Prov.  ix.  2, 
5),  and  occasions  of  excess  (Prov.  xxiii.  30; 
Is.  V.  22).  At  the  same  time  strength  was  not 
the  sole  object  sought;  the  wine  "mingled 
with  myrrh,"  given  to  Jesus,  was  designed  to 
deaden  pain  (Mark  xv.  23),  and  the  spiced 
pomegranate  wine  prepared  by  the  bride 
(Cant.  viii.  2)  may  well  have  been  of  a  mild 
character.  In  the  New  Testament  the  char- 
acter of  the  "sweet  wine,"  noticed  in  Acts  ii. 
13,  calls  for  some  little  remark.  It  could  not 
be  new  wine  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term, 
inasmuch  as  about  eight  months  must  have 
elapsed  between  the  vintage  and  the  feast  of 
Pentecost.  Its  luscious  qualities  were  due  to  its 
being  made  from  the  very  purest  juice  of  the 
grape.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  wines 
of    Palestine    varied    in    quality,    and  were 


Egyptians  expressing  tlie  Juice  of  the  Grape. 

named  after  the  localities  in  which  they  were 
made.  The  only  wines  of  which  we  have 
special  notice,  belonged  to  Syria;  these  were 
the  wine  of  Helbon  (Ez.  xxvii.  18),  and  the 
wine  of  Lebanon,  famed  for  its  aroma  (Hos. 
xiv.  7).  With  regard  to  the  uses  of  wine 
in  private  life  there  is  little  to  remark.  It  was 
produced  on  occasions  of  ordinary  hospitality 
(Gen.  xiv.  18),  and  at  festivals,  such  as  mar- 
riages (John  ii.  3).  Under  the  Mosaic  law 
wine  formed  the  usual  drink-offering  that  ac- 
companied the  daily  sacrifice  (Ex.  xxix.  40), 
the  presentation  of  the  first  fruits  (Lev.  xxiii. 
13),  and  other  offerings  (Num.  xv.  5). 

Wine-press.  From  the  scanty  notices  con- 
tained in  the  Bible  we  gather  that  the  wine- 
presses of  the  Jews  consisted  of  two  recept- 


437 


WINNOWING 


WOLF 


acles  or  vats  placed  at  different  elevations,  in 
the  upper  one  of  which  the  grapes  were  trod- 
den, while  the  lower  one  received  the  ex- 
pressed juice.  The  two  vats  are  mentioned 
together  only  in  Joel  iii.  13:  "The  press  is  full; 
the  vats  overflow" — the  upper  vat  being  full 
of  fruit,  the  lower  one  overflowing  with  the 
must.  [Wine.]  The  two  vats  were  usually 
hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock  (Is.  v.  2,  margin; 
Matt.  xxi.  33).  Ancient  wine-presses,  so  con- 
structed, are  still  to  be  seen  in  Palestine. 

Winnowing.  [Agriculture.] 

Wisdom,  The,  of  Solomon,  a .  book  of  the 
Apocrypha,  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
first  (ch.  i.-ix.)  containing  the  doctrine  of  Wis- 
dom in  its  moral  and  intellectual  aspects ;  the 
second,  the  doctrine  of  Wisdom  as  shown 
in  history  (ch.  xi-xix.).  The  first  part  con- 
tains the  praise  of  Wisdom  as  the  source  of 
immortality,  in  contrast  with  the  teaching  of 
sensualists;  and  next  the  praise  of  Wisdom 
as  the  guide  of  practical  and  intellectual  life, 
the  stay  of  princes,  and  the  interpreter  of  the 
universe.  The  second  part,  again,  follows  the 
action  of  Wisdom  summarily,  as  preserving 
God's  servants,  from  Adam  to  Moses,  and 
more  particularly  in  the  punishment  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Canaanites.  The  literary  char- 
acter of  the  book  is  most  remarkable  and  in- 
teresting. In  the  richness  and  freedom  of  its 
vocabulary  it  most  closely  resembles  the 
Fourth  Book  of  Maccabees,  but  it  is  superior 
to  that  fine  declamation,  both  in  power  and 
variety  of  diction.  The  magnificent  descrip- 
tion of  Wisdom  (vii.  22,  viii.  i)  must  rank 
among  the  noblest  passages  of  human  elo- 
quence, and  it  would  be  perhaps  impossible 
to  point  out  any  piece  of  equal  length  in  the 
remains  of  classical  antiquity  more  pregnant 
with  noble  thought,  or  more  rich  in  expressive 
phraseology.  In  connection  with  the  O.  T. 
Scriptures,  the  book,  as  a  whole,  may  be  re- 
garded as  carrying  on  one  step  farther  the 
great  problem  of  life  contained  in  Ecclesiastes 
and  Job.  From  internal  evidence  it  seems 
most  reasonable  to  believe  that  the  book  was 
compos'ed  in  Greek  at  Alexandria  some  time 
before  the  time  of  Philo  (about  120-80  3.  C.). 
St.  Paul,  if  not  other  of  the  Apostolic  writers, 
was  familiar  with  its  language,  though  he 
makes  no  definite  quotation  from  it.  Thus  we 
have  striking  parallels  in  Rom.  ix.  21  to  Wisd. 
XV.  7;  in  Rom.  ix.  22  to  Wisd.  xii.  20;  in  Eph. 
vi.  13-17  to  Wisd.  V.  17-19  (the  heavenly  ar- 
mor), &c.  It  seems,  indeed,  impossible  to  study 
the  book  dispassionately,  and  not  feel  that  it 
forms  one  of  the  last  links  in  the  chain  of 
providential  connection  between  the  Old  and 
New  Covenants.    It  would  not  be  easy  to  find 


elsewhere  any  pre-Christian  view  of  religion 
equally  wide  sustained,  and  definite. 
Wise  Men.  [Magi.] 

Witch,  Witchcrafts.    [Divination;  Magic] 

Witness.  Among  people  with  whom  writ- 
ing is  not  common,  the  evidence  of  a  transac- 
tion is  given  by  some  tangible  memorial  or 
significant  ceremony.  Abraham  gave  seven 
ewe-lambs  to  Abimelech  as  an  evidence  of  his 
property  in  the  well  of  Beersheba.  Jacob 
raised  a  heap  of  stones,  "the  heap  of  witness," 
as  a  boundary-mark  between  himself  and  La- 
ban  (Gen.  xxi.  30,  xxxi.  47,  52).  The  tribes 
of  Reuben  and  Gad  raised  an  "altar"  as  a  wit- 
ness to  the  covenant  between  themselves  and 
the  rest  of  the  nation ;  Joshua  set  up  a  stone 
as  an  evidence  of  the  allegiance  promised  by 
Israel  to  God  (Josh.  xxii.  10,  26,  34,  xxiv.  26, 
27).  Thus  also  symbolical  usages,  in  ratifica- 
tion of  contracts  or  completed  arrangements, 
as  the  ceremony  of  shoe-loosing  (Deut.  xxv. 
9,  10;  Ruth  iv.  7,  8),  the  ordeal  prescribed  in 
the  case  of  a  suspected  wife,  with  which  may 
be  compared  the  ordeal  of  the  Styx  (Num.  v. 
17-31).  But  written  evidence  was  by  no 
means  unknown  to  the  Jews.  Divorce  was  to 
be  proved  by  a  written  document  (Deut.  xxiv. 
I,  3).  In  civil  contracts,  at  least  in  later 
times,  documentary  evidence  was  required  and 
carefully  preserved  (Is.  viii.  16;  Jer.  xxxii. 
10-16).  On  the  whole  the  Law  was  very  care- 
ful to  provide  and  enforce  evidence  for  all  its 
infractions  and  all  transactions  bearing  on 
them.  According  to  Josephus,  women  and 
slaves  were  not  admitted  to  bear  testimony. 
In  the  N.  T.  the  original  notion  of  a  witness  is 
exhibited  in  the  special  form  of  one  who  at- 
tests his  belief  in  the  Gospel  by  personal  suf- 
fering. Hence  it  is  that  the  use  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical term  "martyr,"  the  Greek  word  for 
"witness,"  has  arisen. 

Wizard.    [Divination ;  Magic] 

Wolf.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
wolf  of  Palestine  is  the  common  Canis  lupus, 
and  that  this  is  the  animal  so  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible.  Wolves  were  doubtless 
far  more  common  in  Biblical  times  than  they 
are  now,  though  they  are  occasionally  seen  by 
modern  travellers.  The  following  are  the 
Scriptural  allusions  to  the  wolf :  Its  ferocity 
is  mentioned  in  Gen.  xlix.  27;  Ez.  xxii.  27; 
Hab.  i.  8;  Matt.  vii.  15;  its  nocturnal  habits, 
in  Jer.  v.  6;  Zeph.  iii.  3;  Hab.  i.  8;  its  attack- 
ing^ sheep  and  lambs,  John  x.  12;  Matt.  x.  16; 
Luke  X.  3.  Isaiah  (xi.  6,  Ixv.  25)  foretells  the 
peaceful  reign  of  the  Messiah  under  the  meta- 
phor of  a  wolf  dwelling  with  a  lamb ;  cruel 
persecutors  are  compared  with  wolves  (Matt. 
X.  16;  Acts  XX.  29). 


438 


I 


WOMEN 


WORM 


Women.  The  position  of  women  in  the 
Hebrew  commonwealth  contrasts  favorably 
with  that  which  in  the  present  day  is  assigned 
to  them  generally  in  Eastern  countries.  The 
most  salient  point  of  contrast  in  the  usages  in 
ancient  as  compared  with  modern  Oriental 
society  was  the  large  amount  of  liberty  en- 
joyed by  women.  Instead  of  being  immured 
in  a  harem,  or  appearing  in  public  with  the 
face  covered,  the  wives  and  maidens  of  ancient 
times  mingled  freely  and  openly  with  the 


"Outer  Garments  of  Women"  as  used  by  Egyptians  of  tbe 
present  day. 

other  sex  in  the  duties  and  amenities  of  or- 
dinary life.  Rebekah  travelled  on  a  camel 
with  her  face  unveiled,  until  she  came  into  the 
presence  of  her  affianced  (Gen.  xxiv,  64,  65). 
Jacob  saluted  Rachel  with  a  kiss  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  shepherds  (Gen.  xxix.  11).  Wom- 
en played  no  inconsiderable  part  in  public 
celebrations  (Ex.  xv.  20,  21;  Judg.  xi.  34). 
The  odes  of  Deborah  (Judg.  v.)  and  of  Han- 
nah (i  Sam.  ii.  i,  &c.)  exhibit  a  degree  of  in- 
tellectual cultivation  which  is  in  itself  a  proof 
of  the  position  of  the  sex  in  that  period. 
Women  also  occasionally  held  public  offices, 
particularly  that  of  prophetess  or  inspired 
teacher  (Ex.  xv.  20;  2  K.  xxii.  14;  Neh.  vi.  14; 
Luke  ii.  36;  Judg.  iv.  4).  The  management 
of  household  affairs  devolved  mainly  on  the 
women.  The  value  of  a  virtuous  and  active 
housewife  forms  a  frequent  topic  in  the  Book 
of  Proverbs  (xi.  16,  xii.  4,  xiv.  i,  xxxi.  10,  &c.). 
Her  influence  was  of  course  proportionably 
great. 

Wood.  [Forest.] 

Wool  was  an  article  of  the  highest  value 
among  the  Jews,  as  the  staple  material  for  the 
manufacture  of  clothing  (Lev.  xiii.  47;  Deut. 
xxii.  11;  Job  xxxi.  20;  Prov.  xxxi.  13;  Ez. 
xxxiv.  3;  Hos.  ii.  5).  The  importance  of  wool 
is  incidentally  shown  by  the  notice  that 
Mesha's  tribute  was  paid  in  a  certain  number 


of  rams  "with  the  wool"  (2  K.  iii,  4).  The 
wool  of  Damascus  was  highly  priced  in  the 
mart  of  Tyre  (Ez.  xxvii.  18). 

Woollen,  Linen  and.  The  Israelites  were 
forbidden  to  wear  a  garment  mingled  of  wool- 
len and  linen.  "A  garment  of  mixtures  sliall 
not  come  upon  thee"  (Lev.  xix.  19)  ;  or,  as  it 
is  expressed  in  Deut.  xxii.  11,  "Thou  shalt  not 
wear  wool  and  flax  together."  The  reason 
given  by  Josephus  for  the  law  which  prohib- 
ited the  wearing  of  a  garment  woven  of  linen 
and  woollen  is,  that  such  were  worn  by  the 
priests  alone. 

Worm,  the  representative  in  the  A.  V.  of 
several  Hebrew  words.  Sas,  which  occurs  in 
Is.  li.  8,  probably  denotes  some  particular 
species  of  moth,  whose  larva  is  injurious  to 
wool.  Rimmah  (Ex.  xvi.  20)  points  evidently 
to  various  kinds  of  maggots,  and  the  larvae  of 
insects  which  feed  on  putrefying  animal  mat- 
ter, rather  than  to  earthworms.  Tole'ah  is 
applied  in  Deut.  xxviii.  39  to  some  kinds  of 
larvae  destructive  to  the  vines.  Various  kinds 
of  insects  attack  the  vine,  amongst  which  one 
of  the  most  destructive  is  the  Tortrix  vitisana, 
the  little  caterpillar  of  which  eats  off  the  inner 
parts  of  the  blossoms,  the  clusters  of  which  it 
binds  together  by  spinning  a  web  around 
them.  In  Job  xix.  26,  xxi.  26,  xxiv.  20,  there 
is  an  allusion  to  worms  (insect  larvae)  feed- 


Wormwood. 


ing  on  the  dead  bodies  of  the  buried.  There  is 
the  same  allusion  in  Is.  Ixvi.  24,  which  words 
are  applied  by  our  Lord  (Mark  ix.  44,  46,  48) 
metaphorically  to  the  torments  of  the  guilty 
in  the  world  of  departed  spirits.  The  death  of 
Herod  Agrippa  I.  was  caused  by  worms  (Acts 
xii.  23)  ;  according  to  Josephus  (Ant.  xix.  8), 
his  death  took  place  five  days  after  his  de- 
parture from  the  theatre.  Whether  the  worms 
were  the  cause  or  the  result  of  the  disease  is 
an  immaterial  question. 


439 


WORMWOOD 


WRITING 


Wormwood  occurs  frequently  in  the  Bible, 
and  generally  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  as  in 
Deut.  xxix.  i8,  where  of  the  idolatrous  Israel- 
ites it  is  said,  "Lest  there  be  among  you  a  root 
that  beareth  wormwood"  (see  also  Prov.  v.  4). 
In  Jer.  ix.  15,  xxiii.  13;  Lam,  iii.  15,  19,  worm- 
wood is  symbolical  of  bitter  calamity  and  sor- 
row ;  unrighteous  judges  are  said  to  "turn 
judgment  to  wormwood"  (Am.  v.  7).  The 
Orientals  typified  sorrows,  cruelties,  and  ca- 
lamities of  any  kind  by  plants. of  a  poisonous 
or  bitter  nature.  The  name  of  the  star  which, 
at  the  sound  of  the  third  angel's  trumpet,  fell 
upon  the  rivers,  was  called  Wormwood  (Rev. 
viii,  11).  Four  kinds  of  wormwood  are  found 
in  Palestine — Artemisia  nilotica,  A.  Judaica, 
A.  fruiticosa,  and  A,  Cinerea. 

Wrestling.  [Games.] 

Writing.  There  is  no  account  in  the  Bible 
of  the  origin  of  writing.  That  the  Egyptians 
in  the  time  of  Joseph  were  acquainted  with 
writing  of  a  certain  kind  there  is  evidence  to 
prove,  but  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  up  to 
this  period  the  knowledge  extended  to  the 
Hebrew  family.  At  the  same  time  there  is  no 
evidence  against  it.  Writing  is  first  distinctly 
mentioned  in  Ex.  xvii.  14,  and  the  connection 
clearly  implies  that  it  was  not  then  employed 
for  the  first  time,  but  was  so  familiar  as  to  be 
used  for  historic  records.  The  engraving  of 
the  gems  of  the  high-priest's  breastplate  with 
the  names  of  the  children  of  Israel  (Ex.  xxviii. 
11),  and  the  inscription  upon  the  mitre  (Ex. 
xxxix.  30)  have  to  do  more  with  the  art  of  the 
engraver  than  of  the  writer,  but  both  imply  the 
existence  of  alphabetic  characters.  It  is  not 
absolutely  necessary  to  infer  from  this  that 
the  art  of  writing  was  an  accomplishment  pos- 
sessed by  every  Hebrew  citizen.  If  we  ex- 
amine the  instances  in  which  writing  is  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  individuals,  we  shall 
find  that  in  all  cases  the  writers  were  men  of 
superior  position.  In  Is.  xxix.  11,  12,  there  is 
clearly  a  distinction  drawn  between  the  man 
who  was  able  to  read  and  the  man  who  was 
not,  and  it  seems  a  natural  inference  that  the 
accomplishments  of  reading  and  writing  were 
not  widely  spread  among  the  people,  when 
we  find  that  they  are  universally  attributed 
to  those  of  high  rank  or  education — kings, 
priests,  prophets,  and  professional  scribes.  In 
the  name  Kirjath-Sepher  (Book-town,  Josh. 
XV.  15)  there  is  an  indication  of  a  knowledge 
of  writing  among  the  Phoenicians.  The  He- 
brews, then,  a  branch  of  the  great  Semitic 
family,  being  in  possession  of  the  art  of  writ- 
ing, according  to  their  own  historical  records, 
at  a  very  early  period,  the  further  questions 
arise,  what  character  they  made  use  of,  and 


whence  they  obtained  it?  Recent  investiga- 
tions have'shown  that  the  square  Hebrew  char- 
acter is  of  comparatively  modern  date,  and  has 
been  formed  from  a  more  ancient  type  by  a 
gradual  process  of  development.  What  then 
was  this  ancient  type?  Most  probably  the 
Phoenician.  Pliny  was  of  opinion  that  letters 
were  of  Assyrian  origin.  Diodorus  Siculus  (v. 
74X  says  that  the  Syrians  invented  lefters,  and 
from  them  the  Phoenicians,  having  learnt 
them,  transferred  them  to  the  Greeks.  Accord- 
ing to  Tacitus  (Ann.  xi.  14),  Egypt  was  be- 
lieved to  be  the  source  whence  the  Phoenicians 
got  their  knowledge.  Be  this  as  it  may,  to  the 
Phoenicians,  the  daring  seamen  and  adventur- 
ous colonizers  of  the  ancient  world,  the  voice 
of  tradition  has  assigned  the  honor  of  the  in- 
vention of  letters.  Whether  it  came  to  them 
from  an  Aramaean  or  Egyptian  source  can  at 


Tens  and  Writing  Materials. 

best  be  but  the  subject  of  conjecture.  It  may, 
however,  be  reasonably  inferred'  that  the 
ancient  Hebrews  derived  from,  or  shared  with, 
the  Phoenicians  the  knowledge  of  writing  and 
the  use  of  letters.  The  names  of  the  Hebrew 
letters  indicate  that  they  must  have  been  the 
invention  of  a  Shemitic  people,  and  that  they 
were  moreover  a  pastoral  people  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  same  evidence.  But  whether 
or  not  the  Phoenicians  were  the  inventors  of 
the  Shemitic  alphabet,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
of  their  just  claim  to  being  its  chief  dissem- 
inators. The  old  Semitic  alphabets  may  be 
divided  into  two  principal  classes:  i.  The 
Phoenician,  as  it  exists  in  the  inscriptions  in 
Cyprus,  Malta,  Carpentras,  and  the  coins  of 
Phoenicia-  and  her  colonies.  From  it  are  de- 
rived the  Samaritan  character,  and  the  Greek. 
2.  The  Hebrew-Chaldee  character;  to  whicli 
belong  the  Hebrew  square  character ;  the 
Palmyrene,  which  has  some  traces  of  a  cursive 
hand ;  the  Estrangelo,  or  ancient  Syriac ;  and 
the  ancient  Arabic  or  Cufic.  It  was  probably 
about  the  first  or  second  century  after  Christ 
that  the  square  character  assumed  its  present 
form ;  though  in  a  question  involved  in  so 
much  uncertainty  it  is  impossible  to  pronounce 
with  great  positiveness.  The  oldest  evidence 
on  the  subject  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  is  de- 


440 


WRITING 


YARN 


rived  from  the  alphabetical  Psalms  and  poems : 
Pss.  XXV.,  xxxiv.,  xxxvii.,  cxi.,  cxii.,  cxix.,  cxlv. ; 
Prov.  xxxi.  10-31 ;  Lam.  i.-iv.  From  these  we 
ascertain  that  the  number  of  the  letters  was 
twenty-two,  as  at  present.  The  Arabic  alpha- 
bet originally  consisted  of  the  same  number. 
It  has  been  argued  by  many  that  the  alphabet 
of  the  Phoenicians  at  first  consisted  only  of 
sixteen  letters.  The  legend,  as  told  by  Pliny 
(vii.  56),  is  as  follows:  Cadmus  brought  with 
him  into  Greece  sixteen  letters;  at  the  time  of 
the  Trojan  war  Palamedes  added  four  others, 
and  Simonides  of  INIelos  four  more.  Hebrew  was 
originally  \yritten,  like  most  ancient  languages, 
without  any  divisions  between  the  words.  The 
same  is  the  case  with  the  Phoenician  inscriptions. 
The  various  readings  in  the  LXX.  show  that, 
at  the  time  this  version  was  made,  in  the  He- 
brew ]\ISS.  which  the  translators  used,  the 
words  were  written  in  a  continuous  series.  The 


Writing  Tablets. 


modern  synagogue  rolls  and  the  MSS.  of  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  have  no  vowel-points, 
but  the  words  are  divided,  and  the  Samaritan 
in  this  respect  dififers  but  little  from  the  He- 
brew. The  oldest  documents  which  contain 
the  writing  of  a  Semitic  race  are  probably  the 
bricks  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  on  which  are 
impressed  the  cuneiform  Assyrian  inscriptions. 
There  is,  however,  no  evidence  that  they  were 
ever  employed  by  the  Hebrews.  Wood  was 
used  upon  some  occasions  (Num.  xvii.  3),  and 
writing  tablets  of  boxwood  are  mentioned  in 
2  Esdr.  xiv.  24.  The  "lead,"  to  which  allusion 
is  made  in  Job  xix.  24,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  poured,  when  melted,  into  the  cavities  of 
the  stone  made  by  the  letters  of  an  inscription, 
in  order  to  render  it  durable.  It  is  most  proba- 
})Ie  that  the  ancient  as  well  as  the  most  com- 
mon material  which  the  Hebrews  used  for 
writing  was  dressed  skin  in  some  form  or 
other.  We  know  that  the  dressing  of  skins 
was  practiced  by  the  Hebrews  (Ex.  xxv.  5 ; 
Lev.  xiii.  48),  and  they  may  have  acquired  the 
knowledge  of  the  art  from  the  Egyptians, 
among  whom  it  had  attained  great  perfection, 
the  leather-cutters  constituting  one  of  the  prin- 


cipal subdivisions  of  the  third  caste.  Perhaps 
the  Hebrews  may  have  borrowed,  among  their 
other  acquirements,  the  use  of  papyrus  from 
the  Eg>'ptians,  but  of  this  we  have  no  positive 
evidence.  In  the  Bible  the  only  allusions  to 
the  use  of  papyrus  are  in  2  John  12,  where 
chartes  (A.  V.  "paper")  occurs,  which  refers 
especially  to  papyrus  paper,  and  3  Mace.  iv. 
20,  where  charteria  is  found  in  the  same  sense. 
Herodotus,  after  telling  us  that  the  lonians 
learnt  the  art  of  writing  from  the  Phoenicians, 
adds  that  they  called  their  books  skins,  because 
they  made  use  of  sheep-skins  and  goat-skins 
when  short  of  paper.  Parchment  was  used  for 
the  MSS.  of  the  Pentateuch  in  the  time  of 
Josephus,  and  the  membranae  of  2  Tim.  iv.  13, 
were  skins  of  parchment.  It  was  one  of  the 
provisions  in  the  Talmud  that  the  Law  should 
be  written  on  the  skins  of  clean  animals,  tame 
or  wild,  or  even  of  clean  birds.  The  skins  when 
written  upon  were  formed  into  rolls  (megil- 
16th ;  Ps.  xl.  8 ;  comp.  Is.  xxxiv.  4 ;  Jer.  xxxvi. 
14;  Ez.  ii.  9;  Zech.  v.  i).  They  were  rolled 
upon  one  or  two  sticks  and  fastened  with  a 
thread,  the  ends  of  which  were  sealed  (Is. 
xxix.  11;  Dan.  xii.  4;  Rev.  v.  i,  &c.).  The 
rolls  were  generally  v/ritten  on  one  side  only, 
except  in  Ez.  ii.  9;  Rev,  v.  i.  They  were 
divided  into  columns  (A.  V.  "leaves,"  Jer. 
xxxvi.  23)  ;  the  upper  margin  was  to  be  not 
less  than  three  fingers  broad,  the  lower  not  less 
than  four;  and  a  space  of  two  fingers'  breadth 
was  to  be  left  between  every  two  columns.  But 
besides  skins,  which  were  used  for  the  more 
permanent  kinds  of  writing,  tablets  of  wood 
covered  with  wax  (Luke  i.  63)  served  for  the 
ordinary  purposes  of  life.  Several  of  these  were 
fastened  together  and  formed  volumes.  They 
were  written  upon  with  a  pointed  style  (Job 
xix.  24),  sometimes  of  iron  (Ps.  xlv.  2;  Jer. 
viii.  8,  xvii.  i).  For  harder  materials  a  graver 
(Ex.  xxxii.  4;  Is.  viii.  i)  was  employed.  For 
parchment  or  skins  a  reed  was  used  (3  John 
13;  3  Mace.  V.  20).  The  ink  (Jer.  xxxvi.  18), 
literally  "black,"  was  of  lampblack  dissolved 
in  gall-juice.  It  was  carried  in  an  inkstand, 
which  was  suspe^ided  at  the  girdle  (Ez.  ix.  2, 
3),  as  is  done  at  the  present  day  in  the  East. 
To  professional  scribes  there  are  allusions  in 
Ps.  xlv.  I ;  Ezr.  vii.  6;  2  Esdr.  xiv,  24, 

X. 

Xan'thicus.  [Month.] 
Xerx'es.  [Ahasuerus.] 

Y. 

Yarn.  The  notice  of  yarn  is  contained  in  an 
;tremely  obscure  passage  in  i  K.  x.  28  (2 


YEAR 


ZACHARIAH 


dir.  i.  16).  The  Hebrew  Received  Text  is 
questionable.  Gesenius  gives  the  sense  of 
"number"  as  applying  equally  to  the  merchants 
and  the  horses :  "A  band  of  the  king's  mer- 
chants bought  a  drove  (of  horses)  at  a  price." 

Year,  the  highest  ordinary  division  of  time. 
Tw^o  years  were  known  to,  and  apparently 
used  by,  the  Hebrews,  i.  A  year  of  360  days 
appears  to  have  been  in  use  in  Noah's  time.  2. 
The  year  used  by  the  Hebrews  from  the  time 
of  the  Exodus  may  be  said  to  have  been  then 
instituted,  since  a  current  month,  Abib,  on 
the  14th  day  of  which  the  first  Passover  was 
kept,  was  then  made  the  first  month  of  the 
year.  The  essential  characteristics  of  this 
year  can  be  clearly  determined,  though  we 
cannot  fix  those  of  any  single  year.  It  was 
essentially  solar,  for  the  offering  of  produc- 
tions of  the  earth,  first-fruits,  harvest-produce, 
and  ingathered  fruits,  was  fixed  to  certain  days 
of  the  year,  two  of  which  were  in  the  periods 
of  great  feasts,  the  third  itself  a  feast  reckoned 
from  one  of  the  former  days.  But  it  is  certain 
that  the  months  were  lunar,  each  commencing 
with  a  new  moon.  There  must  therefore  have 
been  some  method  of  adjustment.  The  first 
point  to  be  decided  is  how  the  commencement 
of  each  year  was  fixed.  Probably  the  Hebrews 
dejermined  their  new  year's  day  by  the  ob- 
servation of  heliacal  or  other  star-risings  or 
settings  known  to  mark  the  right  time  of  the 
solar  year.  It  follows  from  the  determination 
of  the  proper  new  moon  of  the  first  month, 
whether  by  observation  of  a  stellar  phenome- 
non, or  of  the  forwardness  of  the  crops,  that 
the  method  of  intercalation  can  only  have  been 
that  in  use  after  the  Captivity,  the  addition  of 
a  thirteenth  month  whenever  the  twelfth  ended 
too  long  before  the  equinox  for  the  offering  of 
the  first-fruits  to  be  made  at  the  time  fixed. 
The  later  Jews  had  two  commencements  of  the 
year,  whence  it  is  commonly  but  inaccurately 
said  that  they  had  two  years,  the  sacred  year 
and  the  civil.  We  prefer  to  speak  of  the  sacred 
and  civil  reckonings.  The  sacred  reckoning 
was  that  instituted  at  the  Exodus,  according 
to  which  the  first  month  was  Abib ;  by  the 
civil  reckoning  the  first  month  was  the  sev- 
enth. The  interval  between  the  two  com- 
mencements was  thus  exactly  half  a  year.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  the  institution  at  the 
time  of  the  Exodus  was  a  change  of  com- 
mencement, not  the  introduction  of  a  new 
year,  and  that  thenceforward  the  year  had  two 
beginnings,  respectively  at  about  the  vernal 
and  the  autumnal  equinoxes.  The  year  was 
divided  into — i.  Seasons.  Two  seasons  are 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  "summer"  and  "win- 
ter."  The  former  properly  means  the  time  of 


cutting  fruits,  the  latter,  that  of  gathering 
fruits;  they  are  therefore  originally  rather 
summer  and  autumn  than  summer  and  winter. 
But  that  they  signify  ordinarily  the  two  grand 
divisions  of  the  year,  the  warm  and  cold  sea- 
sons, is  evident  from  their  use  for  the  whole 
year  in  the  expression  "summer  and  winter" 
(Ps.  Ixxiv.  17;  Zech.  xiv.  8).  2.  Months. 
[Months.]  3.  Weeks.  [Weeks.] 
Year,  Sabbatical.  [Sabbatical  Year.] 
Year  of  Jubilee.  [Jubilee,  Year  of.] 
Yoke.  1.  A  well-known  implement  of  hus- 
bandry, is  frequently  used  metaphorically  for 
subjection  (e.  g.  i  K.  xii.  4,  9-11 ;  Is.  ix.  4;  Jer. 
V.  5)  ;  hence  an  "iron  yoke"  represents  an  un- 
usually galling  bondage  (Deut.  xxviii.  48;  Jer. 
(xxviii.  13).  2.  A  pair  of  oxen,  so  termed  as 
being  yoked  together  (i  Sam.  xi.  7;  i  K.  xix. 
19,  21).  The  Hebrew  term  is  also  applied  to 
asses  (Judg.  xix.  10)  and  mules  (2  K.  v.  17), 
and  even  to  a  couple  of  riders  (Is.  xxi.  7).  3. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  certain  amount 
of  land  (i  Sam.  xiv.  14),  equivalent  to  that 
which  a  couple  of  oxen  could  plough  in  a  day 
(Is.  V.  10;  A.  V.  "acre"),  corresponding  to  the 
Latin  jugum. 

Z. 

Zabade'ans,  an  Arab  tribe  who  were  attacked 
and  spoiled  by  Jonathan,  on  his  way  back  to 
Damascus  from  his  fruitless  pursuit  of  the 
army  of  Demetrius  (i  Mace.  xii.  31).  Their 
name  probably  survives  in  the  village  Zeb- 
dany,  about  26  miles  from  Damascus,  standing 
at  the  upper  end  of  a  plain  of  the  same  name, 
which  is  the  very  centre  of  Antilibanus. 

Zacchae'us,  a  tax-collector  near  Jericho, 
who,  being  short  in  stature,  climbed  up  into  a 
sycamore-tree,  in  order  to  obtain  a.  sight  of 
Jesus  as  He  passed  through  that  place  (Luke 
xix.  i-io).  Zacchaeus  was  a  Jew,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  his  name  and  from  the  fact  that 
the  Saviour  speaks  of  him  expressly  as  "a  son 
of  Abraham."  The  term  which  designates  his 
office — "the  chief  among  the  publicans" — is 
unusual,  but  describes  him,  no  doubt,  as  the 
superintendent  of  customs  or  tribute  in  the 
district  of  Jericho,  where  he  lived.  The  office 
must  have  been  a  lucrative  one  in  such  a 
region,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  Zacchaeus  is 
mentioned  by  the  Evangelists  as  a  rich  man. 
The  Saviour  spent  the  night  probably  in  the 
house  of  Zacchaeus,  and  the  next  day  pursued 
his  journey  to  Jerusalem.  He  was  in  the 
caravan  from  Galilee,  which  was  going  up 
thither  to  keep  the  Passover. 

Zachari'ah.  I.  Or  properly  Zechariah,  was 
son  of  Jeroboam  II.,  14th  king  of  Israel,  and 
the  last  of  the  house  of  Jehu.   There  is  a  diffi- 


442 


or 

5: 


ZACHARIAS 


ZECHARIAH 


culty  about  the  date  of  his  reign.  Most 
chronologers  assume  an  interregnum  of  ii 
years  between  Jeroboam's  death  and  Zacha- 
riah's  accession;  during  which  the  kingdom 
was  suffering  from  the  anarchy  of  a  disputed 
succession,  but  this  seems  unlikely  after  the 
reign  of  a  resolute  ruler  like  Jeroboam,  and 
does  not  explain  the  dif¥erence  between  2  K. 
xiv.  iy,  and  xv.  i.  We  are  reduced  to  suppose 
that  our  present  MSS.  have  here  incorrect 
numbers,  to  substitute  15  for  27  in  2  K.  xv.  r, 
and  to  believe  that  Jeroboam  II.  reigned  52  or 
53  years.  But  whiether  we  assume  an  inter- 
regnum, or  an  error  in  the  MSS.,  we  must 
place  Zachariah's  accession  B.  C.  771-2.  His 
reign  lasted  only  six  months.  He  was  killed 
in  a  conspiracy,  of  which  Shallum  was  the 
head,  and  by  which  thd^prophecy  in  2  K.  x.  30 
was  accomplished.  2.  The  father  of  Abi,  or 
Abijah,  Hezekiah's  mother  (2  K.  xviii.  2). 

Zachari'as.  i.  Father  of  John  the  Baptist 
(Luke  i.  5,  &c.).  [John  the  Baptist.]  2.  Son 
of  Barachias,  who,  our  Lord  says,  was  slain  by 
the  Jews  between  the  altar  and  the  temple 
(Matt,  xxiii.  35;  Luke  xi.  51).  There  has  been 
much  dispute  who  this  Zacharias  -was.  Many 
of  the  Greek  Fathers  have  maintained  that  the 
father  of  John  the  Baptist  is  the  person  to 
whom  our  Lord  alludes ;  but  there  can  be  little 
or  no  doubt  that  the  allusion  is  to  Zechariah, 
the  son  of  Jehoiada  (2  Chr.  xxiv.  20,  21).  The 
name  of  the  father  of  Zacharias  is  not  men- 


Zarepliath. 

tioncd  by  St.  Luke ;  and  we  may  suppose  that 
the  name  of  Barachias  crept  into  the  text  of 
St.  jVIatthew  from  a  marginal  gloss,  a  con- 
fusion having  been  made  between  Zechariah, 
the  .son  of  Jehoiada,  and  Zacharias,  the  son  of 
Barachias  (Berechiah)  the  prophet. 

Za'phon,  a  place  mentioned  in  the  enumera- 
tion of  the  allotment  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Josh, 
xiii.  27). 

Za'ra,  Zarah  the  son  of  Judah  (Matt.  i.  3). 


Za'rah,  Zerah,  the  son  of  Judah  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  30,  xlvi.  12). 

Za'reah,  the  same  as  Zorah  and  Zoreah 
(Neh.  xi.  29). 

Za'reathites,  The,  the  inhabitants  of  Zareah 
or  Zorah  (i  Chr.  ii.  53). 

Za'red,  The  Valley  of.  [Zered.] 

Zar'ephath,  the  residence  of  the  prophet 
Elijah  during  the  latter  part  of  the  drought 
(i  K.  xvii.  9,  10).  Beyond  stating  that  it  was 
near  to,  or  dependent  on,  Zidon,  the  Bible 
gives  no  clew  to  its  position.  It  is  mentioned 
by  Obadiah  (ver.  20),  but  merely  as  a  Canaan- 
ite  (that  is,  Phoenician)  city.  It  is  represented 
by  the  modern  village  of  Sura-fend.  Of  the 
old  town  considerable  indications  remain.  One 
group  of  foundations  is  on  a  headland  called 
Ain  el-Kantarah ;  but  the  chief  remains  are 
south  of  this,  and  extend  for  a  mile  or  more, 
with  many  fragments  of  columns,  slabs,  and 
other  architectural  features.  In  the  N.  T. 
Zarephath  appears  under  the  Greek  form  of 
Sarepta.    (Luke  iv.  26). 

Zar'etan,  Zarthan  (Josh.  iii.  16). 

Zeb'edee,  a  fisherman  of  Galilee,  the  father 
of  the  Apostles  James  the  Great  and  John 
(Matt.  iv.  21),  and  the  husband  of  Salome 
(Matt,  xxvii.  56;  Mark  xv.  40).  He  probably 
lived  either  at  Bethsaida  or  in  its  immediate 
neighborhood.  It  has  been  inferred  from  the 
mention  of  his  "hired  servants"  (Mark  i.  20), 
and  from  the  acquaintance  between  the 
Apostle  John  and  Annas  the  high-priest  (John 
xviii.  15},  that  the  family  of  Zebedee  were  in 
easy  circumstances  (comp.  xix.  27),  although 
not  above  manual  labor  (Matt.  iv.  21).  He  ap- 
pears only  once  in  the  Gospel  narrative,  name- 
ly, in  Matt.  iv.  21,  22;  Mark  i.  19,  20,  where 
he  is  seen  in  his  boat  with  his  two  sons  mend- 
ing their  nets. 

Zechari'ah.  i.  The  eleventh  in  order  of  the 
twelve  minor  prophets.  He  is  called  in  his 
prophecy  the  son  of  Berechiah,  and  the  grand- 
son of  Iddo,  whereas  in  the  Book  of  Ezra  (v. 
I,  vi.  14)  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of 
Iddo.  It  is  natural  to  suppose,  as  the  prophet 
himself  mentions  his  father's  name,  whereas 
the  Book  of  Ezra  mentions  only  Iddo,  that 
Berechiah  had  died  early,  and  that  there  was 
now  no  intervening  link  between  the  grand- 
father and  the  grandson.  Zechariah,  like  Jere- 
miah and  Ezekiel  before  him,  was  priest  as 
well  as  prophet.  He  seems  to  have  entered 
upon  his  office  while  yet  young  (Zech.  ii.  4), 
and  must  have  been  born  in  Babylon,  whence 
he  returned  with  the  first  caravan  of  exiles 
under  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua.  It  was  in  the 
eighth  month,  in  the  second  year  of  Darius, 
that  he  first  publicly  discharged  his  office.  In 


443 


ZEDEKIAH 


ZEDEKIAH 


this  he  acted  in  concert  with  Haggai.  Both 
prophets  had  the  same  great  object  before 
them ;  both  directed  all  their  energies  to  the 
building  of  the  Second  Temple.  To  their  in- 
fluence we  find  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple 
in  a  great  measure  ascribed.  If  the  later  Jew- 
ish accounts  may  be  trusted,  Zechariah,  as  well 
as  Haggai,  was  a  member  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue.   The  genuine  writings   of  Zechariah 


So-called  "Tomb  of  Zechariah."  in  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat. 

help  US  but  little  in  our  estimation  of  his  char- 
acter. He  is  the  only  one  of  the  prophets  who 
speaks  of  Satan.  Generally  speaking,  Zecha- 
riah's  style  is  pure,  and  remarkably  free  from 
Chaldaisms. 

Zedeki'ah  (Justice  of  Jehovah),  i.  The  last 
king  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem.  He  was  the  son 
of  Josiah  by  his  wife  Hamutal,  and  therefore 
own  brother  to  Jehoahaz  (2  K.  xxiv.  18;  comp. 
xxiii.  31).  His  original  name  had  been  Mat- 
taniah,  which  was  changed  to  Zedekiah  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  when  he  carried  oflf  his 
nephew  Jehoiachim  to  Babylon,  and  left  him 
on  the  throne  of  Jerusalem.  Zedekiah  was  but 
21  years  old  ^when  he  was  thus  placed  in 
charge  of  an  impoverished  kingdom  (B.  C. 
597).  His  history  is  contained  in  a  short 
sketch  of  the  events  of  his  reign  given  in  2 
K.  xxiv.  17-XXV.  7,  and,  with  some  trifling 
variations,  in  Jer.  xxxix.  1-7,  Hi.  i-ii,  together 
with  the  still  shorter  summary  in  2  Chr.  xxxvi. 
10,  &c. ;  and  also  in  Jer.,  xxi.,  xxiv.,  xxvii., 
xxviii.,  xxix.,  xxxii.,  xxxiii.,  xxxiv.,  xxxvii., 
xxxviii.,  and  Ez.  xvi.  11-21.  From  these  it  is 
evident  that  Zedekiah  was  a  man  not  so  much 
bad  at  heart  as  weak  in  will.  It  is  evident 
from  Jer.  xxvii.  and  xxviii.  that  the  earlier  por- 
tion of  Zedekiah's  reign  was  marked  by  an 
agitation  throughout  the  whole  of  Syria 
against  the  Babylonian  yoke.  Jerusalem  seems 


to  have  taken  the  lead,  since  in  the  fourth  year 
of  Zedekiah's  reign  we  find  ambassadors  from 
all  the  neighboring  kingdoms — Tyre,  Sidon, 
Edom,  and  Moab— at  his  court,  to  consult  as 
to  the  steps  to  be  taken.  The  first  act  of  overt 
rebellion  of  which  any  record  survives  was  the 
formation  of  an  alliance  with  Egypt,  of  itself 
equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  enmity  with 
Babylon.  As  a  natural  consequence  it  brought 
on  Jerusalem  an  immediate  invasion  of  the 
Chaldeans.  The  mention  of  this  event  in  the 
Bible,  though  sure,  is  extremely  slight,  and  oc- 
curs only  in  Jer.  xxxvii.  5-1 1,  xxxiv.  21,  and 
Ez.  xvii.  15-20;  but  Josephus  (x.  7,  §  3)  relates 
it  more  fully,  and  gives  the  date  of  its  occur- 
rence, namely,  the  eighth  year  of  Zedekiah.  It 
appears  that  Nebuchadnezzar,  being  made 
aware  of  Zedekiah's  defection,  either  by  the 
non-payment  of  the  tribute  or  by  other  means, 
at  once  sent  an  army  to  ravage  Judaea.  This 
was  done,  and  the  whole  country  reduced,  ex- 
cept Jerusalem  and  two  strong  places  in  the 
western  plain,  Lachish  and  Azekah,  which  still 
held  out  (Jer.  xxxiv.  7).  Called  away  for  a 
time  by  an  attack  of  the  Egyptians  on  the 
tenth  day  of  the  tenth  month  of  Zedekiah's 
ninth  year  the  Chaldeans  were  again  before 
the  walls  (Jer.  Hi.  4).  From  this  time  forward 
the  siege  progressed  slowly,  but  surely,  to  its 
consummation.  The  city  was  indeed  reduced 
to  the  last  extremity.  The  bread  had  for  long 
been  consumed  (Jer.  xxxviii.  9),  and  all  the 
terrible  expedients  had  been  tried  to  which  the 
wretched  inhabitants  of  a  besieged  town  are 
forced  to  resort  in  such  cases.  At  last,  after 
sixteen  dreadful  months,  the  catastrophe  ar- 
rived. It  was  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  fourth 
month,  about  the  middle  of  July,  at  midnight, 
as  Josephus  with  careful  minuteness  informs 
us,  that  the  breach  in  those  stout  and  venerable 
walls  was  efifected.  The  wretched  remnants 
of  the  army  quitted  the  city  in  the  dead  of 
night ;  and  as  the  Chaldean  army  entered  the 
city  at  one  end,  the  king  and  his  wives  fled 
from  it  by  the  opposite  gate.  They  took  the 
road  towards  the  Jordan.  On  the  way  they 
were  met  and  recognized  by  some  of  the  Jews 
who  had  formerly  deserted  to  the  Chaldeans. 
By  them  the  intelligence  was  communicated, 
and,  as  soon  as  the  dawn  of  day  permitted  it, 
swift  pursuit  was  made.  The  king's  party 
were  overtaken  near  Jericho,  and  carried  to 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  was  then  at  Riblah,  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  valley  of  Lebanon. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  with  a  refinement  of  cruelty 
characteristic  of  those  cruel  times,  ordered  the 
sons  of  Zedekiah  to  be  killed  before  him,  and 
lastly  his  own  eyes  to  be  thrust  out  (B.  C. 
586).   He  was  then  loaded  with  brazen  fetters, 


444 


ZERUBBABEL 


ZIDON 


and  at  a  later  period  taken  to  Babylon,  wjere 
he  died. 

Zerub'babel  (born  at  Babel,  i.  e.  Babylon), 
the  head  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  at  the  time  of 
the  return  from  the  Babylonish  Captivity  in 
the  first  year  of  Cyrus.  The  history  of  Zerub- 
babel  in  the  Scriptures  is  as  follows :  In  the 
first  year  of  Cyrus  he  was  living  at  Babylon, 
and  was  the  recognized  prince  of  Judah  in  the 
Captivity,  what  in  later  times  was  called  "the 
Prince  of  the  Captivity,"  or  "the  Prince."  On 
the  issuing  of  Cyrus's  decree  he  immediately 
availed  himself  of  it,  and  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  those  of  his  countrymen  "whose  spirit 
God  had  raised  to  go  up  to  build  the  house  of 
the  Lord  which  is  in  Jerusalem."  It  is  proba- 
ble that  he  was  in  the  king  of  Babylon's  ser- 
vice, both  from  his  having,  like  Daniel  and 
the  three  children,  received  a  Chaldee  name 
[Sheshbazzar] ,  and  from  the  fact  that  he  was 
appointed  by  the  Persian  king  to  the  office  of 
governor  of  Judaea.  On  arriving  at  Jerusalem, 
Zerubbabel's  great  work,  which  he  set  about 
immediately,  was  the  rebuilding  of  the  Tem- 
ple. In  the  second  month  of  the  second  year 
of  their  return,  the  foundation  was  laid  with 
all  the  pomp  which  they  could  command.  The 
Samaritans  or  Cutheans  put  in  a  claim  to  join 
with  the  Jews  in  rebuilding  the  Temple ;  and 
when  Zerubbabel  and  his  companions  refused 
to  admit  them  into  partnership  they  tried  to 
hinder  them  from  building,  and  hired  coun- 
sellors to  frustrate  their  purpose.  They  were 
successful  in  putting  a  stop  to  the  work  dur- 
ing the  seven  remaining  years  of  the  reign  of 
Cyrus,  and  through  the  eight  years  of  Camby- 
ses  and  Smerdis.  Xor  does  Zerubbabel  appear 
quite  blameless  for  this  long  delay.  The  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  building  the  Temple  were 
not  such  as  need  have  stopped  the  work ;  and 
during  this  long  suspension  of  sixteen  years 
Zerubbabel  and  the  rest  of  the  people  had  been 
busy  in  builtling  costly  houses  for  themselves. 
But  in  the  second  year  of  Darius  light  dawned 
upon  the  darkness  of  the  colony  from  Babylon. 
In  that  year — it  was  the  most  memorable 
event  in  Zerubbabel's  life — the  spirit  of 
prophecy  suddenly  blazed  up  with  a  most  bril- 
liant light  amongst  the  returned  captives. 
Their  words  fell  like  sparks  upon  tinder.  In 
a  moment  Zerubbabel,  roused  from  his  apathy, 
threw  his  whole  strength  into  the  work, 
zealously  seconded  by  Jeshua  and  all  the 
people.  Undeterred  by  a  fresh  attempt  of 
their  enemies  ta  hinder  the  progress  of  the 
building,  they  went  on  with  the  work  even 
while  a  reference  was  being  made  to  Darius; 
and  when,  after  the  original  decree  of  Cyrus 
had  been  found  at  Ecbatana,  a  most  gracious 


and  favorable  decree  was  issued  by  Darius, 
enjoining  Tatnai  and  Shethar-boznai  to  assist 
the  Jews  with  what§oever  they  had  need  of  at 
the  king's  expense.  After  much  opposition 
[see  Nehemiah]  and  many  hinderances  and  de- 
lays-, the  Temple  was  at  length  finished,  in  the 
sixth  year  of  Darius,  and  was  dedicated  with 
much  pomp  and  rejoicing.  [Temple.]  The 
only  other  works  of  Zerubbabel  which  we  learn 
from  Scripture  are  the  restoration  of  the 
courses  of  priests  and  Levites,  and  of  the  pro- 
vision for  their  maintenance,  according  to  the 
institution  of  David  (Ezr.  vi.  i8;  Neh.  xii.  47)  ; 
the  registering  the  returned  captives  according 
to  their  genealogies  (Neh.  vii.  5)  ;  and  the 
keeping  of  a  Passover  in  the  seventh  year  of 
Darius,  with  which  last  event  ends  all  that  we 
know  of  the  life  of  Zerubbabel.  His  apo- 
cryphal history  is  told  in  i  Esdr.  iii.-vii.  In 
the  N.  T.  the  name  appears  in  the  Greek  form 
of  Zorobabel. 

Zi'don,  or  Si'don  (Gen.  x.  15,  19;  Josh.  xi. 
8,  xix.  28;  Judg.  i.  31,  xviii.  28;  Joel  iii.  4  (iv. 
4)  ;  Is.  xxiii.  2,  4,  12 ;  Jer.  xxv.  22,  xxvii.  3 ;  Ez. 
xxviii.  21,  22;  Zech.  ix.  2;  Matt.  xi.  21,  22,  xv. 
21  ;  Luke  vi.  17,  x.  13,  14;  Mark  iii.  8,  vii.  24, 
31).  An  ancient  and  wealthy  city  of  Phoenicia, 


Gate  at  Sidon. 

on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  less  than  20  English  miles  to  the  north  of 
Tyre.  Its  Hebrew  name,  Tsidon,  signifies 
"Fishing,"  or  "Fishery."  Its  modern  name 
is  Saida.  It  is  situated  in  the  narrow  plain 
between  the  Lebanon  and  the  sea.  From  a 
Biblical  point  of  view,  this  city  is  inferior  in 
interest  to  its  neighbor  Tyre ;  though  in  early 
times  Sidon  was  the  more  influential  of  the 
two  cities.  From  the  time  of  Solomon  to  the 
invasion  of  Nebuchadnezzar  Zidon  is  not  often 
directly  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  it  appears 
to  have  been  subordinate  to  Tyre.  When  the 
people  called  "Zidonians"  is  mentioned,  it 
sometimes  seems  that  the  Phoenicians  of  the 
plain  of  Zidon  are  meant  (i  K.  v.  6,  xvi.  31, 


445 


ZIDON 


ZOAN 


xi.  I,  5,  33;  2  K.  xxiii.  13).  There  is  no  doubt, 
however,  that  Zidon  itself,  the  city  properly  so 
called,  was  threatened  by  Joel  (iii.  4)  and  Jere- 
miah (xxvii.  3).  Still,  all  that  is  known  re- 
specting it  during  the  epoch  is  very  scant}'^, 
amounting  to  scarcely  more  than  that  one  of 
its  sources  of  gain  was  trade  in  slaves,  in  which 
the  inhabitants  did  not  shrink  fi^om  selling  in- 
habitants of  Palestine ;  that  the  city  was  gov- 
erned by  kings  (Jer.  xxvii.  3  and  xxv.  22). 


During  the  Persian  domination,  Zidon  seems 
to  have  attained  its  highest  point  of  pros- 
perity ;  and  it  is  recorded  that,  towards  the 
close  of  that  period,  it  far -excelled  all  other 
Phoenician  cities  in  wealth  and  importance. 
It  is  very  probable  that  the  long  siege' of  Tyre 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  had  tended  not  only  to 
weaken  and  impoverish  Tyre,  but  likewise  to 
enrich  Zidon  at  the  expense  of  Tyre.  Its  pros- 
perity was  suddenly  cut  short  by  an  unsuc- 
cessful revolt  against  Persia,  which  ended  in 
the  destruction  of  the  town  (B.  C.  351).  But 
their  king  Tennes  proved  a  traitor  to  their 
cause — and  in  performance  of  a  compact  with 
Ochus,  he  betrayed  into  the  king's  power  one 
hundred  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens  of 
Sidon,  who  were  all  shot  to  death  with  jave- 
lins. Five  hundred  other  citizens,  who  went 
out  to  the  king  with  ensigns  of  supplication, 
shared  the  same  fate ;  and  by  concert  between 
Tennes  and  Mentor,  the  Persian  troops  were 
admitted  within  the  gates,  and  occupied  the 
city  walls.  The  Sidonians,  before  the  arrival 
of  Ochus,  had  burnt  their  vessels  to  prevent 
any  one's  leaving  the  town ;  and  when  they 
saw  themselves  surrounded  by  the  Persian 
troops,  they  adopted  the  desperate  resolution 
of  shutting  themselves  up  with  their  families, 
and  setting  fire  each  man  to  his  own  house  (B. 
C.  351)-  Forty  thousand  persons  are  said  to 
have  perished  in  the  flames.  Sidon,  however, 
gradually  recovered  from  the  blow,  and  be- 
came again  a  flourishing  town.     It  is  about 


fifty  miles  distant  from  Nazareth,  and  is  the 
most  northern  city  which  is  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  Christ's  journeys. 

Zin,  the  name  given  to  a  portion  of  the 
desert  tract  between  the  Dead  Sea,  Ghor,  and 
Arabah  on  the  E.,  and  the  general  plateau  of 
the  Tih  which  stretches  westward.  The  coun- 
try in  question  consists  of  two  or  three  suc- 
cessive terraces  of  mountain  converging  to  an 
acute  angle  at  the  Dead  Sea's  southern  verge, 
towards  which  alsq  they  slope.  Kadesh  lay 
in  it,  and  here  also  Idumea  was  conterminous 
with  Judah ;  since  Kadesh  was  a  city  in  the 
border  of  Edom  (see  Kadesh ;  Num.  xiii.  21, 
XX.  I,  xxvii.  14,  xxxiii.  36,  xxxiv.  3;  Josh. 
XV.  l). 

Zo'an.,  an  ancient  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
called  Tanis  by  the  Greeks.  It  stood  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Tanitic  branch  of  the  Nile. 
Its.  name  indicates  a  place  of  departure  from 
a  country,  and  hence  it  has  been  identified 
with  Avaris,  the  capital  of  the  Shepherd 
dynasty  in  Egypt.  We  read  in  the  book  of 
Numbers  that  "Hebron  was  built  seven  years 
before  Zoan  in  Egypt"  (xiii.  22),  which  tends 
to  establish  the  identity  of  Avaris  and  Zoan, 
since  we  know  that  Hebron  was  already  built 
in  Abraham's  time,  and  the  Shepherd-invasion 


Ruins  at  Zoan. 

may  be  dated  about  the  same  period.  Suppos- 
ing that  the  Pharaoh  who  oppressed  the  Israel- 
ites belonged  to  the  Shepherds,  it  would  be 
natural  for  him  to  reside  at  Zoan ;  and  this  city 
is  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  Plagues 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  it 
is  the  city  spoken  of  in  the  narrative  in  Exodus 
as  that  where  Pharaoh  dwelt  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  42, 
43).  Tanis  gave  its  name  to  the  xxist  and 
xxiiid  dynasties,  and  hence  its  mention  in 
Isaiah  (xix.  13,  xxx.  4),  "I  will  set  fire  in 
Zoan"  (xxx.  14),  where  it  occurs  among  the 
cities  to  be  taken  bv  Nebuchadnezzar. 


446 


ZOPHLM,  THE  FIELD  OF 

Zo'phim,  The  Field  of,  a  spot  on  or  near  the 
top  of  Pisgah,  from  which  Balaam  had  his 
second  view  of  the  encampment  of  Israel 
(Xum.  xxiii.  14).  The  position  of  the  field  of 
Zophim  is  not  defined.  j\Iay  it  not  be  the 
same  place  which  later  in  the  history  is  men- 
tioned as  Mizpah-Moab? 


ZUZIiMS.  I  1  f  /  1  '\ 

Zu'zims,  The,  an  ancient  peop'1^, 'Ufeo','h)IJiig 
in  the  path  of  Chedorlaomer  and  ^  hip  ^  allies, 
were  attacked  and  overthrown  by  them  (Gen. 
xiv.  5).  The  Zuzims  perhaps  inhabited  the 
country  of  the  Ammonites,  and  were  identical 
with  the  Zamzummim,  who  are  known  to  have 
been  exterminated  and  succeeded  in  their  land 
by  the  Ammonites.  [Zamzummim.] 


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